Environmental justice: frequency and severity of US chemical industry accidents and the socioeconomic status of surrounding communities

STUDY OBJECTIVES

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 requires that chemical facilities in the US with specified quantities of certain toxic or flammable chemicals file a five year history of accidents. This study considers the relation between the reported accidents and surrounding community characteristics.

DESIGN

This study is a retrospective analysis of the association between the demographics of counties in which facilities are located and the risk of accidental chemical release and resulting injuries at those facilities. The "location risk" (the risk that a facility having large volumes of hazardous chemicals is located in a community) and "operations risk" (the risk of an accident itself) are investigated.

SETTING

1994-2000 accident history data from 15 083 US industrial facilities using one or more of 140 flammable or toxic substances above a threshold level. Demographic makeup of 2333 counties surrounding these facilities was determined from the 1990 US census.

MAIN RESULTS

Larger and more chemical intensive facilities tend to be located in counties with larger African-American populations and in counties with both higher median incomes and high levels of income inequality. Even after adjusting for location risk there is greater risk of accidents for facilities in heavily African-American counties (OR of accident = 1.9, 95% CI = 1.5 to 2.4).

CONCLUSIONS

Further research and policy interventions are required to reduce the probability of locating facilities in an inequitable fashion, as well as health surveillance, and regulatory monitoring and enforcement activities to ensure that hazardous facilities in minority communities prepare and prevent accidental chemical releases to the same standards as elsewhere.

Condensable composites: the next generation

The search for a tooth-colored restorative material with the physical and handling characteristics of amalgam has been ongoing for many years. The esthetic awareness of our patients is such that many insist on tooth-colored replacements when they need a dental restoration. The introduction of condensable composites is the latest step toward that goal. This article will discuss the evolution of this restorative option, the latest advancements in the technology, and describe in detail the techniques for placement and finishing of this material. The use of esthetic composite tints also will be discussed.

From being a radiologist to watching a radiologist: impact of filmless operation on the training of radiology residents

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

The authors performed this study to investigate the impact of changing from a film-based image interpretation system to one using digital image workstations on the training of radiology residents in the interpretation of radiographs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data were collected during a period when a conventional system of image interpretation with hard-copy images and multiviewers was used and during a period when digital image workstations were used. During each period, it was noted whether the first interpretation of the radiographs was performed by a radiology resident, by an attending radiologist, or as a group effort including both an attending radiologist and a radiology resident(s). In addition, it was noted whether a radiology resident or an attending radiologist dictated the report.

RESULTS

The proportion of images first interpreted by the radiology resident alone decreased from 38% (53 of 139) when using the conventional system to 17% (34 of 199) after the switch to interpreting images on the workstations (P = .001). During the film-based period, radiology residents dictated 45% of reports (141 of 312), but during the workstation period, radiology residents dictated only 4% of reports (24 of 667; P = .001).

CONCLUSION

The authors observed a decrease in autonomous participation by radiology residents in image interpretation and dictation of reports and an increase in "group reading" after the switch from a film-based system to a workstation system.

Using packable composites for direct posterior placement

BACKGROUND

Although dentists have been using resin-based composites successfully to restore posterior teeth in Class II situations for several years, creating a functional, anatomical proximal contact remains a clinical challenge for many clinicians.

OVERVIEW

This article presents a step by-step technique for creating a predictable proximal contact using a packable resin-based composite as the restorative material. Using a technique that is similar to that for amalgam will enable the dentist to make a successful transition to using composite as an alternative to amalgam in some posterior teeth.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

More patients today are well-informed about dental care and are seeking tooth-colored restorative alternatives. Excellent materials and proven techniques are making the transition from traditional metallic restorations easier and more predictable. With this article, the authors aim to help dentists gain confidence in their technique and enable them to provide this service for their patients.

Does managed care gatekeeping affect African Americans' access to emergency care?

A number of national initiatives have focused attention on persistent racial and ethnic disparities in health and health care. The rising tide of improvements in health has not raised all boats; in some cases, the health gap between whites and minorities has widened. Although many social and economic forces contribute to this gap, inequitable access to health care also plays a part. This Issue Brief examines a common strategy that managed care organizations use to reduce emergency department visits--gatekeeping--and describes a study of the differential impact it may have on African Americans.

Effect of ethnicity on denial of authorization for emergency department care by managed care gatekeepers

OBJECTIVE

After a pilot study suggested that African American patients enrolled in managed care organizations (MCOs) were more likely than whites to be denied authorization for emergency department (ED) care through gatekeeping, the authors sought to determine the association between ethnicity and denial of authorization in a second, larger study at another hospital.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort design was used, with adjustment for triage score, age, gender, day and time of arrival at the ED, and type of MCO.

RESULTS

African Americans were more likely to be denied authorization for ED visits by the gatekeepers representing their MCOs even after adjusting for confounders, with an odds ratio of 1.52 (95% CI = 1.18 to 1.94).

CONCLUSIONS

African Americans were more likely than whites to be denied authorization for ED visits. The observational study design raises the possibility that incomplete control of confounding contributed to or accounted for the association between ethnicity and gatekeeping decisions. Nevertheless, the questions that these findings raise about equity of gatekeeping indicate a need for additional research in this area.

Preventive care in the emergency department, Part I: Clinical preventive services--are they relevant to emergency medicine? Society for Academic Emergency Medicine Public Health and Education Task Force Preventive Services Work Group

In 1998 the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine's (SAEM's) Board of Directors asked the SAEM Public Health and Education Task Force to develop recommendations for prevention, screening, and counseling activities to be conducted in emergency departments (EDs). The Task Force's work was divided into two phases: 1) a discussion of the rationale for preventive services in the ED, along with generation of a preliminary list of prevention activities that could be studied for ED implementation; and 2) a formal evidence-based review of topics chosen from the preliminary list, along with recommendations for ED implementation and further study. This paper represents Phase I of the project. Phase II, the formal evidence-based review and recommendations, is published separately in this issue.

Treatment of osteoporosis: are physicians missing an opportunity?

BACKGROUND

Medical treatment of women with established osteoporosis may decrease the incidence of future fractures. Postmenopausal women who have sustained a distal radial fracture have decreased bone-mineral density and nearly twice the risk of a future hip fracture. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the adequacy of diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women following an acute fracture of the distal part of the radius.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was performed with use of a claims database that includes more than three million patients, from thirty states, enrolled in multiple health plans. All women, fifty-five years of age or older, who sustained a distal radial fracture between July 1, 1994, and June 30, 1997, were identified in the database. Only patients with at least six months of continuous and complete medical and pharmaceutical health-care coverage from the date of the fracture were enrolled, to ensure that all health-care claims would be captured in the database. This cohort of patients was then evaluated to determine the proportion who had undergone either a diagnostic bone-density scan or treatment with any recommended medication for established osteoporosis (estrogen, a bisphosphonate, or calcitonin) within six months following the fracture.

RESULTS

A search of the database identified 1,162 women, fifty-five years of age or older, who had a distal radial fracture. Of these 1,162 patients, thirty-three (2.8 percent) underwent a bone-density scan and 266 (22.9 percent) were treated with at least one of the medications approved for treatment of established osteoporosis. Twenty women had both a bone-density scan and drug treatment. Therefore, only 279 (24.0 percent) of the 1,162 women who sustained a distal radial fracture underwent either diagnostic evaluation or treatment of osteoporosis. There was a significant decrease in the rate of treatment of osteoporosis with increasing patient age at the time of the fracture (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Current physician practice may be inadequate for the diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women who have sustained a distal radial fracture.

Ventriculo-peritoneal shunt performance under hyperbaric conditions

A novice scuba diver with an implanted ventriculo-peritoneal (VP) shunt inquired about the performance characteristics of his shunt while diving. A literature search revealed no information regarding shunt performance under hyperbaric conditions. The manufacturer could not certify that the shunt would function under pressure. Therefore, four VP shunts were tested according to the manufacturer's testing protocol at 1 and 4 atm abs in a multiplace hyperbaric chamber. The pressure (in mm of H2O) required to establish flow through the shunts was recorded. Trials at 1 atm abs (n = 12) and 4 atm abs (n = 12) show that all shunts performed within the pressure range specified by the manufacturer.

Violent injuries among women in an urban area

The national statistics are familiar by now: each year, more than 2 million women are raped and/or physically assaulted; more than one-third of them are injured during their most recent assault. Annually, more than 500,000 women seek medical services as a result of violence-related injuries, often from hospital emergency departments. But national statistics cannot fully capture the extent of violence experienced by women in inner-city areas, nor do they point to modifiable risk factors at a community level. This Issue Brief highlights a new study that investigates the circumstances and correlates of violent injuries among women in one urban, low-income community.