Solid lipid nanoparticles

Novel pesticides design: co-encapsulation of citral and cyproconazole for the control of Botrytis cinerea using biocompatible nano-carriers

BACKGROUND

Growing concerns about sustainability have driven the search for eco-friendly pest management solutions. Combining natural and synthetic compounds within controlled release systems is a promising strategy. This study investigated the co-encapsulation of the natural compound citral (Cit) and the synthetic antifungal cyproconazole (CPZ) using two water-based nanocarriers: solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs).

RESULTS

Both CSNPs and SLNs loaded with Cit + CPZ displayed superior antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea compared to free compounds. Notably, CSNPs with a 2:1 Cit:CPZ ratio exhibited the highest efficacy, achieving a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC100) of < 1.56 μg mL-1, lower than the 12.5 μg mL-1 of non-encapsulated compounds. This formulation significantly reduced the required synthetic CPZ while maintaining efficacy, highlighting its potential for environmentally friendly pest control.

CONCLUSION

The successful co-encapsulation of Cit + CPZ within CSNPs, particularly at a 2:1 ratio, demonstrates a promising approach for developing effective and sustainable antifungal formulations against B. cinerea. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Unravelling the interactions between small molecules and liposomal bilayers via molecular dynamics and thermodynamic modelling

Lipid-based drug delivery systems hold immense promise in addressing critical medical needs, from cancer and neurodegenerative diseases to infectious diseases. By encapsulating active pharmaceutical ingredients - ranging from small molecule drugs to proteins and nucleic acids - these nanocarriers enhance treatment efficacy and safety. However, their commercial success faces hurdles, such as the lack of a systematic design approach and the issues related to scalability and reproducibility. This work aims to provide insights into the drug-phospholipid interaction by combining molecular dynamic simulations and thermodynamic modelling techniques. In particular, we have made a connection between the structural properties of the drug-phospholipid system and the physicochemical performance of the drug-loaded liposomal nanoformulations. We have considered two prototypical drugs, felodipine (FEL) and naproxen (NPX), and one model hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) bilayer membrane. Molecular dynamic simulations revealed which regions within the phospholipid bilayers are most and least favoured by the drug molecules. NPX tends to reside at the water-phospholipid interface and is characterized by a lower free energy barrier for bilayer membrane permeation. Meanwhile, FEL prefers to sit within the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids and is characterized by a higher free energy barrier for membrane permeation. Flory-Huggins thermodynamic modelling, small angle X-ray scattering, dynamic light scattering, TEM, and drug release studies of these liposomal nanoformulations confirmed this drug-phospholipid structural difference. The naproxen-phospholipid system has a lower free energy barrier for permeation, higher drug miscibility with the bilayer, larger liposomal nanoparticle size, and faster drug release in the aqueous medium than felodipine. We suggest that this combination of molecular dynamics and thermodynamics approach may offer a new tool for designing and developing lipid-based nanocarriers for unmet medical applications.

A Quality by Design Approach for Optimizing Solid Lipid Nanoparticles of Bedaquiline for Improved Product Performance

Bedaquiline (BQ) solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), which have previously been formulated for parenteral administration, have a risk of patient non-compliance in treating tuberculosis. This research presents a strategy to develop BQ SLNs for oral delivery to improve patient adherence, The upper and lower levels for the formulation excipients were generated from screening experiments. Using 4 input factors (BQ, lecithin, Tween 80, and PEG), a full factorial design from 3 × 2x2 × 2 experiments was randomly arranged to investigate 3 response variables: Particle size distribution (PSD), polydispersity index (PdI), and zeta potential (ZP). High shear homogenization was used to mix the solvent and aqueous phases, with 15% sucrose as a cryoprotectant. The response variables were assessed using a zeta sizer while TEM micrographs confirmed the PSD data. Solid-state assessments were conducted using powdered X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging. A comparative invitro assessment was used to determine drug release from an equivalent dose of BQ free base powder and BQ-SLN, both packed in hard gelatin capsules. The sonicated formulations obtained significant effects for PSD, PdI, and ZP. The p-values (0.0001 for PdI, 0.0091 for PSD) for BQ as an independent variable in the sonicated formulation were notably higher than those in the unsonicated formulation (0.1336 for PdI, 0.0117 for PSD). The SEM images were between 100 - 400 nm and delineated nanocrystals of BQ embedded in the lipid matrix. The SLN formulation provides higher drug levels over the drug's free base; a similarity factor (f2 = 18.3) was estimated from the dissolution profiles.

Development of a Versatile Nanostructured Lipid Carrier (NLC) Using Design of Experiments (DoE)-Part II: Incorporation and Stability of Butamben with Different Surfactants

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are typically composed of liquid lipids, solid lipids, and surfactants, enabling the encapsulation of lipophilic drugs. Butamben is a Class II anesthetic drug, according to the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS); it has a log P of 2.87 and is considered a 'brick dust' (poorly water-soluble and poorly lipid-soluble) drug. This characteristic poses a challenge for the development of NLCs, as they are not soluble in the liquid lipid present in the NLC core. In a previous study, we developed an NLC core consisting of a solid lipid (CrodamolTM CP), a lipophilic liquid with medium polarity (SRTM Lauryl lactate), and a hydrophilic excipient (SRTM DMI) that allowed the solubilization of 'brick dust' types of drugs, including butamben. In this study, starting from the NLC core formulation previously developed we carried out an optimization of the surfactant system and evaluated their performance in aqueous medium. Three different surfactants (CrodasolTM HS HP, SynperonicTM PE/F68, and CroduretTM 40) were studied and, for each of them, a 23 factorial design was stablished, with total lipids, % surfactant, and sonication time (min) as the input variables and particle size (nm), polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (mV) as the response variables. Stable NLCs were obtained using CrodasolTM HS HP and SynperonicTM PE/F68 as surfactants. Through a comparison between NLCs developed with and without SRTM DMI, it was observed that besides helping the solubilization of butamben in the NLC core, this excipient helped in stabilizing the system and decreasing particle size. NLCs containing CrodasolTM HS HP and SynperonicTM PE/F68 presented particle size values in the nanometric scale, PDI values lower than 0.3, and zeta potentials above |10|mV. Concerning NLCs' stability, SBTB-NLC with SynperonicTM PE/F68 and butamben demonstrated stability over a 3-month period in aqueous medium. The remaining NLCs showed phase separation or precipitation during the 3-month analysis. Nevertheless, these formulations could be freeze-dried after preparation, which would avoid precipitation in an aqueous medium.

Preparation and characterization of novel nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) containing coenzyme Q10 as potent antioxidants and antityrosinase agents

We developed novel and optimal Q10-NLC/SLN formulations as antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase agents. The formulations were analyzed for particle size, morphology, entrapment efficiency (EE %), and long-term stability. The in vitro drug release and in vivo skin penetration were evaluated using dialysis bag diffusion and Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, respectively. Cytotoxicity and protecting effects were assessed by AlamarBlue® assay, ROS level by DCFH-DA, and tyrosinase activity by l-DOPA assay, measuring the absorbance at 470 nm. The selected formulations had optimal surface characterizations, including Z-average size, PDI, and Zeta potential ranging from 125 to 207 nm, 0.09-0.22, and -7 to -24, respectively. They also exhibited physiochemical stability for up to 6 months and EE% above 80 %. The lipids ratio and co-Q10 amount as variable factors significantly affected particle size and zeta potential but were insignificant on PDI. The in vitro release diagram showed that Q10-NLC/SLN revealed a fast release during the first 8 h and prolonged release afterward. The in vivo skin permeation revealed a higher accumulative uptake of co-Q10 in the skin for Q10-NLC/SLN compared to Q10 emulsions. Both selected Q10-NLC and Q10-SLN could reduce intracellular ROS after exposure to H2O2. The Q10-NLC was found to be more potent for inhibiting the tyrosinase activity compared to O10-SLN. The results suggest that the new formulations are promising carriers for topical delivery of co-Q10 as an anti-aging and skin-whitening agent.

Alzheimer's disease and drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier: approaches and challenges

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a diverse disease with a complex pathophysiology. The presence of extracellular β-amyloid deposition as neuritic plaques and intracellular accumulation of hyper-phosphorylated tau as neurofibrillary tangles remain the core neuropathologic criteria for diagnosing Alzheimer's disease. Nonetheless, several recent basic discoveries have revealed significant pathogenic roles for other essential cellular and molecular processes. Previously, there were not so many disease-modifying medications (DMT) available as drug distribution through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is difficult due to its nature, especially drugs of polypeptides nature and proteins. Recently FDA has approved lecanemab as DMT for its proven efficacy. It is also complicated to deliver drugs for diseases like epilepsy or any brain tumor due to the limitations of the BBB. After the advancements in the drug delivery system, different techniques are used to transport the medication across the BBB. Other methods are used, like enhancement of brain blood vessel fluidity by liposomes, infusion of hyperosmotic solutions, and local intracerebral implants, but these are invasive approaches. Non-invasive approaches include the formulation of nanoparticles and their coating with polymers. This review article emphasizes all the above-mentioned techniques, procedures, and challenges to transporting medicines across the BBB. It summarizes the most recent literature dealing with drug delivery across the BBB.

Gemcitabine-Phospholipid Complex Loaded Lipid Nanoparticles for Improving Drug Loading, Stability, and Efficacy against Pancreatic Cancer

This study aims to encapsulate gemcitabine (GEM) using a phospholipid complex (PLC) in lipid nanoparticles (NPs) to achieve several desirable outcomes, including high drug loading, uniform particle size, improved therapeutic efficacy, and reduced toxicities. The successful preparation of GEM-loaded lipid NPs (GEM-NPs) was accomplished using the emulsification-solidification method, following optimization through Box-Behnken design. The size of the GEM-NP was 138.5 ± 6.7 nm, with a low polydispersity index of 0.282 ± 0.078, as measured by a zetasizer and confirmed by transmission electron and atomic force microscopy. GEM-NPs demonstrated sustained release behavior, surpassing the performance of the free GEM and phospholipid complex. Moreover, GEM-NPs exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and cell uptake in Panc-2 and Mia PaCa cells compared to the free GEM. The in vivo pharmacokinetics revealed approximately 4-fold higher bioavailability of GEM-NPs in comparison with free GEM. Additionally, the pharmacodynamic evaluation conducted in a DMBA-induced pancreatic cancer model, involving histological examination, serum IL-6 level estimation, and expression of cleaved caspase-3, showed the potential of GEM-NPs in the management of pancreatic cancer. Consequently, the lipid NP-based approach developed in our investigation demonstrates high stability and uniformity and holds promise for enhancing the therapeutic outcomes of GEM.

Solid lipid nanoparticles: a versatile approach for controlled release and targeted drug delivery

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN), the first type of lipid-based solid carrier systems in the nanometer range, were introduced as a replacement for liposomes. SLN are aqueous colloidal dispersions with solid biodegradable lipids as their matrix. SLN is produced using processes like solvent diffusion method and high-pressure homogenization, among others. Major benefits include regulated release, increased bioavailability, preservation of peptides and chemically labile compounds like retinol against degradation, cost-effective excipients, better drug integration, and a broad range of applications. Solid lipid nanoparticles can be administered via different routes, such as oral, parenteral, pulmonary, etc. SLN can be prepared by using high shear mixing as well as low shear mixing. The next generation of solid lipids, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), can reduce some of the drawbacks of SLN, such as its restricted capacity for drug loading and drug expulsion during storage. NLC are controlled nanostructured lipid particles that enhance drug loading. This review covers a brief introduction of solid lipid nanoparticles, manufacturing techniques, benefits, limitations, and their characterization tests.

Precise control methods of the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles for personalized medicine

Biomedical applications of nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted much attention. With the advancement of personalized medicine, researchers are now proposing the concept that the design of NPs needs to be optimized according to the individual patient. To realize this concept, an important question is how precisely we can tailor the physicochemical properties of NPs, such as size, shape, and surface chemistry, using current technology. This review discusses recent advances and challenges in the precise control of the size, shape, and surface chemistry of NPs. While control methods have advanced significantly over the past 20 years, the size, shape, and surface chemistry of currently available NPs vary by type, requiring careful selection based on the targeted disease, organ, and patient.

Semiconducting polymer dots for multifunctional integrated nanomedicine carriers

The expansion applications of semiconducting polymer dots (Pdots) among optical nanomaterial field have long posed a challenge for researchers, promoting their intelligent application in multifunctional nano-imaging systems and integrated nanomedicine carriers for diagnosis and treatment. Despite notable progress, several inadequacies still persist in the field of Pdots, including the development of simplified near-infrared (NIR) optical nanoprobes, elucidation of their inherent biological behavior, and integration of information processing and nanotechnology into biomedical applications. This review aims to comprehensively elucidate the current status of Pdots as a classical nanophotonic material by discussing its advantages and limitations in terms of biocompatibility, adaptability to microenvironments in vivo, etc. Multifunctional integration and surface chemistry play crucial roles in realizing the intelligent application of Pdots. Information visualization based on their optical and physicochemical properties is pivotal for achieving detection, sensing, and labeling probes. Therefore, we have refined the underlying mechanisms and constructed multiple comprehensive original mechanism summaries to establish a benchmark. Additionally, we have explored the cross-linking interactions between Pdots and nanomedicine, potential yet complete biological metabolic pathways, future research directions, and innovative solutions for integrating diagnosis and treatment strategies. This review presents the possible expectations and valuable insights for advancing Pdots, specifically from chemical, medical, and photophysical practitioners' standpoints.

Evaluation of Emulgel and Nanostructured Lipid Carrier-Based Gel Formulations for Transdermal Administration of Ibuprofen: Characterization, Mechanical Properties, and Ex-Vivo Skin Permeation

In transdermal applications of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, the rheological and mechanical properties of the dosage form affect the performance of the drug. The aim of this study to develop emulgel and nanostructured lipid carrier NLC-based gel formulations containing ibuprofen, evaluate their mechanical properties, bioadhesive value and ex-vivo rabbit skin permeability. All formulations showed non-Newtonian pseudoplastic behavior and their viscosity values are suitable for topical application. The particle size of the nanostructured lipid carrier system was found to be 468 ± 21 nm, and the encapsulation efficiency was 95.58 ± 0.41%. According to the index of viscosity, consistency, firmness, and cohesiveness values obtained as a result of the back extrusion study, E2 formulation was found to be more suitable for transdermal application. The firmness and work of shear values of the E2 formulation, which has the highest viscosity value, were also found to be the highest and it was chosen as the most suitable formulation in terms of the spreadability test. The work of bioadhesion values of NLC-based gel and IBU-loaded NLC-based gel were found as 0.226 ± 0.028 and 0.181 ± 0.006 mJ/cm2 respectively. The percentages of IBU that penetrated through rabbit skin from the Ibuactive-Cream and the E2 were 87.4 ± 2.11% and 93.4 ± 2.72% after 24 h, respectively. When the penetration of ibuprofen through the skin was evaluated, it was found that the E2 formulation increased penetration due to its lipid and nanoparticle structure. As a result of these findings, it can be said that the NLC-based gel formulation will increase the therapeutic efficacy and will be a good alternative transdermal formulation.

Encapsulation of phenolic acids within food-grade carriers systems: a systematic review

Phenolic acids are natural compounds with potential therapeutic effects against various diseases. However, their incorporation into food and pharmaceutical products is limited by challenges such as instability, low solubility, and reduced bioavailability. This systematic review summarizes recent advances in phenolic acid encapsulation using food-grade carrier systems, focusing on proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides. Encapsulation efficiency, release behavior, and bioavailability are examined, as well as the potential health benefits of encapsulated phenolic acids in food products. Strategies to address limitations of current encapsulation systems are also proposed. Encapsulation has emerged as a promising method to enhance the stability and bioavailability of phenolic acids in food products, and various encapsulation technologies have been developed for this purpose. The use of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates as carriers in food-grade encapsulation systems remains a common approach, but it is associated with certain limitations. Future research on phenolic acid encapsulation should focus on developing environmentally friendly, organic solvent-free, low-energy, scalable, and stable encapsulation systems, as well as co-encapsulation methods that combine multiple phenolic acids or phenolic acids with other bioactive substances to produce synergistic effects.

Co-delivery of paclitaxel and curcumin loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for improved targeting of lung cancer: In vitro and in vivo investigation

The objective of this study was to develop nanotechnology-mediated paclitaxel (PAC) and curcumin (CUR) co-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (PAC-CUR-SLNs) for the treatment of lung cancer, which is a leading cause of death worldwide. Around 85 % cases of lungs cancer constitute non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). PAC-CUR-SLNs were prepared via high pressure homogenization. The in vitro drug release of PAC-CUR-SLNs was checked followed by their in vitro cytotoxic investigation using adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells (A549) cell lines. Anticancer effects along with side effects of the synergistic delivery of PAC-CUR-SLNs were studied in vivo, using BALB/c mice. PAC-CUR-SLNs were nano sized (190 nm), homogeneously disseminated particles with %IE of both PAC and CUR above 94 %. PAC-CUR-SLNs released PAC and CUR in a controlled fashion when compared with free drug suspensions. The cytotoxicity of PAC-CUR-SLNs was higher than individual drug-loaded SLNs and pure drugs. Moreover, the co-delivery displayed synergistic effect, indicating potential of PAC-CUR-SLNs in lung cancer treatment. In vivo tumor investigation of PAC-CUR-SLNs exhibited 12-fold reduced tumor volume and almost no change in body weight of BALB/c mice, when compared with the experimental groups including control group. The inhibition of tumor rate on day 28 was 82.7 % in the PAC-CUR-SLNs group, which was significantly higher than the pure drugs and monotherapies. It can be concluded that, encapsulating the co-loaded antitumor drugs like PAC-CUR in SLNs may help in improved targeting of the tumor with enhanced anticancer effect.

Secondary metabolites in topical infectious diseases and nanomedicine applications

Topical infection affects nearly one-third of the world's population; it may result from poor sanitation, hygienic conditions and crowded living and working conditions that accelerate the spread of topical infectious diseases. The problems associated with the anti-infective agents are drug resistance and long-term therapy. Secondary metabolites are obtained from plants, microorganisms and animals, but they are metabolized inside the human body. The integration of nanotechnology into secondary metabolites is gaining attention due to their interaction at the subatomic and skin-tissue levels. Hydrogel, liposomes, lipidic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles are the most suitable carriers for secondary metabolite delivery. Therefore, the present review article extensively discusses the topical applications of nanomedicines for the effective delivery of secondary metabolites.

Navigating the future: Microfluidics charting new routes in drug delivery

Microfluidics has emerged as a transformative force in the field of drug delivery, offering innovative avenues to produce a diverse range of nano drug delivery systems. Thanks to its precise manipulation of small fluid volumes and its exceptional command over the physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles, this technology is notably able to enhance the pharmacokinetics of drugs. It has initiated a revolutionary phase in the domain of drug delivery, presenting a multitude of compelling advantages when it comes to developing nanocarriers tailored for the delivery of poorly soluble medications. These advantages represent a substantial departure from conventional drug delivery methodologies, marking a paradigm shift in pharmaceutical research and development. Furthermore, microfluidic platformsmay be strategically devised to facilitate targeted drug delivery with the objective of enhancing the localized bioavailability of pharmaceutical substances. In this paper, we have comprehensively investigated a range of significant microfluidic techniques used in the production of nanoscale drug delivery systems. This comprehensive review can serve as a valuable reference and offer insightful guidance for the development and optimization of numerous microfluidics-fabricated nanocarriers.

Comparative analysis of freeze drying and spray drying methods for encapsulation of chlorophyll with maltodextrin and whey protein isolate

Chlorophyll (Chl) is a healthy green pigment that is very unstable. So, chlorophyll microcapsules were fabricated using maltodextrin and whey protein isolate as carriers and freeze-drying (FD) and spray-drying (SD) as encapsulation methods. The microcapsules obtained by the freeze-drying method (FDM) had smaller particle sizes (1.087-0.165 µm) and higher ζ-potential (-10.6 to -18.3 mV) than the spray-drying method (SDM) (3.420-0.285 µm) and (-9.5 to -10.7 mV) respectively. FTIR, XRD, and DSC studies showed that the inclusion of Chl within microcapsules and FDM had a higher melting point (150.12 °C) than SDM (125.03 °C) and Chl (115.66 °C). FD was more effective in protecting Chl from changes in pH (pH 2 to 8, Chl retention; 49.67 %-91.28 %) and light (Chl retention; 38.12 %) than SD. Therefore, due to preserving Chl and increasing its stability, FDM could be a promising approach to use as a natural food colourant.

Recent Trends in Nanocarrier-Based Drug Delivery System for Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer remains a significant global health concern, requiring innovative approaches for improved therapeutic outcomes. In recent years, nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have emerged as promising strategies to address the limitations of conventional cancer chemotherapy. The key trends include utilizing nanoparticles for enhancing drug delivery to prostate cancer cells. Nanoparticles have some advantages such as improved drug solubility, prolonged circulation time, and targeted delivery of drugs. Encapsulation of chemotherapeutic agents within nanoparticles allows for controlled release kinetics, reducing systemic toxicity while maintaining therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, site-specific accumulation within the prostate tumor microenvironment is made possible by the functionalization of nanocarrier with targeted ligands, improving therapeutic effectiveness. This article highlights the basics of prostate cancer, statistics of prostate cancer, mechanism of multidrug resistance, targeting approach, and different types of nanocarrier used for the treatment of prostate cancer. It also includes the applications of nanocarriers for the treatment of prostate cancer and clinical trial studies to validate the safety and efficacy of the innovative drug delivery systems. The article focused on developing nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems, with the goal of translating these advancements into clinical applications in the future.

Versatile Nanoparticulate Systems as a Prosperous Platform for Targeted Nose-Brain Drug Delivery

The intranasal route has proven to be a reliable and promising route for delivering therapeutics to the central nervous system (CNS), averting the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and avoiding extensive first-pass metabolism of some drugs, with minimal systemic exposure. This is considered to be the main problem associated with other routes of drug delivery such as oral, parenteral, and transdermal, among other administration methods. The intranasal route maximizes drug bioavailability, particularly those susceptible to enzymatic degradation such as peptides and proteins. This review will stipulate an overview of the intranasal route as a channel for drug delivery, including its benefits and drawbacks, as well as different mechanisms of CNS drug targeting using nanoparticulate drug delivery systems devices; it also focuses on pharmaceutical dosage forms such as drops, sprays, or gels via the nasal route comprising different polymers, absorption promoters, CNS ligands, and permeation enhancers.

Chitosan as a promising materials for the construction of nanocarriers for diabetic retinopathy: an updated review

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a condition that causes swelling of the blood vessels of the retina and leaks blood and fluids. It is the most severe form of diabetic eye disease. It causes vision loss in its advanced stage. Diabetic retinopathy is responsible for causing 26% of blindness. Very insufficient therapies are accessible for the treatment of DR. As compared to the conventional therapies, there should be enhanced research on the controlled release, shorter duration, and cost-effective therapy of diabetic retinopathy. The expansion of advanced nanocarriers-based drug delivery systems has been now employed to exploit as well as regulate the transport of many therapeutic agents to target sites via the increase in penetration or the extension of the duration of contact employing production by enclosing as well as distributing tiny molecules in nanostructured formulation. Various polymers have been utilized for the manufacturing of these nanostructured formulations. Chitosan possesses incredible biological and chemical properties, that have led to its extensive use in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Chitosan has been used in many studies because of its enhanced mucoadhesiveness and non-toxicity. Multiple studies have used chitosan as the best candidate for manufacturing nanocarriers and treating diabetic retinopathy. Numerous nanocarriers have been formulated by using chitosan such as nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, and dendrimers for treating diabetic retinopathy. This current review elaborates on the recent advancements of chitosan as a promising approach for the manufacturing of nanocarriers that can be used for treating diabetic retinopathy.

A Novel Strategy for Topical Administration by Combining Chitosan Hydrogel Beads with Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: Preparation, Characterization, and Evaluation

The objective of the present study was to develop and evaluate NLC-chitosan hydrogel beads for topical administration. The feasibility of the preparation technology was verified by investigating various formulation factors and the impact of chitosan hydrogel beads on the NLC. The encapsulation efficiency of NLC-chitosan hydrogel beads was above 95% in optimized process conditions. The physical characterization of the NLC-chitosan hydrogel beads showed that the NLC was distributed within the network of the chitosan hydrogel beads. Furthermore, the incorporation of NLC into the chitosan hydrogel beads was related to the electrostatic interaction between the surface of the NLC and chitosan, which influenced the lipid ordering degree of the NLC and contributed to the stability. The stability studies showed that the retention rate of quercetin in the NLC-chitosan hydrogel beads was 88.63 ± 2.57% after 10 months of storage under natural daylight. An in vitro permeation study showed that NLC-chitosan hydrogel beads exhibited superior ability in enhancing skin permeation by hydrophobic active ingredients compared to the NLC and significantly increased skin accumulation. These studies demonstrated that the use of NLC-chitosan hydrogel beads might be a promising strategy for the delivery of hydrophobic active ingredients in topical administration.

Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomes for the treatment of hypertrophic scars: In vitro appraisal, bioactivity evaluation, and clinical study

Non-invasive treatment options for hypertrophic scars (HTS) are limited, and treating HTS remains challenging due to their unappealing appearance and associated social stigma. In this work, a novel transfersomal system named Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomes (AATs) was prepared. AATs were evaluated for their skin permeability, anti-inflammatory activity, and other characteristic parameters to determine the most promising formulation. Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomal gel (AATG), which was obtained by incorporating the lead AATs in a gel base, underwent testing in an 8-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled, split-skin clinical study. The net skin elasticity (R5), melanin index (MI), and skin surface hydration were analyzed employing Cutometer®, Mexameter®, and Corneometer®, respectively, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed AATG. AATs exhibited vesicular sizes and zeta potential values within the range of (27.15 ± 0.95 to 63.54 ± 2.51 nm) and (-0.010 to -0.129 mV), respectively. TW80AAT gave the highest %EE (90.84 ± 2.99%), deformability index (101.70 ± 11.59 mgs-1), permeation flux at 8 h (0.146 ± 0.005 mg/cm2/h), and anti-inflammatory activity (71.65 ± 1.83%). The clinical study results of AATG indicated no adverse skin reactions. Furthermore, product efficacy tests demonstrated a significant reduction in MI and an increase in net skin elasticity at 2, 4, and 8 weeks. These pilot study outcomes support the effectiveness of the AATG.

Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment Potential of Stearic Acid Nanoparticles of Quercetin in Rats

This study aims to assess the anti-inflammatory potential of stearic acid nanoparticles of quercetin in an arthritic rat model. This article describes the fabrication of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) using the hot melt encapsulation method, followed by the anti-inflammatory study of SLNs and other characterizations such as FTIR, XRD, and SEM. Thirty male healthy albino rats were taken and treated with FCA to induce rheumatoid arthritis. Quercetin loading of quercetin to stearic acid was confirmed by FTIR. The efficacy of quercetin-loaded SLNs to reduce inflammation was evaluated with the help of inflammatory biomarker levels. Quercetin-loaded stearic acid nanoparticles were successfully prepared by using a hot melt encapsulation method. Their average size and zeta potential were 100 nm and -25 mV, respectively. Rheumatoid arthritis was significantly (p < 0.001) reduced in the quercetin-loaded SLN group, as indicated by finding out the reduced levels of inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and rheumatoid factor. Quercetin-loaded stearic acid nanoparticles were found to be potentially effective in treating RA.

Progress of nanopreparation technology applied to volatile oil drug delivery systems

Traditional Chinese medicine volatile oil has a long history and possesses extensive pharmacological activity. However, volatile oils have characteristics such as strong volatility, poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and poor targeting, which limit their application. The use of volatile oil nano drug delivery systems can effectively improve the drawbacks of volatile oils, enhance their bioavailability and chemical stability, and reduce their volatility and toxicity. This article first introduces the limitations of the components of traditional Chinese medicine volatile oils, discusses the main classifications and latest developments of volatile oil nano formulations, and briefly describes the preparation methods of traditional Chinese medicine volatile oil nano formulations. Secondly, the limitations of nano formulation technology are discussed, along with future challenges and prospects. A deeper understanding of the role of nanotechnology in traditional Chinese medicine volatile oils will contribute to the modernization of volatile oils and broaden their application value.

Lipid Nanocapsule: A Novel Approach to Drug Delivery System Formulation Development

Nanocapsules are polymeric nanoparticles encased in a polymeric coating composed of a predominantly non-ionic surfactant, macromolecules, phospholipids, and an oil core. Lipophilic drugs have been entrapped using various nanocarriers, including lipid cores, likely lipid nanocapsules, solid lipid nanoparticles, and others. A phase inversion temperature approach is used to create lipid nanocapsules. The PEG (polyethyleneglycol) is primarily utilised to produce nanocapsules and is a critical parameter influencing capsule residence time. With their broad drug-loading features, lipid nanocapsules have a distinct advantage in drug delivery systems, such as the capacity to encapsulate hydrophilic or lipophilic pharmaceuticals. Lipid nanocapsules, as detailed in this review, are surface modified, contain target-specific patterns, and have stable physical and chemical properties. Furthermore, lipid nanocapsules have target-specific delivery and are commonly employed as a marker in the diagnosis of numerous illnesses. This review focuses on nanocapsule synthesis, characterisation, and application, which will help understand the unique features of nanocapsules and their application in drug delivery systems.

Several Applications of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery

Rapid progress is being made in the area of nanotechnology; solid lipid nanoparticles are currently at the forefront of research and development. They have the capability of becoming employed in an extensive number of applications, including the delivery of medications, clinical treatment, and research, in addition to uses in other areas of academic inquiry that could benefit from their utilisation. This article presents a thorough analysis of solid lipid nanoparticles, covering subjects such as their goals, preparation strategy, applications, advantages, and possible remedies for the issues that have been raised. This review provides a discussion of solid lipids that is both in-depth and comprehensive. Studies that investigate the manner in which SLNs are prepared and the routes via which they are administered are typical. Aspects concerning the route of administration of SLNs as well as the destiny of the carriers in vivo are also investigated in this paper.

Formulation of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Loaded with Rosiglitazone and Probiotic: Optimization and In-vitro Characterization

INTRODUCTION

In the present study, solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with Rosiglitazone and probiotics were prepared via solvent emulsification diffusion method which is patented. As a lipid and surfactant, Gleceryl monostearate and Pluronic -68 were used in the formulation process.

METHODS

During characterization, it was determined that ingredient quantity variations significantly impacted Rosiglitazone loading capacity, particle size, polydispersity index, etc. In an optimized formulation of RSG-PB loaded SLNs, spherical particles with a mean particle size of 147.66 ± 1.52 nm, PDI of 0.42 ± 0.02, and loading capacity of 45.36 ± 0.20 were identified.

RESULTS

Moreover, the developed SLNs had the potential to discharge the drug for up to 24 hours, as predicted by Higuchi's pharmacokinetic model. The SLNs were stable at 25°C/60%RH for up to 60 days. There was little to no change in particle size, PDI, or loading capacity. In addition, the number of probiotic bacteria was determined using the standard plate count procedure. Further, the antioxidant effect of the prepared formulation is evaluated using the DPPH assay method.

CONCLUSION

This study concludes that the method used to fabricate RSG-probiotic-loaded SLNs is straightforward and yields favorable results regarding various parameters, including sustained release property, particle size, PDI, and percent drug loading stability. Furthermore, DPPH radical scavenging activity shows the high antioxidant potential of RSG-PB SLNs when compared to RSG and probiotics alone.

Characterization and stability of solid lipid nanoparticles produced from different fully hydrogenated oils

The use of lipids from conventional oils and fats to produce solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) attracting interest from the food industry, since due their varying compositions directly affects crystallization behavior, stability, and particle sizes (PS) of SLN. Thus, this study aimed evaluate the potential of fully hydrogenated oils (hardfats) with different hydrocarbon chain lengths to produce SLN using different emulsifiers. For that, fully hydrogenated palm kern (FHPkO), palm (FHPO), soybean (FHSO), microalgae (FHMO) and crambe (FHCO) oils were used. Span 60 (S60), soybean lecithin (SL), and whey protein isolate (WPI) were used as emulsifiers. The physicochemical characteristics and crystallization properties of SLN were evaluated during 60 days. Results indicates that the crystallization properties were more influenced by the hardfat used. SLN formulated with FHPkO was more unstable than the others, and hardfats FHPO, FHSO, FHMO, and FHCO exhibited the appropriate characteristics for use to produce SLN. Concerning emulsifiers, S60- based SLN showed high instability, despite the hardfat used. SL-based and WPI-based SLN formulations, showed a great stability, with crystallinity properties suitable for food incorporation.

Preparation and characterization of solid lipid nanoparticles encapsulated noscapine and evaluation of its protective effects against imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin lesions

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by thickening the epidermis with erythema, scaling, and proliferation. Noscapine (NOS) has several anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, and anti-fibrotic effects, but its low solubility and large size results in its lower efficacy in the clinic. In this regard, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) encapsulated NOS (SLN-NOS) were fabricated using the well-known response surface method based on the central composite design and modified high-shear homogenization and ultrasound method. As a result, Precirol® was selected as the best lipid base for the SLN formulation based on Hildebrand-Hansen solubility parameters, in which SLN-NOS 1 % had the best zeta potential (-35.74 ± 2.59 mV), average particle size (245.66 ± 17 nm), polydispersity index (PDI, 0.226 ± 0.09), high entrapment efficiency (89.77 %), and ICH-based stability results. After 72 h, the SLN-NOS 1 % released 83.23 % and 58.49 % of the NOS at pH 5.8 and 7.4, respectively. Moreover, Franz diffusion cell's results indicated that the skin levels of NOS for SLN and cream formulations were 46.88 % and 13.5 % of the total amount, respectively. Our pharmacological assessments revealed that treatment with SLN-NOS 1 % significantly attenuated clinical parameters, namely ear thickness, length, and psoriasis area and severity index, compared to the IMQ group. Interestingly, SLN-NOS 1 % reduced the levels of interleukin (IL)-17, tumor necrosis factor-α, and transforming growth factor-β, while elevating IL-10, compared to the IMQ group. Histology studies also showed that topical application of SLN-NOS 1 % significantly decreased parakeratosis, hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, and inflammation compared to the IMQ group. Taken together, SLN-NOS 1 % showed a high potential to attenuate skin inflammation.

Advanced application of nanotechnology in active constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicines

Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCMs) have been used for centuries for the treatment and management of various diseases. However, their effective delivery to targeted sites may be a major challenge due to their poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and potential toxicity. Nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles and organic/inorganic nanohybrids based on active constituents from TCMs have been extensively studied as a promising strategy to improve the delivery of active constituents from TCMs to achieve a higher therapeutic effect with fewer side effects compared to conventional formulations. This review summarizes the recent advances in nanocarrier-based delivery systems for various types of active constituents of TCMs, including terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and quinones, from different natural sources. This review covers the design and preparation of nanocarriers, their characterization, and in vitro/vivo evaluations. Additionally, this review highlights the challenges and opportunities in the field and suggests future directions for research. Nanocarrier-based delivery systems have shown great potential in improving the therapeutic efficacy of TCMs, and this review may serve as a comprehensive resource to researchers in this field.

Biomedical Approach of Nanotechnology and Biological Risks: A Mini-Review

Nanotechnology has played a prominent role in biomedical engineering, offering innovative approaches to numerous treatments. Notable advances have been observed in the development of medical devices, contributing to the advancement of modern medicine. This article briefly discusses key applications of nanotechnology in tissue engineering, controlled drug release systems, biosensors and monitoring, and imaging and diagnosis. The particular emphasis on this theme will result in a better understanding, selection, and technical approach to nanomaterials for biomedical purposes, including biological risks, security, and biocompatibility criteria.

Quercetin as a Therapeutic Product: Evaluation of Its Pharmacological Action and Clinical Applications-A Review

Quercetin is the major polyphenolic flavonoid that belongs to the class called flavanols. It is found in many foods, such as green tea, cranberry, apple, onions, asparagus, radish leaves, buckwheat, blueberry, broccoli, and coriander. It occurs in many different forms, but the most abundant quercetin derivatives are glycosides and ethers, namely, Quercetin 3-O-glycoside, Quercetin 3-sulfate, Quercetin 3-glucuronide, and Quercetin 3'-metylether. Quercetin has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, antiviral, and antibacterial effects. It is found to be beneficial against cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, neuro-degenerative diseases, allergy asthma, peptic ulcers, osteoporosis, arthritis, and eye disorders. In pre-clinical and clinical investigations, its impacts on various signaling pathways and molecular targets have demonstrated favorable benefits for the activities mentioned above, and some global clinical trials have been conducted to validate its therapeutic profile. It is also utilized as a nutraceutical due to its pharmacological properties. Although quercetin has several pharmacological benefits, its clinical use is restricted due to its poor water solubility, substantial first-pass metabolism, and consequent low bioavailability. To circumvent this limited bioavailability, a quercetin-based nanoformulation has been considered in recent times as it manifests increased quercetin uptake by the epithelial system and enhances the delivery of quercetin to the target site. This review mainly focuses on pharmacological action, clinical trials, patents, marketed products, and approaches to improving the bioavailability of quercetin with the use of a nanoformulation.

Unlocking the power of nanomedicine: the future of nutraceuticals in oncology treatment

Cancer, an intricate and multifaceted disease, is characterized by the uncontrolled proliferation of cells that can lead to serious health complications and ultimately death. Conventional therapeutic strategies mainly target rapidly dividing cancer cells, but often indiscriminately harm healthy cells in the process. As a result, there is a growing interest in exploring novel therapies that are both effective and less toxic to normal cells. Herbs have long been used as natural remedies for various diseases and conditions. Some herbal compounds exhibit potent anti-cancer properties, making them potential candidates for nutraceutical-based treatments. However, despite their promising efficacy, there are considerable limitations in utilizing herbal preparations due to their poor solubility, low bioavailability, rapid metabolism and excretion, as well as potential interference with other medications. Nanotechnology offers a unique platform to overcome these challenges by encapsulating herbal compounds within nanoparticles. This approach not only increases solubility and stability but also enhances the cellular uptake of nutraceuticals, allowing for controlled and targeted delivery of therapeutic agents directly at tumor sites. By harnessing the power of nanotechnology-enabled therapy, this new frontier in cancer treatment presents an opportunity to minimize toxicity while maximizing efficacy. In conclusion, this manuscript provides compelling evidence for integrating nanotechnology with nutraceuticals derived from herbal sources to optimize cancer therapy outcomes. We explore the roadblocks associated with traditional herbal treatments and demonstrate how nanotechnology can help circumvent these issues, paving the way for safer and more effective cancer interventions in future oncological practice.

Recent advancements in the targeted delivery of etoposide nanomedicine for cancer therapy: A comprehensive review

Etoposide (ETO), a popular anticancer drug that inhibits topoisomerase II enzymes, may be administered more effectively and efficiently due to nanomedicine. The therapeutic application of ETO is constrained by its limited solubility, weak absorption, and severe side effects. This article summarizes substantial progress made in the development of ETO nanomedicine for the treatment of cancer. It discusses various organic and inorganic nanostructures used to load or affix ETOs, such as lipids, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), dendrimers, micelles, gold NPs, iron oxide NPs, and silica NPs. In addition, it evaluates the structural properties of these nanostructures, such as their size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and drug release mechanism, as well as their in vitro or in vivo performance. The article also emphasizes the co-delivery of ETO with other medications or agents to produce synergistic effects or combat drug resistance in the treatment of cancer. It concludes with a discussion of the challenges and potential avenues for clinical translation of ETO nanomedicine.

Innovative Topical Patches for Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer: Current Challenges and Key Formulation Considerations

Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is the most prevalent malignancy worldwide, with approximately 6.3 million new cases worldwide in 2019. One of the key management strategies for NMSC is a topical treatment usually utilised for localised and early-stage disease owing to its non-invasive nature. However, the efficacy of topical agents is often hindered by poor drug penetration and patient adherence. Therefore, various research groups have employed advanced drug delivery systems, including topical patches to overcome the problem of conventional topical treatments. This review begins with an overview of NMSC as well as the current landscape of topical treatments for NMSC, specifically focusing on the emerging technology of topical patches. A detailed discussion of their potential to overcome the limitations of existing therapies will then follow. Most importantly, to the best of our knowledge, this work unprecedentedly combines and discusses all the current advancements in innovative topical patches for the treatment of NMSC. In addition to this, the authors present our insights into the key considerations and emerging trends in the construction of these advanced topical patches. This review is meant for researchers and clinicians to consider utilising advanced topical patch systems in research and clinical trials toward localised interventions of NMSC.

Nanomedicine for the Detection and Treatment of Ocular Bacterial Infections

Ocular bacterial infection is a prevalent cause of blindness worldwide, with substantial consequences for normal human life. Traditional treatments for ocular bacterial infections areless effective, necessitating the development of novel techniques to enable accurate diagnosis, precise drug delivery, and effective treatment alternatives. With the rapid advancement of nanoscience and biomedicine, increasing emphasis has been placed on multifunctional nanosystems to overcome the challenges posed by ocular bacterial infections. Given the advantages of nanotechnology in the biomedical industry, it can be utilized to diagnose ocular bacterial infections, administer medications, and treat them. In this review, the recent advancements in nanosystems for the detection and treatment of ocular bacterial infections are discussed; this includes the latest application scenarios of nanomaterials for ocular bacterial infections, in addition to the impact of their essential characteristics on bioavailability, tissue permeability, and inflammatory microenvironment. Through an in-depth investigation into the effect of sophisticated ocular barriers, antibacterial drug formulations, and ocular metabolism on drug delivery systems, this review highlights the challenges faced by ophthalmic medicine and encourages basic research and future clinical transformation based on ophthalmic antibacterial nanomedicine.

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Extended-Release Delivery of Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs): A Comprehensive Review

There has been a significant shift in the perception of hypertension as an important contributor to the global disease burden. Approximately 6 % and 8 % of pregnancies are affected by hypertension, which can adversely affect the mother and the fetus. Furthermore, a hypertensive individual is at increased risk of developing kidney disease, arterial hardening, eye damage, and strokes. Using angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) is widespread in treating hypertension, heart failure, coronary artery disease, and diabetic nephropathy. Despite this, some ARBs have limited use due to their poor oral bioavailability and water solubility. To tackle this, a variety of nanoparticle (NP)-based systems, such as polymeric NPs (i. e., dendrimers), polymeric micelles, polymer-drug conjugates, lipid NPs, nanoemulsions, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS), solid lipid NPs (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), carbon-based nanocarriers, inorganic NPs, and nanocrystals, have been recently developed for efficient delivery of losartan, Valsartan (Val), Olmesartan (OLM), Telmisartan (TEL), Candesartan, Eprosartan, Irbesartan, and Azilsartan to target cells. This review article provides a literature-based comparison of the various classes of ARBs, their mechanisms of action, and an overview of the nanoformulations developed for ARB delivery and successfully applied to managing hypertension, diabetic complications, and other conditions.

Neuroinflammation in the Evolution of Motor Function in Stroke and Trauma Patients: Treatment and Potential Biomarkers

Neuroinflammation has a significant impact on different pathologies, such as stroke or spinal cord injury, intervening in their pathophysiology: expansion, progression, and resolution. Neuroinflammation involves oxidative stress, damage, and cell death, playing an important role in neuroplasticity and motor dysfunction by affecting the neuronal connection responsible for motor control. The diagnosis of this pathology is performed using neuroimaging techniques and molecular diagnostics based on identifying and measuring signaling molecules or specific markers. In parallel, new therapeutic targets are being investigated via the use of bionanomaterials and electrostimulation to modulate the neuroinflammatory response. These novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies have the potential to facilitate the development of anticipatory patterns and deliver the most beneficial treatment to improve patients' quality of life and directly impact their motor skills. However, important challenges remain to be solved. Hence, the goal of this study was to review the implication of neuroinflammation in the evolution of motor function in stroke and trauma patients, with a particular focus on novel methods and potential biomarkers to aid clinicians in diagnosis, treatment, and therapy. A specific analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities was conducted, highlighting the key challenges to be faced in the coming years.

Overcoming barriers: a review on innovations in drug delivery to the middle and inner ear

Despite significant advances in the development of therapeutics for hearing loss, drug delivery to the middle and inner ear remains a challenge. As conventional oral or intravascular administration are ineffective due to poor bioavailability and impermeability of the blood-labyrinth-barrier, localized delivery is becoming a preferable approach for certain drugs. Even then, localized delivery to the ear precludes continual drug delivery due to the invasive and potentially traumatic procedures required to access the middle and inner ear. To address this, the preclinical development of controlled release therapeutics and drug delivery devices have greatly advanced, with some now showing promise clinically. This review will discuss the existing challenges in drug development for treating the most prevalent and damaging hearing disorders, in particular otitis media, perforation of the tympanic membrane, cholesteatoma and sensorineural hearing loss. We will then address novel developments in drug delivery that address these including novel controlled release therapeutics such as hydrogel and nanotechnology and finally, novel device delivery approaches such as microfluidic systems and cochlear prosthesis-mediated delivery. The aim of this review is to investigate how drugs can reach the middle and inner ear more efficiently and how recent innovations could be applied in aiding drug delivery in certain pathologic contexts.

Development of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Controlled Amiodarone Delivery

In various drug delivery systems, solid lipid nanoparticles are dominantly lipid-based nanocarriers. Amiodarone hydrochloride is an antiarrhythmic agent used to treat severe rhythm disturbances. It has variable and hard-to-predict absorption in the gastrointestinal tract because of its low solubility and high permeability. The aims of this study were to improve its solubility by encapsulating amiodarone into solid lipid nanoparticles using two excipients-Compritol® 888 ATO (pellets) (C888) as a lipid matrix and Transcutol® (T) as a surfactant. Six types of amiodarone-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (AMD-SLNs) were obtained using a hot homogenization technique followed by ultrasonication with varying sonication parameters. AMD-SLNs were characterized by their size distribution, polydispersity index, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and drug loading. Based on the initial evaluation of the entrapment efficiency, only three solid lipid nanoparticle formulations (P1, P3, and P5) were further tested. They were evaluated through scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry, near-infrared spectrometry, thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry, and in vitro dissolution tests. The P5 formulation showed optimum pharmaco-technical properties, and it had the greatest potential to be used in oral pharmaceutical products for the controlled delivery of amiodarone.

Production of rumen- and gastrointestinal-resistant nanoparticles to deliver lysine to dairy cows

Supplementing diets with rumen-protected lysine is a common strategy to meet the nutritional needs of high-producing dairy cows. This work addressed two separate but crucial issues: the lysine protection degree across the entire digestive tract as well as the production scalability of the proposed delivery systems. This was achieved by evaluating, in vitro or ex vivo, previously developed rumen-resistant lipid nanoparticles regarding their stability in the digestive tract and in the bloodstream of the dairy cow as well as how their production could be scaled-up. Results showed that the developed nanoparticles were able to resist digestion along the digestive tract but were degraded in the blood over 24 h. Thus, releasing their content to be used by the animal. In vitro viability assays were also performed, with the nanoparticles being found not to be inherently toxic when using nanoparticle concentrations up to 1 mg/mL. Results showed that neither the purity of the used lipids nor the production method significantly altered the nanoparticles' properties or their ruminal resistance. Furthermore, the shelf-life of these nanoparticles was assessed, and they were found to retain their properties and remain usable after at least 1 month of storage. Moreover, a pilot-scale production allowed the production of nanoparticles with similar properties to the previous ones made using standard methods. To summarize, the proposed rumen-resistant nanoparticles presented potential as orally ingested lysine delivery systems for dairy cattle supplementation, being capable of a large-scale production using cheaper components while maintaining their properties and without any efficiency loss. It should however be noted that these results were obtained mainly in vitro and further in vivo bioavailability and production experiments are needed before this technology can be confirmed as a viable way of delivering lysine to dairy cows.

How Combined Macrolide Nanomaterials are Effective Against Resistant Pathogens? A Comprehensive Review of the Literature

Macrolide drugs are among the broad-spectrum antibiotics that are considered as "miracle drugs" against infectious diseases that lead to higher morbidity and mortality rates. Nevertheless, their effectiveness is currently at risk owing to the presence of devastating, antimicrobial-resistant microbes. In view of this challenge, nanotechnology-driven innovations are currently being anticipated for promising approaches to overcome antimicrobial resistance. Nowadays, various nanostructures are being developed for the delivery of antimicrobials to counter drug-resistant microbial strains through different mechanisms. Metallic nanoparticle-based delivery of macrolides, particularly using silver and gold nanoparticles (AgNPs & AuNPs), demonstrated a promising outcome with worthy stability, oxidation resistance, and biocompatibility. Similarly, macrolide-conjugated magnetic NPs resulted in an augmented antimicrobial activity and reduced bacterial cell viability against resistant microbes. Liposomal delivery of macrolides also showed favorable synergistic antimicrobial activities in vitro against resistant strains. Loading macrolide drugs into various polymeric nanomaterials resulted in an enhanced zone of inhibition. Intercalated nanomaterials also conveyed an outstanding macrolide delivery characteristic with efficient targeting and controlled drug release against infectious microbes. This review abridges several nano-based delivery approaches for macrolide drugs along with their recent achievements, challenges, and future perspectives.

Fisetin-In Search of Better Bioavailability-From Macro to Nano Modifications: A Review

As secondary plant metabolites, polyphenols are abundant in fruits and vegetables. They are in high demand because of their many health benefits. However, their low bioavailability makes them complex compounds to use for therapeutic purposes. Due to the limited solubility of phytocompounds, dietary supplements made from them may only be partially effective. Such molecules include fisetin, found in strawberries, and have shown great promise in treating Alzheimer's disease and cancer. Unfortunately, because of their limited water solubility, low absorption, and poor bioavailability, the assistance of nanotechnology is required to allow them to fulfil their potential fully. Here, we provide evidence that nanodelivery methods and structure modifications can improve fisetin bioavailability, which is linked to improvements in therapeutic efficacy. An open question remains as to which nanocarrier should be chosen to meet the abovementioned requirements and be able to enhance fisetin's therapeutic potential to treat a particular disease.

Lyophilization of Nanoparticles, Does It Really Work? Overview of the Current Status and Challenges

Nanoparticles are being increasingly used as drug delivery systems to enhance the delivery to and uptake by target cells and to reduce off-target toxicity of free drugs. However, although the advantages of nanoparticles as drug carriers are clear, there are still some limitations, especially in maintaining their long-term stability. Lyophilization, also known as freeze-drying, has been heavily investigated as a solution to this problem. This strategy has been shown to be effective in increasing both the long-term stability of nanoparticles and the shelf life of the drug product. However, the process is still in need of improvement in several aspects, such as the process parameters, formulation factors, and characterization techniques. This review summarizes the advantages and limitations of nanoparticles for the treatment of disease, advantages and limitations, and the status of the lyophilization of nanoparticles for therapeutic use and provides insight into both the advantages and the limitations.

Vitamin C fortification: need and recent trends in encapsulation technologies

The multifaceted role of vitamin C in human health intrudes several biochemical functions that are but not limited to antioxidant activity, homoeostasis, amino acid synthesis, collagen synthesis, osteogenesis, neurotransmitter production and several yet to be explored functions. In absence of an innate biosynthetic pathway, humans are obligated to attain vitamin C from dietary sources to maintain its optimal serum level (28 μmol/L). However, a significant amount of naturally occurring vitamin C may deteriorate due to food processing, storage and distribution before reaching to the human gastrointestinal tract, thus limiting or mitigating its disease combating activity. Literature acknowledges the growing prevalence of vitamin C deficiency across the globe irrespective of geographic, economic and population variations. Several tools have been tested to address vitamin C deficiency, which are primarily diet diversification, biofortification, supplementation and food fortification. These strategies inherit their own advantages and limitations. Opportunely, nanotechnology promises an array of delivery systems providing encapsulation, protection and delivery of susceptible compounds against environmental factors. Lack of clear understanding of the suitability of the delivery system for vitamin C encapsulation and fortification; growing prevalence of its deficiency, it is a need of the hour to develop and design vitamin C fortified food ensuring homogeneous distribution, improved stability and enhanced bioavailability. This article is intended to review the importance of vitamin C in human health, its recommended daily allowance, its dietary sources, factors donating to its stability and degradation. The emphasis also given to review the strategies adopted to address vitamin c deficiency, delivery systems adopted for vitamin C encapsulation and fortification.

Rivaroxaban-loaded SLNs with treatment potential of deep vein thrombosis: in-vitro, in-vivo, and toxicity evaluation

OBJECTIVES

Rivaroxaban (RXB), a novel Xa inhibitor having groundbreaking therapeutic potential. However, this drug is associated with few limitations, including its pharmacokinetics related toxicities. Here, we developed RXB-loaded SLNs (RXB-SLNs) to improve its biopharmaceutical profile. Methods: High pressure homogenizer was used to prepare RXB-SLNs, followed by their particle characterization, Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Dynamic light scattering (DSC), and Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis. Beside this, in-vitro, ex-vivo, and in-vivo evaluation, prothrombin time assessment and toxicity was investigated.

RESULTS

RXB-SLNs had their particle size in nano range (99.1 ± 5.50 nm) with excellent morphology and low polydispersity index (0.402 ± 0.02) and suitable zeta potential (-25.9 ± 1.4 mV). The incorporation efficiency was observed around 95.9 ± 3.9%. In-vitro release profiles of the RXB-SLNs exhibited enhanced dissolution (89 ± 9.91%) as compared to pure drug (11 ± 1.43%) after 24 h of the study. PK study demonstrated a seven times enhanced bioavailability of RXB-SLNs when compared with pure drug. Furthermore, RXB-SLNs exhibited an expressive anti-coagulant behavior in human and rat blood plasma. Also, the final formulation exhibited no toxicity after oral administration of the SLNs.

CONCLUSIONS

All together, these studies revealed the capability of the SLNs for carrying the RXB with enhanced therapeutic efficacy and no toxicity, most importantly for the treatment of deep vein thrombosis.

Application of Design of Experiment in the Optimization of Apixaban-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLnPs) are usually utilized as lipid-based formulations for enhancing oral bioavailability of BCS class IV drugs. Accordingly, the objective of this work was to investigate the effect of formulation and processing variables on the properties of the developed SLnPs for oral delivery of apixaban. Randomized full factorial design (24) was employed for optimization of SLnPs. With two levels for each independent variable, four factors comprising both formulations and processing factors were chosen: the GMS content (A), the Tween 80 content (B), the homogenization time (C), and the content of poloxamer 188 used (D). The modified hot homogenization and sonication method was employed in the formulation of solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with apixaban (APX-SLnPs). The size of APX-SLnPs formulations was measured to lie between 116.7 and 1866 nm, polydispersity index ranged from 0.385 to 1, and zeta potential was discovered to be in the range of - 12.6 to - 38.6 mV. The entrapping efficiency of APX-SLnPs formulations was found to be in the range of 22.8 to 96.7%. The optimized formulation was evaluated in vivo after oral administration to rats. Oral administration of APX-SLnPs resulted in significant prolongation in bleeding time compared with both positive and negative control. This indicates the ability of this system to enhance drug therapeutic effect either by increasing intestinal absorption or trans-lymphatic transport. So, this study highlighted the capability of SLnPs to boost the pharmacological effect of apixaban.

Effect of nanostructure lipid carrier of methylene blue and monoterpenes as enzymes inhibitor for Culex pipiens

Solid lipid nanoparticles second generation, nanostructure lipid carrier (NLC), is one of the most important biodegradable nanoparticles. Nanostructure Lipid carrier (NLC) was used to encapsulate methylene blue (MB) dye, carvacrol and citronellal and their efficacy as insecticidal against Culex pipiens (Cx. pipiens) were distinguished. The prepared nanoformulation revealed very good physicochemical properties, especially the homogeneity of the particle size. Transmission electron microscope showed spherical shaped nanoparticles within range less than 200 nm. The prepared NLC-MB-MT system showed a very competitive insecticidal activity and high virulence against the mosquito larvae with higher mortality rate of LC50 of 0.141 µl/mL, in addition to high level of Oxidative stress parameters obtained through all the tested enzymes including hydrogen peroxide (4.8 ppm), protein carbonyl amount (0.12 OD/mg protein), ascorbic acid (0.15 mg) and Superoxide dismutase (SOD) showed strong increasing (0.09 OD/mg protein/min) at 6 µg/mL, respectively. Whereas paradoxical results of the oxidative stress enzymes were obtained from different concentration of nanoformulation that introduce a convenient reason for their potential insecticidal effect. The cytotoxic effect of NLC-MB-MT was evaluated using WI38 human lung cell lines, the LC50 was 6.4 mg/mL. The low cytotoxic reactivity towards the tested cell line makes the NLC-MB-MT nanoformulation has its promising insecticidal efficacy. Molecular docking study for each component were done against acetylcholine esterase protein and accepted binding modes achieved by the three compounds.

Solid lipid Lyo-Nanosuspension: A promising stabilized oral delivery system for the antihyperglycemic extract of mistletoe Plicosepalus acacia

The antihyperglycemic effect of Plicosepalus acaciae (P. acaciae) extract was proven, but it still needs to be formulated into a suitable dosage form. We aimed at preparing an oral stabilized SLNs for P. acaciae with high payload, to be used as powder for reconstitution, filled into capsule or compressed into tablet. SLNs were prepared by emulsion solvent evaporation technique. Preliminary characterization was performed followed by full assessment of the optimized SLNs suspension and/or its lyophilized form: particle size, zeta potential, surface morphology, percentage entrapment efficiency (% EE), DSC, FTIR and in vitro release studies. The optimized SLNs lyophilized formula (F3_L) exhibited acceptable compressibility and flowability. The reconstituted F3L showed % sedimentation volume of 91.83 %, re-dispersibility of 95%, viscosity of 764.33 cp, uniform particle size of 30.28 nm as shown by TEM, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.16, zeta potential of -36.4 mV, % EE of 89.64 % and drug content of 97.69 %. The physical mixture and F3_L FTIR spectrum indicated compatibility of components. In vitro release study showed a burst release in lyophilized formulations followed by slow-release, calculated as total phenolic content. Our previously reported work revealed that the total extracts of P. acaciae and SLNs formulations with the greatest lipid content F3_s, demonstrated a considerable blood glucose-lowering effect in diabetic rats. The obtained lyophilized SLNs is promising for preparation of a suitable stable dosage form for P. acaciae extract to be used in treatment of diabetes.

Research progress of polyphenols in nanoformulations for antibacterial application

Infectious disease is one of the top 10 causes of death worldwide, especially in low-income countries. The extensive use of antibiotics has led to an increase in antibiotic resistance, which poses a critical threat to human health globally. Natural products such as polyphenolic compounds and their derivatives have been shown the positive therapeutic effects in antibacterial therapy. However, the inherent physicochemical properties of polyphenolic compounds and their derivatives limit their pharmaceutical effects, such as short half-lives, chemical instability, low bioavailability, and poor water solubility. Nanoformulations have shown promising advantages in improving antibacterial activity by controlling the release of drugs and enhancing the bioavailability of polyphenols. In this review, we listed the classification and antibacterial mechanisms of the polyphenolic compounds. More importantly, the nanoformulations for the delivery of polyphenols as the antibacterial agent were summarized, including different types of nanoparticles (NPs) such as polymer-based NPs, metal-based NPs, lipid-based NPs, and nanoscaffolds such as nanogels, nanofibers, and nanoemulsions. At the same time, we also presented the potential biological applications of the nano-system to enhance the antibacterial ability of polyphenols, aiming to provide a new therapeutic perspective for the antibiotic-free treatment of infectious diseases.