Plants have two minds as we do

This discussion paper carefully analyzes the cognition-related theories proposed for behavioral economics, to expand the concepts from human behaviors to those of plants. Behavioral economists analyze the roles of the intuitive sense and the rational thoughts affecting the human behavior, by employing the psychology-based models such as Two Minds theory (TMT) highlighting intuitive rapid thoughts (System 1) and rational slower thoughts (System 2) and Prospect theory (PT) with probability (p)-weighting functions explaining the human tendencies to overrate the low p events and to underrate the high p events. There are similarities between non-consciously processed System 1 (of TMT) and overweighing of low-p events (as in PT) and also, between the consciously processed System 2 (of TMT) and underrating of high-p events (as in PT). While most known p-weighting mathematical models employed single functions, we propose a pair of Hill-type functions reflecting the collective behaviors of two types of automata corresponding to intuition (System 1) and rationality (System 2), as a metaphor to the natural light processing in layered plant leaves. Then, the model was applied to two different TMT/PT-related behaviors, namely, preference reversal and habituation. Furthermore, we highlight the behaviors of plants through the above conceptual frameworks implying that plants behave as if they have Two Minds. Lastly, the possible evolutionary origins of the nature of Two Minds are discussed.

When two become one: perceptual completion in pea plants

Pea plants depend on external structures to reach the strongest light source. To do this, they need to perceive a potential support and to flexibly adapt the movement of their motile organs (e.g. tendrils). In natural environments, there are several above- and belowground elements that could impede the complete perception of potential supports. In such instances, plants may be required to perform a sort of perceptual "completion" to establish a unified percept. We tested whether pea plants are capable of performing perceptual completion by investigating their ascent and attachment behavior using three-dimensional (3D) kinematic analysis. Pea plants were tested in the presence of a support divided into two parts positioned at opposite locations. One part was grounded and perceived only by the root system. The remaining portion was elevated from the ground so that it was only accessible by the aerial part. Control conditions were also included. We hypothesized that if pea plants are able to perceptually integrate the two parts of the support, then they would perform a successful clasping movement. Alternatively, if such integration does not occur, plants may exhibit disoriented exploratory behavior that does not lead to clasping the support. The results demonstrated that pea plants are capable of perceptual completion, allowing for the integration of information coming from the root system and the aerial part. We contend that perceptual completion may be achieved through a continuous crosstalk between a plant's modules determined by a complex signaling network. By integrating these findings with ecological observations, it may be possible to identify specific factors related to support detection and coding in climbing plants.

Preliminary testing for affiliate stigma scale: A reliable and valid stigma measure for caregivers of women with breast cancer

Objective

Families of breast cancer patients may face discrimination and societal rejection due to prevailing myths, misconceptions and causal beliefs related to breast cancer. This study aims to develop and validate a measurement tool that is sensitive to the affiliate stigma experienced by caregivers of women with breast cancer.

Methods

The scale was developed in two phases: (1) item generation based on interviews amongst 18 caregivers of women with breast cancer; (2) psychometric properties of the scale, including content validity, structural validity, and internal consistency reliability. Data were collected from May to June 2023 in 426 caregivers of women with breast cancer from 5 tertiary A hospitals.

Results

An exploratory factor analysis produced a 24-item scale across four dimensions, including internal stigma, social isolation, perceived stigma, and reaction. The scale showed good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The total score of the scale was significantly and positively correlated with scores in caregiving burden and negatively correlated with scores in self-esteem and in social support. The item-level content validity index fell within the range of 0.8-1.0.

Conclusions

This is a valid and reliable instrument captured the spectrum of stigma relevant to caregivers of women with breast cancer and may serve as a unique instrument that can be used globally. This study is a step forward for stigma-related studies among caregivers of women with breast cancer and provides a reference for developing effective interventions for those with potentially stigmatized conditions.

From error to insight: Removing non-systematic responding data in the delay discounting task may introduce systematic bias

Delay discounting (DD), which reflects a tendency to devalue rewards as the time to their receipt increases, is associated with health behaviors such as sleep disturbances, obesity, and externalizing behavior among adolescents. Response patterns characterized by inconsistent or unexpected reward valuation, called non-systematic responding (NSR), may also predict health outcomes. Many researchers flag and exclude NSR trials prior to analysis, which could lead to systematic bias if NSR (a) varies by demographic characteristics or (b) predicts health outcomes. Thus, in this study we characterized NSR and examined its potential beyond error by comparing it against DD with a secondary data analysis of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study-a population-based study that tracked youths (N = 11,948) annually from 8 to 11 years of age over 4 years. We assessed DD and NSR using the Adjusting Delay Discounting Task when youths were approximately 9.48 years old (SD = 0.51). We also examined three maladaptive health outcomes annually: sleep disturbances, obesity, and externalizing psychopathology. Our analysis revealed variations in NSR across races, ethnicities, and body mass index categories, with no significant differences observed by sex or gender. Notably, NSR was a stronger predictor of obesity and externalizing psychopathology than DD and inversely predicted the growth trajectory of obesity. These findings suggest that removing NSR patterns could systematically bias analyses given that NSR may capture unexplored response variability. This study demonstrates the significance of NSR and underscores the necessity for further research on how to manage NSR in future DD studies.

Learning novel transitive verbs in causative action events: A cross-linguistic comparison between English- and Japanese-speaking infants

This study investigated whether typologically different languages, English and Japanese, influence the early representations of novel transitive verbs in dynamic causative events. We hypothesized that Japanese, with its syntactic and pragmatic advantages for verb learning, facilitates this process earlier than English. Using a habituation method with a three-switch design, we compared Japanese-speaking 20-month-olds with their English-speaking counterparts to determine whether Japanese-speaking infants map novel transitive verbs onto actions only, similar to adults, earlier than English-speaking infants. The results showed that Japanese-speaking infants mapped the novel transitive verbs onto actions only, whereas English-speaking infants mapped them onto both actions and objects affected by the actions. This finding suggests that Japanese-speaking infants acquire adult-like representations of novel transitive verbs earlier than their English-speaking counterparts, providing evidence that properties of languages affect the development of initial representations of novel transitive verbs in infants.

Divide (evenly) and conquer (quickly): Spatial exploration behaviors predict navigational learning and differ by sex

The ability to learn new environments is a foundational human skill, yet we know little about how exploration behaviors shape spatial learning. Here, we investigated the relationships between exploration behaviors and spatial memory in healthy young adults, and further related performance to other measures of individual differences. In the present study, 100 healthy young adults (ages 18-37) freely explored a maze in a virtual desktop environment to learn the locations of 9 objects. Participants then navigated from one object to another without feedback, and their accuracy and path efficiency were determined. Interestingly, participant accuracy ranged from near 0 % to 100 %. Correlations and principal component regression revealed that evenness of exploration (i.e., visiting all locations with a similar frequency) and how quickly all objects were found during exploration were related to performance. Indeed, differences in performance become apparent by the time participants found the 6th object (within the first 50 moves), emphasizing the importance of exploration quality over exploration quantity. Perspective taking ability and video game experience were also related to performance. Critically, we found no correlations between performance on matched pairs of active-passive exploration paths, suggesting that experiencing a "good" exploration path does not lead to better performance; instead, the path is more likely a reflection of the navigator's ability. Sex differences were observed, however, a serial mediation analysis revealed that even exploration had a greater explanatory effect on those sex differences compared to video game experience. Our results indicate that exploration behaviors predict navigational performance and highlight the importance of moment-to-moment behaviors exhibited during exploration and learning.

The role of visual attention in opportunity cost neglect and consideration

Choices necessitate opportunity costs: choosing one option means foregoing another. Despite their critical role in decision making, people often neglect opportunity costs and are less likely to make purchases when reminded of them. Here, we seek to understand whether and how opportunity-cost neglect can be explained by attention, a relationship that has been proposed but not explicitly tested. Participants made eye-tracked, incentivized purchase decisions in two conditions: one with implicit opportunity costs (e.g., "Buy" vs. "Do Not Buy") and one with explicit opportunity costs (e.g., "Buy" vs. "Keep Money"). Across two studies (approximately 30,000 choices), we find lower purchase rates when opportunity costs are explicit. More importantly, we show that the relationship between attention and opportunity cost considerations is two-fold. First, the amount of attention to the outside option is greater when opportunity costs are explicit, which partly accounts for the effect of opportunity cost salience on choice. Second, for some framings, the predictive power of attention to opportunity costs is greater when opportunity costs are explicit. Using the attentional drift-diffusion model, we model the effect of opportunity cost salience on choice via attention. These findings help explain why people are more likely to purchase when explicit opportunity cost reminders are absent.

Parafoveal preview benefits magnified

This study investigated the impact of word-initial letters and contextual predictability on eye movements during reading. In two experiments, we manipulated the constraint of the target word's initial trigram (e.g., dwarf or clown) within contexts of varying predictability. Experiment 1 followed a normal-viewing reading paradigm, while Experiment 2 employed gaze-contingent magnification to enhance parafoveal text. We employed Bayesian ex-Gaussian mixed models to determine the effects of word-initial trigram, contextual predictability and parafoveal preview manipulations on the centre and skew of fixation durations specifically. We found that parafoveal magnification enhanced parafoveal identification of word-initial letters, but this effect was only observable for less predictable and challenging words. During target word fixations, word-initial trigrams were shown to contribute to lexical selection for all words, regardless of preview manipulation. Our results elucidate the dynamic impact of word-initial trigram information across parafoveal and foveal processing, whilst demonstrating the utility and potential of parafoveal magnification as a novel tool for studying the scope and limits of parafoveal processing during reading.

Featural relations in concept learning and generalization

The feature-based concept learning literature has focused primarily on how subjects learn mappings from a set of stimulus features to a set of category labels. However, there are real-world concepts that cannot be predicted by feature values independently, but instead depend on knowledge or awareness of what we refer to as featural relations, i.e., labeled relationships that hold between the feature values within items. For example, in the domain of dating, the featural relation of an age gap would represent a difference greater than a certain amount between the ages of two people in a couple. Theoretical accounts of feature- and relation-based concept learning have remained largely independent due to the apparent gulf between the nature of flat and structured representations. There is little prior research that speaks to an intermediate and potentially bridging space such as feature-based representations that possess a limited structural aspect. In the present work, we identify featural relations as a promising middleground focusing on specific properties of relative magnitude that hold between feature values. We conducted three experiments that show: (1) the psychological validity of featural relations; (2) that theoretical accounts of feature-based categorization predict some aspects of human learning and generalization in the domain of concepts defined by featural relations - but only if it is assumed that between-feature comparisons are available as direct cues for learning; and (3) evidence of generalization behavior that is not predicted by feature-based theories but does correspond with relational cognition as well as prior findings in the reinforcement learning literature.

What is the doggest dog? Examination of typicality perception in ImageNet-trained networks

Due to the emergence of numerous model architectures in recent years, researchers finally have access to models that are diverse enough to properly study them from the perspective of cognitive psychology theories, e.g. Prototype Theory. The theory assumes that the degree of membership in a basic-level category is graded. As a result, some concepts are perceived as more central (typical) than others. The most typical category is called a prototype. It can be perceived as the clearest example of a category, reflecting the redundancy structure of the category as a whole. Its inverse is called an anti-prototype. Reasonable perception of prototypes and anti-prototypes is important for accurate projection of the world structure onto the class space and more human-like world perception beyond simple memorization. That is why it is beneficial to study deep models from the perspective of prototype theory. To enable it, we propose 3 methods that return the prototypes and anti-prototypes perceived by deep networks for a specific basic-level category. Additionally, one of our methods allows to visualize the centrality of objects. The results on a wide range of 42 networks trained on ImageNet (Convolutional Networks, Vision Transformers, ConvNeXts and hybrid models) reveal that the networks share the typicality perception to a large extent and that this perception does not lie so far from the human one. We release the dataset with per-network prototypes and anti-prototypes resulting from our work to enable further research on this topic.

The specificity of sequential statistical learning: Statistical learning accumulates predictive information from unstructured input but is dissociable from (declarative) memory for words

Learning statistical regularities from the environment is ubiquitous across domains and species. It might support the earliest stages of language acquisition, especially identifying and learning words from fluent speech (i.e., word-segmentation). But how do the statistical learning mechanisms involved in word-segmentation interact with the memory mechanisms needed to remember words - and with the learning situations where words need to be learned? Through computational modeling, we first show that earlier results purportedly supporting memory-based theories of statistical learning can be reproduced by memory-less Hebbian learning mechanisms. We then show that, in a memory recall task after exposure to continuous, statistically structured speech sequences, participants track the statistical structure of the speech sequences and are thus sensitive to probable syllable transitions. However, they hardly remember any items at all, with 82% producing no high-probability items. Among the 30% of participants producing (correct) high- or (incorrect) low-probability items, half produced high-probability items and half low-probability items - even while preferring high-probability items in a recognition test. Only discrete familiarization sequences with isolated words yield memories of actual items. Turning to how specific learning situations affect statistical learning, we show that it predominantly operates in continuous speech sequences like those used in earlier experiments, but not in discrete chunk sequences likely more characteristic of early language acquisition. Taken together, these results suggest that statistical learning might be specialized to accumulate distributional information, but that it is dissociable from the (declarative) memory mechanisms needed to acquire words and does not allow learners to identify probable word boundaries.

Common and distinct neural substrates of rule- and similarity-based category learning

Categorization is a fundamental ability in human cognition that enables generalization and promotes decision-making. A categorization problem can be solved by employing a rule-based or a similarity-based strategy. The current study aims to elucidate the brain mechanism for category learning by investigating whether the use of the two strategies is supported by common or distinct neural substrates. We conducted three experiments using stimuli with a rule-plus-similarity category structure and applying an EEG-fNIRS fusion methodology. In Experiment 1, participants were explicitly instructed to use either a rule-based (single feature) or a similarity-based strategy, while in Experiment 3, they were instructed to use a rule-based (multi-feature) or a similarity-based strategy. In contrast, in Experiment 2, participants were required to self-discover categorization strategies. After learning, categorization was tested. The results of the three experiments were largely consistent, revealing distinct decision-making processes associated with each strategy. The results revealed that hypothesis testing and semantic processing, as reflected by the larger P300 and N400 components and increased activation in Wernicke's area, were critical for rule-based category learning, suggesting the role of an explicit system. In contrast, complex visual processing and the integration of multiple features, as indicated by a larger P1 component and the heightened activation in the frontopolar cortex, were critical for similarity-based category learning, suggesting the role of an implicit system. These distinct cognitive processes challenge single-system accounts suggesting a unified neural mechanism for both forms of category learning. Instead, our findings are consistent with the COVIS theory, which implies an explicit system for rule-based category learning and an implicit system for similarity-based category learning.

Predictable object motion is extrapolated to support visual working memory for surface features

Space and time support visual working memory (VWM) by providing incidental reference frames for task-relevant information. While this has been studied with stationary items, natural scenes also contain moving objects, whose positions change over time, often in a predictable manner. We investigated if predictable item motion is leveraged to facilitate VWM for surface features. In a dynamic change-detection task, participants memorised the colours of three disks moving at constant speed in different directions before disappearing. After a retention interval, the disks reappeared (a) at the movement endpoint locations where they had disappeared (b) at positions spatiotemporally congruent with their previous motion (where they would have been had they continued their movement), (c) at positions with a temporal offset (consistent with a change in speed while out of view) or (d) at positions with a spatial offset (consistent with a change in movement direction). Performance decreased with increasing temporal or spatial offsets relative to congruent positions, indicating that the memorised items' positions were remapped to their anticipated future locations. This updating of positions in spatiotemporal reference frames, however, only occurs if motion extrapolation allows for reliable predictions of where occluded items will reappear. In a task context with unreliable motion patterns, the congruency effect diminished over time and performance instead increased at the movement endpoints. A second experiment confirmed this influence of motion reliability. Thus, predictable motion is extrapolated to update spatiotemporal reference frames in VWM, supporting memory for surface features and thereby contributing to visually guided behavior in dynamic environments.

Game-based cognitive training and its impact on executive functions and math performance: A randomized controlled trial

Executive functions (EFs) are the focus of interventions aimed at their development and subsequent improvement of indirectly trained skills such as academic performance. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the presence of near-transfer effects (EFs improvement) and far-transfer effects (mathematics improvement) of the Cucca Curiosa intervention in Brazilian children aged 7 to 10 years, with 28 participants per age group. This stratified trial included 112 children randomly assigned to the experimental group (EG) or control group (CG). Child Brief Neuropsychological Assessment Battery  (NEUPSILIN-Inf), Five-Digit Test (FDT), Day-Night Stroop task, and Mathematics Test (TEMA) were administered at pretest and posttest levels. The EG participated in the 1-week Cucca Curiosa program, consisting of five sessions (averaging 13 min, with a maximum of 26 min), whereas the CG remained in passive waiting. Data analysis revealed that the intervention significantly improved children's executive and mathematics performance in the short term. The mediation analysis identified that EFs are essential mediators that explain how the intervention improves mathematical performance, reinforcing the importance of focusing on the development of EFs as a strategy to improve academic performance. Further studies are necessary to assess long-term effects, transfer to other skills, and potential benefits in reducing psychopathological symptoms.

Sharpening the number sense: Developmental trends in numerosity perception

Numerosity perception, the ability to process and estimate the number of objects in a set without explicitly counting, has been widely studied, and one well-established finding is that children become more accurate at perceiving numerosity with age. The question remains, however, what the underlying cognitive processes and mechanisms are that drive this improvement. Some authors have suggested that this is due to an increased numerical precision (i.e., the sharpening hypothesis), whereas others have proposed that the more accurate performance is due to the improved ability to inhibit non-numerical features of the display such as object size and spacing of items (i.e., the filtering hypothesis). The current study examined the developmental trajectory of numerosity perception across three age groups (M = 5.65, M = 11.03, and M = 20.10 years). As expected, more accurate performance was observed with age. Regression and analyses of variance revealing the contribution of numerical and non-numerical predictors in performance show that the performance in all age groups was primarily driven by numerical information and that its contribution increased with age. In addition, a consistent bias toward non-numerical features was observed in all age groups. These results support the sharpening hypothesis for children from 5 years of age to early adulthood, suggesting that from this age onward children increasingly focus on numerical information as they get older. These results have important implications for the understanding of the development and specific improvements of numerical perception.

Executive functions and mathematical ability in early elementary school children: The moderating role of family socioeconomic status

Children's executive functions (EFs) and family socioeconomic status (SES) play critical roles in the development of mathematical ability in early elementary education. However, the potential interplay between EFs and SES remains underexplored. This study addressed this gap by comprehensively investigating the moderating role of SES in the relationship between EF subcomponents (i.e., interference inhibition, response inhibition, and working memory) and children's concurrent and future mathematical abilities (i.e., arithmetic operations and logical-visuospatial skills). A total of 172 participants (Mage = 6.78 years; 107 boys) took part in the study at the beginning of first grade in elementary school (T1) and 20 months later (T2). We measured EFs, SES, and mathematical ability at T1 and mathematical ability at T2. Results from hierarchical linear regression models indicated that working memory was positively associated with T1 arithmetic operations and logical-visuospatial skills as well as with T2 arithmetic operations. Furthermore, family SES was positively associated with arithmetic operations at both T1 and T2. Notably, we found a significant interaction effect between interference inhibition and SES on T1 arithmetic operations and logical-visuospatial skills. Specifically, interference inhibition was positively related to T1 arithmetic operations and logical-visuospatial skills for children from low- and middle-SES families, but not for children from high-SES families. Our findings contribute to a nuanced understanding of how cognitive and environmental factors jointly influence mathematical development, underscoring the need for targeted interventions for children from different SES backgrounds to support their mathematical ability development.

Comparison of Frequentist and Bayesian Statistics for Studying Unconscious Perception: Differences Between Null Awareness Dissociation and Relative Sensitivity Dissociation

For unconscious perception research, Bayesian statistics are more appropriate for assessing null awareness of masked stimuli than traditional (frequentist) statistics. This assertion is based mostly upon the theoretical features of Bayesian statistics and modeling studies. To further assess the potential advantages, we compared frequentist and Bayesian statistical tests in a masked Stroop priming experiment in which the prime stimuli were presented at varying degrees of visibility. A novel contribution was to compare a null awareness dissociation approach (i.e., stimulus awareness = 0) to a relative sensitivity approach (indirect or priming effects > direct effects) for the same data. From a null awareness perspective, the frequentist t-tests for the Stroop effect (i.e., perception) for the briefest display conditions had non-significant outcomes. Similar Bayesian t-tests were inconclusive. In contrast, the relative sensitivity dissociation approach was more interpretable, with strong evidence against unconscious perception from a single Bayesian t test. For the longer display conditions, both statistical approaches suggested large conscious perception effects. We conclude that the utility of Bayesian statistics is highly dependent upon the type of dissociation approach, with a relative sensitivity approach being more straightforward to interpret than a null awareness approach.

Intuitive physical reasoning is not mediated by linguistic nor exclusively domain-general abstract representations

The ability to reason about the physical world is a critical tool in the human cognitive toolbox, but the nature of the representations that mediate physical reasoning remains debated. Here, we use fMRI to illuminate this question by investigating the relationship between the physical-reasoning system and two well-characterized systems: a) the domain-general Multiple Demand (MD) system, which supports abstract reasoning, including mathematical and logical reasoning, and b) the language system, which supports linguistic computations and has been hypothesized to mediate some forms of thought. We replicate prior findings of a network of frontal and parietal areas that are robustly engaged by physical reasoning and identify an additional physical-reasoning area in the left frontal cortex, which also houses components of the MD and language systems. Critically, direct comparisons with tasks that target the MD and the language systems reveal that the physical-reasoning system overlaps with the MD system, but is dissociable from it in fine-grained activation patterns, which replicates prior work. Moreover, the physical-reasoning system does not overlap with the language system. These results suggest that physical reasoning does not rely on linguistic representations, nor exclusively on the domain-general abstract reasoning that the MD system supports.

Biased competition between action representations

We propose a generalized version of the biased competition account of attention that may be applied to all domains of cognition. Based on our Generalized Biased Competition account, we propose a formal race model of selection of action representations. The model explains how action representations stored in long-term memory are competing for selection based on their match to the current environmental context and their importance weight. We then present results and model fits from three experiments using a recently developed multiple cue paradigm where several attention shifts with different associated reward values are competing. We show that participants were surprisingly efficient at selecting both when the number of cues and the number of possible reward values were increased. Only when we manipulated reward contingencies and knowledge of these, did the participants show suboptimal performance. The new Generalized Biased Competition account can also explain failures of executive control exemplified by goal neglect where instructions fail to influence behavior despite being retrievable. Finally, we argue that our model may provide a unified understanding of intentions, routines, and habits. Specifically, intentions, routines, and habits may be understood as a continuous range of the same fundamental form of action representation but with variation in their strength of long-term memory traces and importance weights.

The use of F0 in speech segmentation by adults with dyslexia and skilled readers

This paper examines the use of intonational cues for word segmentation in skilled French readers and adult dyslexics, and more specifically, the influence of the fundamental frequency (F0). Participants listened to phonemically identical sequences such as /selami/, c'est la mie/l'amie 'it's the crumb/friend', and had to perform a two-alternative forced choice task in Exp1 and a word repetition task in Exp2. The F0 slope and/or mean value of the first vowel /a/ of the natural consonant-initial production la mie were manipulated to test whether it influences perceived segmentation. The present study shows that not only increasing the F0 mean value but also rotating the F0 slope alone led to more vowel initial segmentation, thus biasing speech segmentation in both tasks. A similar segmentation strategy was found for both groups of participants. Our findings suggest that both skilled readers and adult dyslexics compute F0 trajectories to find the beginning of content words.

Effects of postural loading during static posture holding on concurrent executive function task performance

This study investigated the effects of postural loading during static posture holding on the performance of concurrent executive function tasks. Three executive function tasks, the letter memory, number-letter, and Stroop tasks, were employed for updating, shifting, and inhibition, respectively. Static posture holding involved three levels of postural loading (PL1, PL2, and PL3), corresponding to OWAS classes 1, 2, and 4, respectively. Increased postural loading resulted in decreased performance across tasks. At PL2 and PL3, compared to PL1, total score in the letter memory task decreased by 4.56% and 13.68%, switch trial reaction time in the number-letter task increased by 1.47% and 15.63%, and incongruent trial reaction time in the Stroop task increased by 4.15% and 13.44%. These findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between postural loading and executive functions, and offer valuable insights into how managing postural demands may enhance cognitive task performance.

Context-modulating effect on processing scientific metaphors: Evidence from ERPs

Previous event-related potential (ERP) studies have demonstrated the neural specificity of cognitive processing mechanisms in scientific metaphors. This property makes semantic retrieval and extraction more difficult compared to conventional metaphors. However, the role of context in modulating the comprehension of scientific metaphors remains unclear, and there has been no analysis or categorization of abstract and difficult scientific metaphors. In this study, we used the sentence-final word paradigm to investigate the effects of different contextual conditions on the comprehension of two types of scientific metaphors. We aimed to observe (Experiment 1) whether there are any differences between the processing of the two types of scientific metaphors in the context-free condition and (Experiment 2) whether the context affects the comprehension of the two types of scientific metaphors in the contextualized condition. Additionally, we explored the modulating effects of relevant and irrelevant contexts on the two types of scientific metaphors. Both N400 and late negative component (LN) effects were found in the two experiments. The N400 analysis showed that SMF (SMF refers to scientific metaphors whose source domain and target domain have similarities in functions in present study.) evoked more negative N400 than SMS (SMS refers to scientific metaphors whose source domain and target domain have similarities in shapes in present study) in the context-free condition. The result suggests that the processing of SMF might be more difficult than that of SMS. However, in the relevant-context condition, there was no significant difference in the N400 amplitudes of the two types of scientific metaphors. In contrast, in the irrelevant-context condition, SMS elicited significantly more negative N400 than SMF. Analysis of the LN revealed no significant differences between SMS and SMF in the two experiments. The results indicate that the context might affect information extraction and retrieval, but not the late reasoning stage about scientific knowledge. Moreover, the relevant context might facilitate the comprehension of both types of scientific metaphors, whereas the irrelevant context might hinder the processing of them. More importantly, the interference seems greater for SMS.

Exploring Unexpected Bilingualism in Autism: Enhanced Sensitivity to Non-Adjacent Dependencies

Statistical learning refers to the ability to detect regularities from sensory input, including speech. Statistical learning plays a key role in language acquisition, particularly for complex structures, such as nonadjacent dependencies, that are ubiquitous in natural language syntax. This study investigates nonadjacent dependency learning in autistic children who acquire English through screen exposure, a phenomenon known as Unexpected Bilingualism (UB). Unlike their non-autistic peers, autistic-UB children acquire foreign languages with little interactional support. We hypothesize that this intensive experience with linguistic input should be associated in autistic-UB children with enhanced sensitivity to nonadjacent dependencies. An artificial language learning experiment confirmed that both non-autistic and autistic children with close to typical language ranges can learn non-adjacent dependencies from passive exposure to unfamiliar linguistic input. Crucially, autistic-UB exhibited significantly faster learning as compared to their autistic and non-autistic peers. This study documents that UB in autism is associated with distinct cognitive abilities.

Unfamiliar familiarity: A scoping review on the role of familiarity in consumer acceptance of cultivated meat

The potential introduction of cultivated meat products to the market, framed as sustainable alternative to conventional animal-source foods, underscores the need to examine psychological barriers and predisposing factors influencing consumer acceptance. Familiarity is often considered a facilitating factor, based on the premise that higher familiarity with cultivated meat is associated with greater acceptance. However, evidence remains contradictory and poorly integrated. This review examines and organizes the literature on familiarity with cultivated meat and its influence on consumer acceptance. A scoping review of peer-reviewed and grey literature was conducted on June 7, 2024, following PRISMA-ScR and Joanna Briggs Institute guidelines. Comprehensive searches across Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and PsycInfo included no restrictions on participant type, geographic location, social and cultural contexts, language, or publication time. 63 articles were analyzed to examine (i) definitions of familiarity, (ii) methodologies measuring familiarity with cultivated meat, and (iii) evidence regarding its influence on consumer acceptance of cultivated meat. Results indicate that current research on familiarity is largely based on non-representative samples, with data recency limitations, and inconsistent operationalization. Familiarity is often conflated with the related yet distinct constructs of awareness and knowledge, revealing a lack of clarity in literature. The review also identified various approaches for assessing familiarity, all lacking psychometric rigor, hindering replicability and comparability of findings. This review highlights the need for further research to clarify the theoretical and operational definition of familiarity and its role in consumer acceptance of cultivated meat.

Alterations in Response Switching in Parkinson's Disease: New Insights Into Cueing

Switching, a critical executive function, can manifest as task switching (TS) or response switching (RS). Although TS impairments in Parkinson's disease (PD) are well-studied, RS, especially in contexts requiring adaptive behavior to external or internal cues, is less explored. This study evaluated the impact of PD on RS under exogenous and endogenous cueing. Using a gamified, remote task triggering these cues, RS was assessed in 85 PD patients and 82 neurologically healthy participants (NHP). RS cost was quantified by comparing reaction times between repeating and changing responses. A linear mixed model analyzed the effects of group, cueing mode, and their interaction on RS cost. PD patients exhibited increased RS costs under exogenous cueing but not under endogenous cueing. These findings indicate that while PD patients can effectively use predictive endogenous cues, they struggle with less predictive exogenous cues, emphasizing the need for compensatory strategies and technological aids in daily activities.

The influence of writing systems on comics layouts

Writing is a significant human invention claimed to affect numerous aspects of cognition, including the ordering of pictures. However, picture sequences like those in comics often have complex directional paths within their layouts. Here we therefore examine whether comic page layouts are affected by the directionality of writing systems and/or encode distinctive conventionalized patterns. Using the TINTIN Corpus of 1030 annotated comics from 144 countries and territories (14,311 pages, 76,361 panels), we observed that lateral directionality between rightward and leftward writing systems did affect the reading direction of comic page layouts. However, additional variance was observed particularly by Japanese manga, which showed a preference for greater right-to-left and down "S-paths" and increased vertical columns beyond the influence of writing systems. This suggests that, while writing systems may affect picture sequencing, visual narrative layouts can also be encoded above and beyond the influence of writing directionality.

The dominoes of features: Dynamic sequential refinement of working memory representations

Despite the adaptative nature of working memory (WM) refinement (e.g. repulsion), a fundamental question remains unaddressed: what constitutes the unit of WM refinement? Specifically, does the refinement process apply to the entire object (object-based), specific features (feature-based), or potentially involve other mechanisms? Utilizing dual-feature objects and the continuous memory task, we examined whether the repulsion distortion induced in one feature (the trigger feature) could be transmitted to other features (the dependent feature) of the same object. Across one preliminary experiment and five formal experiments, we supported that the WM refinement is neither strictly object-based nor feature-based, but occurs dynamically and sequentially across distinct features. Specifically, the repulsion induced by the trigger feature was transmitted to the dependent feature only during extended maintenance periods, not during short maintenance. Our findings supported the dynamic sequential refinement of WM: refinement induced by a trigger feature could extend to other features, but this transmission is time-consuming.

The benefit of removing information from working memory: Increasing available cognitive resources or reducing interference?

Removing information from working memory is thought to free up capacity and improve the retention of other information. However, whether this benefit arises from reducing interference from the to-be-forgotten information or from freeing up cognitive resources remains unclear. We examined this by comparing removal immediately following encoding an item (immediate removal), or delayed until after other items have been encoded (delayed removal). Interference theories predict that both types of removal should reduce interference and improve memory performance. In contrast, if removal frees up cognitive resources, the beneficial effect on memory should be greater the earlier it occurs, as the resources can then be allocated to subsequently encoded items. Experiment 1 showed that both immediate and delayed removal failed to reduce interference from the to-be-forgotten items but improved memory for item-location bindings of other items still maintained in working memory. In Experiment 2, removal only facilitated item-location bindings for items encoded afterward. These results suggest that removal frees up working memory capacity by increasing available resources rather than by reducing interference.

Untreated if unrecognized: A cognitive profile of sustained subjective executive dysfunctions in COVID-19

& STATEMENT OF IMPACTSARS-COV-2 infection can result in acute and long-lasting cognitive complaints, causing ongoing impairments in daily life which poses a challenge to society. Consequently, the evaluation and characterization of cognitive complaints, specifically in the domain of executive functions (EFs) affecting daily life, is imperative in formulating an effective neuropsychological response.In total 442 participants aged 18-65+ years from the Netherlands, Germany, Mexico, and Spain were included in an online questionnaire. Among others, the questionnaire consisted of demographics, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning for Adults (BRIEF-A), measures of subjective disease progression severity and experienced subjective impairment in daily activities. To assess whether daily life activities are affected by EF impairments, the main BRIEF-A composite score (GEC) was analyzed. To determine whether disease-related COVID-19 factors predict EFs complaints in daily life, a stepwise regression analysis was performed with i) experienced disease severity, ii) time since disease, and iii) health risk factor as predictors.The study revealed noteworthy differences in the occurrence of EFs problems in daily life between both groups, as indicated by the GEC, which exhibited a medium effect size even 6 months post-COVID-19 diagnosis even in mild disease progression. The scores of the BRIEF-A subscales follow a domain-specific profile, and includes clinically relevant impairments in: Working memory, Plan/Organize, Task Monitor, Shift, which are affected by the experienced severity of the disease. This cognitive profile has important implications for targeted cognitive training in rehabilitation and has the potential for an applicability to other viruses as well.

Applying multiscale entropy for evaluating website visual complexity in an agile project: Using physiological data

The perceived visual complexity of a website immediately and persistently impacts the user experience. However, existing visual complexity research methods in the literature are not suitable for agile website development, often associating visual complexity with website structure and requiring advanced programming skills and large participant samples. This study proposes an accessible, definition-independent method to evaluate website complexity using multiscale entropy analysis of physiological signals. Our results show that the multiscale entropy derived from physiological data can effectively differentiate websites with varying complexity levels, even with a small number of participants. This approach achieves robust and significant effects, enabling its simultaneous application with user experience assessment in the agile website development process. The proposed MSE-based method provides an objective, unified tool to evaluate visual complexity without the burden of defining and calculating visual complexity, allowing design teams to focus on the website itself during agile software development projects.

Developing and Evaluating a Situated Assessment Instrument for Trichotillomania: The SAM2 TAI

Measuring trichotillomania is essential for understanding and treating it effectively. Using the Situated Assessment Method (SAM2), we developed a psychometric instrument to assess hair pulling in situations where it occurs. In two studies, pullers evaluated their pulling in relevant situations, along with how much they experience factors that potentially influence it (e.g., external triggers, reduction in negative emotion, negative self-thoughts). Individual measures of pulling, averaged across situations, exhibited high test reliability, construct validity, and content validity. Large differences between situations in pulling were observed, along with large individual-situation interactions (with limited evidence distinguishing focused versus automatic pulling subtypes). In linear regressions for individual participants, factors that influence pulling tended to correlate with pulling as predicted, explaining a median 74%-83% of its variance. By identifying factors that predict pulling for each individual across situations, the SAM2 Trichotillomania Assessment Instrument (TAI) offers a rich understanding of an individual's pulling experience, potentially supporting individualized pulling interventions.

Estimating Age-Related Change in Infants' Linguistic and Cognitive Development Using (Meta-)Meta-Analysis

Developmental psychology focuses on how psychological constructs change with age. In cognitive development research, however, the specifics of this emergence is often underspecified. Researchers often provisionally assume linear growth by including chronological age as a predictor in regression models. In this work, we aim to evaluate this assumption by examining the functional form of age trajectories across 25 phenomena in early linguistic and cognitive development by combining the results of multiple meta-analyses in Metalab, an open database. Surprisingly, for most meta-analyses, the effect size for the phenomenon did not change meaningfully across age. We investigated four possible hypotheses explaining this pattern: (1) age-related selection bias against younger infants; (2) methodological adaptation for older infants; (3) change in only a subset of conditions; and (4) positive growth only after infancy. None of these explained the lack of age-related growth in most datasets. Our work challenges the assumption of linear growth in early cognitive development and suggests the importance of uniform measurement across children of different ages.

Dampened positive emotion and a PTSD diagnosis are related to suicidal thoughts and behavior in young children receiving intensive psychiatric care

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the prevalence of suicidal thoughts and behavior (STB), as well as clinical characteristics, emotional responsiveness, as well as executive functioning and death understanding, in young children receiving intensive psychiatric treatment.

METHOD

Ninety children, 4 to 7 years of age in a Pediatric Partial Hospital Program (PPHP), were studied. A diagnosis of autism or a significant language delay were exclusion citeria. Most children were male (74 %) and White (63 %); 8 % were Black, and 26 % were multiracial or endorsed other races;18 % were Latine. Caregivers completed diagnostic interviews about their child as well as psychiatric history screening and measures of their own depression and STB. Children were administered lab tasks tapping cognitive and emotional risk factors as well as a death understanding interview.

RESULTS

Approximately 44 % of children had a history of STB, as reported by a caregiver. Both MDD and PTSD were associated with increased rates of STB in univariate analyses but neither ODD or ADHD differentiated the groups. Preschoolers with a history of STB demonstrated a greater understanding of death and dampened positive emotion in interactive play compared to those without a history of STB. In multivariate analyses, older age, a PTSD diagnosis, and dampened positive emotion differentiated children with a history of STB from those without a history of STB.

CONCLUSION

Continued refinement of the clinical assessment of STB in young children referred for mental health care is important given the high rates of STB found in this study. A PTSD diagnosis appears especially important to consider in understanding STB in this age group as is the child's ability to experience positive emotion.

Distinguishing Neural Correlates of Prediction Errors on Perceptual Content and Detection of Content

Accounting for why discrimination between different perceptual contents is not always accompanied by conscious detection of that content remains a challenge for predictive processing theories of perception. Here, we test a hypothesis that detection is supported by a distinct inference within generative models of perceptual content. We develop a novel visual perception paradigm that probes such inferences by manipulating both expectations about stimulus content (stimulus identity) and detection of content (stimulus presence). In line with model simulations, we show that both content and detection expectations influence RTs on a categorization task. By combining a no-report version of our task with functional neuroimaging, we reveal that violations of expectations (prediction errors [PEs]) about perceptual content and detection are supported by visual cortex and pFC in qualitatively different ways: Within visual cortex, activity patterns diverge only on trials with a content PE, but within these trials, further divergence is seen for detection PEs. In contrast, within pFC, activity patterns diverge only on trials with a detection PE, but within these trials, further divergence is seen for content PEs. These results suggest rich encoding of both content and detection PEs and highlight a distributed neural basis for inference on content and detection of content in the human brain.

The modulation of cognitive load on speech normalization: A neurophysiological perspective

Extrinsic normalization, wherein listeners utilize context cues to adapt to speech variability, is essential for maintaining perceptual constancy. In daily communication, distractions are ubiquitous, raising questions about the influence of cognitive load on this process, particularly at the cortical level. This study investigates how cognitive load modulates extrinsic normalization using electroencephalography (EEG). Native Cantonese speakers were asked to perceive Cantonese tones from multiple speakers with context cues in both single- and dual-task conditions. The secondary task did not hinder listeners' normalization process at the behavioral level. However, EEG data revealed significant modulations of extrinsic normalization under cognitive load. Extrinsic normalization elicited P2, N400, and LFN, suggesting that extrinsic normalization encompasses multiple perceptual adjustments at stages of phonological processing, lexical retrieval, and decision-making. Cognitive load influenced extrinsic normalization at all these stages, as evidenced by smaller P2, larger N400, and larger LFN, highlighting the active and controlled nature of this process.

A meta-analytic review examining the validity of executive functioning tests to predict functional outcomes in individuals with a traumatic brain injury

OBJECTIVES

Deficits in executive functioning are a common consequence of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and the severity of TBI is known to predict functional outcomes. In this review, the authors examine the ability of three commonly used tests of executive functioning [The Trail Making Test (TMT-B), The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and Verbal Fluency (VF)] to predict domains of function.

METHODS

Seven hundred and twenty articles were identified and twenty-four met inclusion criteria (original articles published in English examining an adult TBI population). Data were subject to a study quality analysis and then meta-analyzed to assess whether tests of executive functioning (TMT-B, WCST, and VF) can predict functional, employment, and driving outcomes following a TBI.

RESULTS

The TMT-B (r = 0.29; 95% CI 0.17-0.41) and the WCST (r = 0.20; 95% CI 0.02-0.37) were significantly associated with functional outcomes. The TMT-B was also associated with a person's ability to return to driving (r = 0.3890; 95% CI 0.2678-0.5103). No test of executive functioning was associated with employment outcomes following a TBI.

CONCLUSION

These findings are important to guide rehabilitation strategies and future planning. This review has also highlighted the scarcity of research on specific outcomes.

On the relation between single word and multiple word processing during learning to read

The current study investigated the development of single word processing and multiple word processing skills in French-speaking children from Grade 2 to Grade 6. A total of 150 children participated in two tasks: a Lexical Decision Task (LDT) and a Grammatical Decision Task (GDT). The LDT was used to test single word processing abilities, whereas the GDT was used to test multiple word processing abilities, with stimuli presented at varying display times (LDT: 83-300 ms; GDT: 150-700 ms). Signal detection theory analysis revealed that all children performed well in the LDT, whereas only Grade 4 and Grade 6 children performed above chance in the GDT. A cluster analysis was used to investigate the different types of relation between sensitivity (d') in the LDT and GDT. The analysis revealed two clusters that differed in reading fluency and sensitivity in both tasks. Children from Cluster 2, who exhibited the highest sensitivity in the LDT, were the only ones to perform on average above the chance level in the GDT. Moreover, a strong correlation (r = .64) between LDT and GDT performance was found in this group. Finally, we found that a sensitivity of 1.95 in the LDT almost perfectly predicted cluster membership. Such sensitivity was achieved at Grade 3, suggesting that the ability to process multiple word sequences first requires sufficient efficiency in processing words in isolation. Once this turning point is reached, single word processing skills support the development of multiple word processing, which could take several years to mature fully.

The comparison of neurocognitive functions between internet-addicted, methamphetamine users, and healthy participants

Internet use has grown substantially over the past decade. As a result, individuals are more at risk of developing internet addiction. Studies have shown that internet addiction results in neurocognitive dysfunctions. The current study aimed to compare the cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory performance of internet-addicted, at-risk internet-addicted individuals and methamphetamine users to healthy participants using the Wisconsin card sorting task, n-back, and Stroop color and word test. The results showed no significant differences between at-risk internet-addicted and internet-addicted with the healthy group in the Wisconsin card sorting task and in the Stroop test. Surprisingly, the mean n-back accuracy was not significantly different between methamphetamine users and the internet-addicted group. The mean n-back accuracy in the internet-addicted group was significantly lower than that of healthy and at-risk internet addicts. In conclusion, working memory can be impaired under the influence of internet addiction. The results can lead to develop possible intervention programs aimed at prevention of internet addiction by helping individuals identify and modify their problematic use habits, reducing internet addiction and improving cognitive functioning.

Temporal Unfolding of Spelling-to-Sound Mappings in Visual (Pseudo)word Recognition

Behavioral research has shown that inconsistency in spelling-to-sound mappings slows visual word recognition and word naming. However, the time course of this effect remains underexplored. To address this, we asked skilled adult readers to perform a 1-back repetition detection task that did not explicitly involve phonological coding, in which we manipulated lexicality (high-frequency words vs. pseudowords) and sublexical spelling-to-sound consistency (treated as a dichotomous-consistent vs. inconsistent-and continuous dimension), while recording their brain electrical activity. The ERP results showed that the adult brain distinguishes between real and nonexistent words within 119-172 msec after stimulus onset (early N170), likely reflecting initial, rapid access to a primitive visuo-orthographic representation. The consistency of spelling-to-sound mappings exerted an effect shortly after the lexicality effect (172-270 msec; late N170), which percolated to the 353- to 475-msec range but only for real words. This suggests that, in expert readers, orthographic and phonological codes become available automatically and nearly simultaneously within the first 200 msec of the recognition process. We conclude that the early coupling of orthographic and phonological information plays a core role in visual word recognition by mature readers. Our findings support "quasiparallel" processing rather than strict cognitive seriality in early visual word recognition.

Effect of different time intervals on the judgment of hitting timing among tennis athletes

BACKGROUND

Accurate time estimation is crucial for performance in dynamic sports environments, yet its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In particular, the effects of periodic moving stimuli and different time intervals on time-to-contact (TTC) estimation have been overlooked. This study examines these effects in tennis athletes, providing insights into the cognitive mechanisms of temporal processing in dynamic sports contexts.

METHODS

The cortical activity of 28 tennis athletes (17males; aged 23.11 ± 2.38 years) and 27 novices (20males; aged 22.19 ± 2.54 years) was measured using electroencephalography during a TTC task. Participants predicted when an invisible tennis ball would contact a target location under subsecond (0.667s) or suprasecond (1.333 s) intervals, following ball speed changes (0 %, +25 %, or -25 %).

RESULTS

All participants showed better time estimation precision in the suprasecond interval. Athletes exhibited significantly lower variable errors (p = 0.015) and marginally lower absolute errors (p = 0.065), indicating greater consistency in time estimation. Electroencephalography revealed significantly higher CNV amplitudes in athletes (p < 0.001) and lower CNV in the subsecond interval (p < 0.001). Alpha band power was reduced in the subsecond interval (p < 0.001). Higher CNV amplitudes correlated with lower ABS (r = -0.127, p = 0.021), and lower CE was linked to greater alpha band power (r = -0.117, p = 0.033).

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that beat-based timing in complex motion relies on higher-level cognitive resources for effective anticipation. Suprasecond intervals enhance better time estimation precision due to cognitive control, whereas subsecond intervals reduce precision. This suggests the formation of an internal model for time estimation. Exploring various time intervals further could inform interventions to improve timing performance in sports training.

Executive functions in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis

Some studies suggest that patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis have problems in the functioning of working memory, and more specifically in executive functions, but the available results are still inconsistent. The aim of the present study was to examine executive functioning in multiple sclerosis using classical and representative tasks for divided attention, updating, attentional shifting, and inhibition. The sample was composed of 48 participants aged between 18 and 59 years (24 persons living with multiple sclerosis and 24 healthy participants matched in age and education level). The executive functions of divided attention, updating, attentional shifting, and inhibition were analyzed through the Dual-Task Paradigm, the N-Back task, the Trail Making Test (TMT), and the Stroop test, respectively. The analyses of the data showed that the functioning of working memory was impaired in multiple sclerosis in the executive functions of divided attention and updating when the group of persons living with MS and the control group were compared. In addition, the performance in the four executive functions analyzed did not show the same profile across the persons living with MS in the sample, as no deficit in attentional shifting or inhibition was observed. It can be concluded that the presence of deficits was observed only in the executive functions of divided attention and updating under the condition of greater cognitive demand. The clinical implications of these results are underlined due to their impact on daily life.

Preschoolers Selectively Attend to Speech That They Can Learn More From

We introduce a novel method to test a classic idea in developmental science that children's attention to a stimulus is driven by how much they can learn from it. Preschoolers (4-6 years,M = 4.6 ${\it M}=4.6$ ) watched a video where a distracting animation accompanied static, page-by-page illustrations of a storybook. The audio narration for each storybook page was looped so that children could listen to it up to six times in total. However, the narration automatically ended if the child looked at the distractor for an extended period of time, indicating their loss of attention to the story, and triggering the next page. The complexity of the narration was manipulated between-subjects: The Simple narration largely contained words that should be familiar to preschoolers, while the Complex narration contained many rare, late-acquired words. Children's learning was measured via post-tests of their plot comprehension and ability to generalize the embedded rare words. Consistent with the hypothesis that children's attention was driven at least partly by their ability to learn from the speech, we observed a significant interaction between narration complexity and age in predicting children's probability of continuing listening on each page, and the proportion of their visual attention that they devoted to the story illustration, over the animated distractor. That is, while younger children were more likely to continue listening to the Simple speech, older children became increasingly likely to sustain attention to the Complex speech. Our results provide evidence that young children may actively direct their attention toward linguistic input that is most appropriate for their current level of cognitive and linguistic development, which may provide the best learning opportunities.

Predicting time, shaping control: Unveiling age-related effects of temporal predictability on the dynamics of cognitive control in 5- to 14-year-old children

Understanding how individuals learn to synchronize actions with the temporal structure of their environment is crucial for understanding goal-directed behavior. This study investigated the effects of temporal predictability on cognitive control and action regulation in children aged 5 to 14 years. In our temporally cued version of the Simon task, children were explicitly informed that visual cues would either predict (temporal cues) or not predict (neutral cues) the onset of a target. They used this information to respond to lateralized targets when the target position was either compatible or incompatible with the response hand. Temporal cues speeded reaction times (RTs) to compatible targets in the older (11- to 14-year-old) children and induced a greater number of fast impulsive errors to incompatible targets across all age groups. This pattern replicates previous results in adults and demonstrates that knowing when an event is likely to occur induces a fast, although impulsive, response style. Surprisingly, in the youngest age group (5- and 6-year-olds), temporal cues speeded RTs to incompatible, as well as compatible, targets and helped children to inhibit fast impulsive errors to incompatible targets more efficiently. In summary, the youngest children appeared to effectively leverage the information conveyed by temporal cues to mitigate impulsive response tendencies. However, the benefits of temporal cues on impulse control started to diminish from 7 years of age, when children begin to show more mature inhibitory patterns. Nevertheless, by 11 years of age children achieve performance comparable to that of adults, with faster responses to compatible targets and impulsive responses to incompatible targets.

Relationship between overall right pre-frontal cortex activity and learning and retention of a visuomotor adaptation task: A continuous analysis

Learning a visuomotor adaptation task (VMA) is typically assessed by describing the behavioral changes during adaption (early-fast and late-slow phases) and retention (consolidation) tests. Few studies have concurrently examined behavioral and brain activity during this type of learning and therefore their time-dependent dynamics is unknown. It has been proposed that two distinct strategies can be used during such learning: a model-free and a model-based, which distinctively involved explicit and implicit learning strategies. It has also been proposed that prefrontal cortex (PFC) is more implicated when explicit processes are more relevant as it was observed in the early adaptation (Taylor & Ivry, 2014; Wolpe et al., 2020). Additionally, an explicit model-based strategy has been inferred when prefrontal (PFC) activity increases. Therefore, the study's aims were: (1) to examine the continuous temporal dynamics of behavior and right PFC activity during adaptation and retention of a VMA, and (2) to infer the implication of explicit processes during the learning of a VMA derived from right PFC activity. Eighteen young adults (24.22 ± 3.12 years) took part in this study. Continuous measures of the performance (the initial directional error, IDE, and the root mean square error, RMSE) of a rotational visuomotor adaptation task during an adaptation (AD) and two retention sets at 1 h (RT1) and 24 h (RT24) were collected. Concurrently, measures of the right PFC activity (relative changes of the oxyhemoglobin concentration, [ΔO2Hb]) were registered via a three-channel functional near-infrared spectroscopy device. General linear mixed models were run to explore differences across adaptation and retentions. Also, cross-correlations between performance (IDE and RMSE) and PFC activity were conducted to observe their relation during sets. The main results indicated that (1) initial fast behavioral improvement (decrease of IDE and RMSE) did not occur simultaneously with the largest increase of the [ΔO2Hb] in the PFC during the AD, and (2) there was similar performance in the RT1 and RT24 but possibly involving the PFC differently. While in both retentions the errors improved after the first trials, in RT1, the [ΔO2Hb] decreased from the very beginning, whereas the PFC activity initially increased in RT24. Our observations would suggest that various cooperating learning strategies, including model-free (i.e., exploratory) and model-based explicit (i.e., strategy) and implicit (i.e., sensory prediction errors), are coordinated in different timings to cooperate during the sensorimotor adaptation and consolidation processes. Furthermore, the involvement of these strategies during the retention may depend on the time elapsed from the end of the adaptation to the re-introduction of the task.

Early body representation EEG signals in cervical vs. thoracic spinal cord injuries with neuropathic pain

Spinal cord injury (SCI) not only causes severe sensorimotor impairments but also leads to disruptions in body representation, including body schema. While the neurological differences between cervical and thoracic injuries are well established, the impact of the level of injury on body schema is less understood. Deeper insights into how change in body schema is affected by injury severity may further individual rehabilitation strategies and outcomes for individuals with SCI. This study explores event-related potentials (ERPs) between individuals with cervical and thoracic injuries in response to body-related and non-body-related stimuli presented in two rotation angles (easy: 75° and difficult: 150°) while completing a laterality judgment task. Individuals with cervical injury showed reduced amplitudes of posterior P100 and anterior N100 compared to the thoracic group only when the body-related stimuli were presented in a difficult rotation angle. We discuss that the variations in early modulation of ERPs can be attributed to the underlying sensorimotor challenges associated with different levels of injury. This work enhances our understanding of cognitive processing in SCI populations to better inform rehabilitation strategies.

Perceived levels of environmental unpredictability and changes in visual attention mechanisms in adults

Selective attention mechanisms change in response to variations in sensory experiences and environmental demands. In other words, they are influenced not only by favorable contextual experiences but also by unfavorable ones. Therefore, exposure to environmental unpredictability and chaos could influence selective attention. However, there is a lack of studies directly investigating this relationship. This study examined how household chaos and daily unpredictability relate to selective attention at behavioral and neural levels in young adults (n = 39). Participants were categorized as experiencing high or low unpredictability and chaos based on their scores on respective scales. Using EEG recordings, we measured the amplitude of the N2pc and Pd components, along with accuracy and reaction times, during the performance in two visual search tasks that varied in the level of interference from distracting stimuli (presence vs. absence of a color singleton distractor). The results revealed differences in neural activity related to unpredictability but not chaos. Specifically, in the high-interference visual search task, both groups exhibited an N2pc component associated with the singleton distractor, reflecting attentional capture by distracting information. However, the high-unpredictability group showed a larger N2pc amplitude associated with the target and a larger Pd amplitude associated with the distractor. These findings suggest greater engagement of reactive attentional resources to suppress distractors and select the target, and support hypotheses suggesting that adverse contexts involving unpredictability or chaos relate to changes in how individuals process distracting or irrelevant information.

The Level and Nature of Impairment on the Iowa Gambling Task Following Acquired Brain Injury: A Meta-analysis

The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) is a popular measure of risky decision-making, but to date, no formal quantitative reviews have been conducted, focused exclusively on IGT performance amongst individuals with acquired brain injury (ABI). Therefore, this meta-analytic study firstly explored performance differences between individuals with ABI vs controls. Second, we extended this comparison by investigating differences in IGT scoring and interpretive approaches (e.g., total score vs later block analysis). Finally, we explored potential IGT performance moderators (e.g., average age). A total of 25 studies, containing 39 samples (total n = 2188), were included. Overall findings suggested that the IGT is sensitive to the presence of ABI, particularly non-TBI and medically confirmed TBI, which becomes evident by block 2 of 5. Medium effect sizes were obtained for IGT total score, as well as indicators using later blocks only. Performance moderators such as population type and region influenced IGT performance, whilst average age, average education, and proportion of males did not. These results indicate that the IGT is sensitive to decision-making impairment following ABI, although we conclude that further research is needed to confirm the IGT's ability to detect impairment relative to specific brain regions.

Executive functions in children with ADHD: A comprehensive bibliometric analysis

Executive functions, which are closely associated with the functioning of the frontal lobes, encompass a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to better adapt to their environment. It is known that individuals with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have deficiencies in executive functions. To the best of our knowledge, no study has used bibliometric analysis to investigate the issue of executive functions in children with ADHD. This study employed the bibliometric analysis software VOS viewer and the statistical computing platform RStudio to examine 905 studies. This study reveals a notable increase in international research on executive functions in children with ADHD over the years. The highest number of publications on executive functions in children with ADHD are the Journal of Attention Disorders, Child Neuropsychology, and Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. In the early years of this research field, there was a greater emphasis on brain imaging studies, including evoked potentials, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and evoked-related potentials. As time progressed, greater emphasis was placed on variables within the living environment. This research provides a comprehensive examination of global studies on executive functions in children diagnosed with ADHD, considering a multitude of variables. The findings presented here will inform forthcoming studies in this area, which will contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in this field.

The need to adapt neuropsychological tests to population changes. An update of the Italian normative data for three tests: Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure, Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices and COWAT -FAS

OBJECTIVE

The study aims to update normative data for three of the tests which are most widely used in the Italian clinical services for dementia screening: the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, the Coloured Progressive Matrices test and the Controlled Oral Word Association test. In fact, the obsolescence of normative data is a crucial problem for cognitive tests, and their periodical updating is recommended because of the Flynn Effect: the longer the time which has passed since standardization, the greater the likelihood is that scores will overestimate real abilities.

METHODS

A total of 364 neurologically healthy individuals (130 males/234 females; age ≥ 40, mean = 65.67 ± 10.29 years, education = 12.98 ± 3.88 years; MMSE score = 29.32 ± 1.11) were recruited from Rome and the surrounding area and divided into 8 groups by five-year age intervals (range 40-85 years). Linear models with modulating effects for age, education, and gender were applied to obtain the correction scores. Percentiles and Equivalent Scores were calculated as well.

RESULTS

Normative data corrected for age, gender and education were obtained for the three tests. Decremental effects of age and incremental effects of education were confirmed, while mixed results were found for gender. When compared with previous Italian normative studies, a global increase in the mean scores was recorded.

CONCLUSIONS

The study provides updated scores for the Italian population for three tests widely used in clinical and experimental settings. The effects of aging, education, and gender on cognitive performance are confirmed, as well as the Flynn effect and the necessity for periodical updating of normative data for neuropsychological tests.

Attentional modulation of outlier processing

Ensemble perception enables the visual system to function effectively when the number of stimuli in the environment exceeds its capacity. Ensemble representations not only help the limited capacity of visual representations, but they also facilitate the detection and representation of items deviating from the group (i.e., the outlier). This study focuses on how attentional mechanisms modulate outlier processing. In three experiments, we presented participants with an ensemble that was formed by circle stimuli in varying sizes, and the outlier item was distinct in terms of its location. We measured outlier localization performance while manipulating attentional orienting via a spatial cueing paradigm. In Experiment 1, a valid, invalid, or neutral cue was presented before or after the display. Facilitation of outlier localization was most pronounced in the valid precue condition. Experiment 2 included a task to actively engage ensemble perception in addition to outlier localization, and cue validity effect was observed as in Experiment 1. Experiment 3A was carried to directly compare the top-down and bottom-up influences on outlier processing by presenting two spatial outliers-one target and another distractor outlier. The target outlier identity was previously determined and was identical across trials. In Experiment 3B, the target was in red, making it salient among the remaining items. In the invalid trials, where the distractor outlier was cued, responses were closer to the distractor item indicating that outlier processing is cue driven. These experiments overall demonstrate that automaticity of outlier processing can be overridden by cue-driven processes.