LRP: role in vascular wall integrity and protection from atherosclerosis

Tissue-type plasminogen activator induces opening of the blood-brain barrier via the LDL receptor-related protein

The regulation of cerebrovascular permeability is critical for normal brain homeostasis, and the "breakdown" of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is associated with the development of vasogenic edema and intracranial hypertension in a number of neurological disorders. In this study we demonstrate that an increase in endogenous tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) activity in the perivascular tissue following cerebral ischemia induces opening of the BBB via a mechanism that is independent of both plasminogen (Plg) and MMP-9. We also show that injection of tPA into the cerebrospinal fluid in the absence of ischemia results in a rapid dose-dependent increase in vascular permeability. This activity is not seen with urokinase-type Plg activator (uPA) but is induced in Plg-/- mice, confirming that the effect is Plg-independent. However, the activity is blocked by antibodies to the LDL receptor-related protein (LRP) and by the LRP antagonist, receptor-associated protein (RAP), suggesting a receptor-mediated process. Together these studies demonstrate that tPA is both necessary and sufficient to directly increase vascular permeability in the early stages of BBB opening, and suggest that this occurs through a receptor-mediated cell signaling event and not through generalized degradation of the vascular basement membrane.

Modulation of the LDL receptor and LRP levels by HIV protease inhibitors

Inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 protease have proven to be effective antiretroviral drugs. However, patients receiving these drugs develop serious metabolic abnormalities, including hypercholesterolemia. The objective of the present study was to identify mechanisms by which HIV protease inhibitors increase plasma cholesterol levels. We hypothesized that HIV protease inhibitors may affect gene regulation of certain LDL receptor (LDLR) family members, thereby altering the catabolism of cholesterol-containing lipoproteins. In this present study we investigated the effect of several HIV protease inhibitors (ABT-378, Amprenavir, Indinavir, Nelfinavir, Ritonavir, and Saquinavir) on mRNA, protein, and functional levels of LDLR family members. Our results demonstrate that one of these drugs, Nelfinavir, significantly decreases LDLR and LDLR-related protein (LRP) mRNA and protein levels, resulting in the reduced functional activity of these two receptors. Nelfinavir exerts its effect by reducing levels of active SREBP1 in the nucleus. The finding that Nelfinavir reduces the levels of two key receptors (LRP and LDLR) involved in lipoprotein catabolism and maintenance of vessel wall integrity identifies a mechanism that causes hypercholesterolemia complications in HIV patients treated with this drug and raises concerns about the atherogenic nature of Nelfinavir.

Roles of PDGF in animal development

Recent advances in genetic manipulation have greatly expanded our understanding of cellular responses to platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) during animal development. In addition to driving mesenchymal proliferation, PDGFs have been shown to direct the migration, differentiation and function of a variety of specialized mesenchymal and migratory cell types, both during development and in the adult animal. Furthermore, the availability of genomic sequence data has facilitated the identification of novel PDGF and PDGF receptor (PDGFR) family members in C. elegans, Drosophila, Xenopus, zebrafish and mouse. Early data from these different systems suggest that some functions of PDGFs have been evolutionarily conserved.

Apolipoprotein E binding to low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 inhibits cell migration via activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A

Smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation contribute to neointimal hyperplasia and vascular stenosis after endothelial denudation. Previous studies revealed that apolipoprotein E (apoE) is an effective inhibitor of platelet-derived growth factor-directed smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation and that the anti-migratory function is mediated via apoE binding to low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP-1). This study was undertaken to identify the intracellular pathway by which apoE binding to LRP-1 results in inhibition of smooth muscle cell migration. The results showed that apoE increased intracellular cAMP levels 3-fold after 5 min, and the increase was sustained for more than 1 h. As a consequence, apoE also increased protein kinase A (PKA) activity in smooth muscle cells. Importantly, suppression of PKA activity with a cell-permeable peptide inhibitor of PKA abolished the inhibitory effect of apoE on smooth muscle cell migration. These results indicated that apoE inhibition of smooth muscle cell migration is mediated via the activation of cAMP-dependent PKA. Additional experiments revealed that apoE also inhibited fibroblasts migration toward platelet-derived growth factor by a similar mechanism of cAMP-dependent PKA activation. It is noteworthy that apoE failed to increase cAMP levels or inhibit migration of LRP-1-negative mouse embryonic fibroblasts and LRP-1-deficient smooth muscle cells. Taken together, these findings established the mechanism by which apoE inhibits cell migration, i.e. via cAMP-dependent protein kinase A activation as a consequence of its binding to LRP-1.