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Nakayama H, Nishida K, Otsu K. Macromolecular Degradation Systems and Cardiovascular Aging. Circ Res 2016; 118:1577-92. [DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.115.307495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aging-related cardiovascular diseases are a rapidly increasing problem worldwide. Cardiac aging demonstrates progressive decline of diastolic dysfunction of ventricle and increase in ventricular and arterial stiffness accompanied by increased fibrosis stimulated by angiotensin II and proinflammatory cytokines. Reactive oxygen species and multiple signaling pathways on cellular senescence play major roles in the process. Aging is also associated with an alteration in steady state of macromolecular dynamics including a dysfunction of protein synthesis and degradation. Currently, impaired macromolecular degradation is considered to be closely related to enhanced inflammation and be involved in the process and mechanism of cardiac aging. Herein, we review the role and mechanisms of the degradation system of intracellular macromolecules in the process and pathophysiology of cardiovascular aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Nakayama
- From the Laboratory of Clinical Science and Biomedicine, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan (H.N.); and Cardiovascular Division, King’s College London British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, London, United Kingdom (K.N., K.O.)
| | - Kazuhiko Nishida
- From the Laboratory of Clinical Science and Biomedicine, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan (H.N.); and Cardiovascular Division, King’s College London British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, London, United Kingdom (K.N., K.O.)
| | - Kinya Otsu
- From the Laboratory of Clinical Science and Biomedicine, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan (H.N.); and Cardiovascular Division, King’s College London British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, London, United Kingdom (K.N., K.O.)
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52
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Chung C, Puthanveetil P, Ory DS, Lieberman AP. Genetic and pharmacological evidence implicates cathepsins in Niemann-Pick C cerebellar degeneration. Hum Mol Genet 2016; 25:1434-46. [PMID: 26908626 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddw025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC) disease, an autosomal recessive lipid trafficking disorder caused by loss-of-function mutations in the NPC1 gene, is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration resulting in cognitive impairment, ataxia and early death. Little is known about the cellular pathways leading to neuron loss. Here, we studied the effects of diminishing expression of cystatin B, an endogenous inhibitor of cathepsins B, H and L, on the development of NPC neuropathology. We show that decreased expression of cystatin B in patient fibroblasts enhances cathepsin activity. Deletion of the encoding Cstb gene in Npc1-deficient mice resulted in striking deleterious effects, particularly within the cerebellum where diffuse loss of Purkinje cells was observed in young mice. This severe pathology occurred through cell autonomous mechanisms that triggered Purkinje cell death. Moreover, our analyses demonstrated the mislocalization of lysosomal cathepsins within the cytosol of Npc1-deficient Purkinje cells. We provide evidence that this may be a consequence of damage to lysosomal membranes by reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to the leakage of lysosomal contents that culminates in apoptotic cell death. Consistent with this notion, toxicity from ROS was attenuated in an NPC cell model by cystatin B over-expression or pharmacological inhibition of cathepsin B. The observation that Npc1 and Cstb deletion genetically interact to potently enhance the degenerative phenotype of the NPC cerebellum provides strong support for the notion that lysosomal membrane permeabilization contributes to cerebellar degeneration in NPC disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Chung
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA and
| | - Prasanth Puthanveetil
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA and
| | - Daniel S Ory
- Diabetic Cardiovascular Disease Center and Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Andrew P Lieberman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA and
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53
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Cysteine proteases as therapeutic targets: does selectivity matter? A systematic review of calpain and cathepsin inhibitors. Acta Pharm Sin B 2015; 5:506-19. [PMID: 26713267 PMCID: PMC4675809 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Cysteine proteases continue to provide validated targets for treatment of human diseases. In neurodegenerative disorders, multiple cysteine proteases provide targets for enzyme inhibitors, notably caspases, calpains, and cathepsins. The reactive, active-site cysteine provides specificity for many inhibitor designs over other families of proteases, such as aspartate and serine; however, a) inhibitor strategies often use covalent enzyme modification, and b) obtaining selectivity within families of cysteine proteases and their isozymes is problematic. This review provides a general update on strategies for cysteine protease inhibitor design and a focus on cathepsin B and calpain 1 as drug targets for neurodegenerative disorders; the latter focus providing an interesting query for the contemporary assumptions that irreversible, covalent protein modification and low selectivity are anathema to therapeutic safety and efficacy.
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Key Words
- AD, Alzheimer׳s disease
- ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
- APP, amyloid precursor protein
- APP/PS1, Aβ overexpressing mice APP (K670N/M671L) and PS1 (M146L) mutants
- Ala, alanine
- Alzheimer׳s disease
- AppLon, London familial amyloid precursor protein mutation, APP (V717I)
- AppSwe, Swedish amyloid precursor protein mutation, APP (K670N/M671L)
- Arg, arginine
- Aβ, amyloid β
- Aβ1-42, amyloid β, 42 amino acid protein
- BACE-1, β-amyloid cleaving enzyme
- BBB, blood–brain barrier
- CANP, calcium-activated neutral protease
- CNS, central nervous system
- CREB, cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein
- CaMKII, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases II
- Calpain
- Cathepsin
- Cdk5/p35, activator of cyclin-dependent kinase 5
- Cysteine protease
- DTT, dithioerythritol
- EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor
- ERK1/2, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2
- Enzyme inhibitors
- GSH, glutathione
- Gln, glutamine
- Glu, glutamic acid
- Gly, glutamine
- Hsp70.1, heat shock protein 70.1
- Ile, isoleucine
- KO, knockout
- Leu, leucine
- Lys, lysine
- MAP-2, microtubule-associated protein 2
- MMP-9, matrix metalloproteinase 9
- Met, methionine
- NFT, neurofibrilliary tangles
- Neurodegeneration
- Nle, norleucine
- PD, Parkinson׳s disease
- PK, pharmacokinetic
- PKC, protein kinase C
- PTP1B, protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B
- Phe, phenylalanine
- Pro, proline
- SP, senile plaques
- TBI, traumatic brain injury
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- Thr, threonine
- Tyr, tyrosine
- Val, valine
- WRX, Trp-Arg containing epoxysuccinate cysteine protease inhibitor
- WT, wildtype
- isoAsp, isoaspartate
- pGlu, pyroglutamate
- pyroGluAβ, pyroglutamate-amyloid β
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Sadegh-Nasseri S, Kim A. MHC Class II Auto-Antigen Presentation is Unconventional. Front Immunol 2015; 6:372. [PMID: 26257739 PMCID: PMC4510428 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Antigen presentation is highly critical in adoptive immunity. Only by interacting with antigens presented by major histocompatibility complex class II molecules, helper T cells can be stimulated to fight infections or diseases. The degradation of a full protein into small peptide fragments bound to class II molecules is a dynamic, lengthy process consisting of many steps and chaperons. Deregulation in any step of antigen processing could lead to the development of self-reactive T cells or defective immune response to pathogens. Indeed, human leukocyte antigens class II genes are the predominant contributors to susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. Conventional antigen-processing calls for internalization of extracellular antigens followed by processing and epitope selection within antigen-processing subcellular compartments, enriched with all necessary accessory molecules, processing enzymes, and proper pH and denaturing conditions. However, recent data examining the temporal relationship between antigen uptakes, processing, and epitope selection revealed unexpected characteristics for auto-antigenic epitopes, which were not shared with antigenic epitopes from pathogens. This review provides a discussion of the relevance of these findings to the mechanisms of autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - AeRyon Kim
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine , Baltimore, MD , USA
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55
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Schmitz J, Furtmann N, Ponert M, Frizler M, Löser R, Bartz U, Bajorath J, Gütschow M. Active Site Mapping of Human Cathepsin F with Dipeptide Nitrile Inhibitors. ChemMedChem 2015; 10:1365-77. [PMID: 26119278 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201500151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cleavage of the invariant chain is the key event in the trafficking pathway of major histocompatibility complex class II. Cathepsin S is the major processing enzyme of the invariant chain, but cathepsin F acts in macrophages as its functional synergist which is as potent as cathepsin S in invariant chain cleavage. Dedicated low-molecular-weight inhibitors for cathepsin F have not yet been developed. An active site mapping with 52 dipeptide nitriles, reacting as covalent-reversible inhibitors, was performed to draw structure-activity relationships for the non-primed binding region of human cathepsin F. In a stepwise process, new compounds with optimized fragment combinations were designed and synthesized. These dipeptide nitriles were evaluated on human cysteine cathepsins F, B, L, K and S. Compounds 10 (N-(4-phenylbenzoyl)-leucylglycine nitrile) and 12 (N-(4-phenylbenzoyl)leucylmethionine nitrile) were found to be potent inhibitors of human cathepsin F, with Ki values <10 nM. With all dipeptide nitriles from our study, a 3D activity landscape was generated to visualize structure-activity relationships for this series of cathepsin F inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Schmitz
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn (Germany).,Department of Natural Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Bonn-Rhein-Sieg von-Liebig-Straße 20, 53359 Rheinbach (Germany)
| | - Norbert Furtmann
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn (Germany).,Department of Life Science Informatics, B-IT, LIMES Program Unit Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, Dahlmannstraße 2, 53113 Bonn (Germany)
| | - Moritz Ponert
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn (Germany)
| | - Maxim Frizler
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn (Germany)
| | - Reik Löser
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn (Germany).,Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden (Germany)
| | - Ulrike Bartz
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Bonn-Rhein-Sieg von-Liebig-Straße 20, 53359 Rheinbach (Germany)
| | - Jürgen Bajorath
- Department of Life Science Informatics, B-IT, LIMES Program Unit Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, Dahlmannstraße 2, 53113 Bonn (Germany)
| | - Michael Gütschow
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn (Germany).
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56
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Intracellular signaling by cathepsin X: Molecular mechanisms and diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities in cancer. Semin Cancer Biol 2015; 31:76-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2014.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Revised: 04/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Vizovišek M, Vidmar R, Van Quickelberghe E, Impens F, Andjelković U, Sobotič B, Stoka V, Gevaert K, Turk B, Fonović M. Fast profiling of protease specificity reveals similar substrate specificities for cathepsins K, L and S. Proteomics 2015; 15:2479-90. [PMID: 25626674 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Proteases are important effectors of numerous physiological and pathological processes. Reliable determination of a protease's specificity is crucial to understand protease function and to develop activity-based probes and inhibitors. During the last decade, various proteomic approaches for profiling protease substrate specificities were reported. Although most of these approaches can identify up to thousands of substrate cleavage events in a single experiment, they are often time consuming and methodologically challenging as some of these approaches require rather complex sample preparation procedures. For such reasons their application is often limited to those labs that initially introduced them. Here, we report on a fast and simple approach for proteomic profiling of protease specificities (fast profiling of protease specificity (FPPS)), which can be applied to complex protein mixtures. FPPS is based on trideutero-acetylation of novel N-termini generated by the action of proteases and subsequent peptide fractionation on Stage Tips containing ion-exchange and reverse phase chromatographic resins. FPPS can be performed in 2 days and does not require extensive fractionation steps. Using this approach, we have determined the specificity profiles of the cysteine cathepsins K, L and S. We further validated our method by comparing the results with the specificity profiles obtained by the N-terminal combined fractional diagonal chromatography method. This comparison pointed to almost identical substrate specificities for all three cathepsins and confirmed the reliability of the FPPS approach. All MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange with identifiers PXD001536 and PXD001553 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD001536; http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD001553).
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Affiliation(s)
- Matej Vizovišek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Robert Vidmar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Emmy Van Quickelberghe
- Department of Biochemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Medical Protein Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Francis Impens
- Department of Biochemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Medical Protein Research, Ghent, Belgium.,Unité des Interactions Bactéries-Cellules, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Uroš Andjelković
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Barbara Sobotič
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,International Postgraduate School Jozef Stefan, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Veronika Stoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Kris Gevaert
- Department of Biochemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Medical Protein Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marko Fonović
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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58
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Blondelle J, Lange S, Greenberg BH, Cowling RT. Cathepsins in heart disease-chewing on the heartache? Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2015; 308:H974-6. [PMID: 25747750 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00125.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Blondelle
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California
| | - Stephan Lange
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California
| | - Barry H Greenberg
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California
| | - Randy T Cowling
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California
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59
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Perišić Nanut M, Sabotič J, Jewett A, Kos J. Cysteine cathepsins as regulators of the cytotoxicity of NK and T cells. Front Immunol 2014; 5:616. [PMID: 25520721 PMCID: PMC4251435 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are lysosomal peptidases involved at different levels in the processes of the innate and adaptive immune responses. Some, such as cathepsins B, L, and H are expressed constitutively in most immune cells. In cells of innate immunity they play a role in cell adhesion and phagocytosis. Other cysteine cathepsins are expressed more specifically. Cathepsin X promotes dendritic cell maturation, adhesion of macrophages, and migration of T cells. Cathepsin S is implicated in major histocompatibility complex class II antigen presentation, whereas cathepsin C, expressed in cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells, is involved in processing pro-granzymes into proteolytically active forms, which trigger cell death in their target cells. The activity of cysteine cathepsins is controlled by endogenous cystatins, cysteine protease inhibitors. Of these, cystatin F is the only cystatin that is localized in endosomal/lysosomal vesicles. After proteolytic removal of its N-terminal peptide, cystatin F becomes a potent inhibitor of cathepsin C with the potential to regulate pro-granzyme processing and cell cytotoxicity. This review is focused on the role of cysteine cathepsins and their inhibitors in the molecular mechanisms leading to the cytotoxic activity of T lymphocytes and NK cells in order to address new possibilities for regulation of their function in pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jerica Sabotič
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute , Ljubljana , Slovenia
| | - Anahid Jewett
- Division of Oral Biology and Medicine, The Jane and Jerry Weintraub Center for Reconstructive Biotechnology, UCLA School of Dentistry, University of California Los Angeles , Los Angeles, CA , USA
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute , Ljubljana , Slovenia ; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana , Ljubljana , Slovenia
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60
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Liu B, Tang J, Zhang J, Li S, Yuan M, Wang R. Autophagy activation aggravates neuronal injury in the hippocampus of vascular dementia rats. Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:1288-96. [PMID: 25221581 PMCID: PMC4160855 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.137576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It remains unclear whether autophagy affects hippocampal neuronal injury in vascular dementia. In the present study, we investigated the effects of autophagy blockade on hippocampal neuronal injury in a rat model of vascular dementia. In model rats, hippocampal CA1 neurons were severely damaged, and expression of the autophagy-related proteins beclin-1, cathepsin B and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 was elevated compared with that in sham-operated animals. These responses were suppressed in animals that received a single intraperitoneal injection of wortmannin, an autophagy inhibitor, prior to model establishment. The present results confirm that autophagy and autophagy-related proteins are involved in the pathological changes of vascular dementia, and that inhibition of autophagy has neuroprotective effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Liu
- First Department of Neurology, the Affliated Hospital of Hebei United University, Tangshan, Hebei Province, China
| | - Jing Tang
- First Department of Neurology, the Affliated Hospital of Hebei United University, Tangshan, Hebei Province, China
| | - Jinxia Zhang
- First Department of Neurology, the Affliated Hospital of Hebei United University, Tangshan, Hebei Province, China
| | - Shiying Li
- First Department of Neurology, the Affliated Hospital of Hebei United University, Tangshan, Hebei Province, China
| | - Min Yuan
- First Department of Neurology, the Affliated Hospital of Hebei United University, Tangshan, Hebei Province, China
| | - Ruimin Wang
- First Department of Neurology, the Affliated Hospital of Hebei United University, Tangshan, Hebei Province, China
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61
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Alam MS, Getz M, Yi S, Kurkewich J, Safeukui I, Haldar K. Plasma signature of neurological disease in the monogenetic disorder Niemann-Pick Type C. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:8051-66. [PMID: 24488491 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.526392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Early diagnosis of neurological disorders would greatly improve their management and treatment. A major hurdle is that inflammatory products of cerebral disease are not easily detected in blood. Inflammation in multiple organs and heterogeneity in disease present additional challenges in distinguishing the extent to which a blood-based marker reflects disease in brain or other afflicted organs. Murine models of the monogenetic disorder Niemann-Pick Type C present aggressive forms of cerebral and liver inflammatory disease. Microarray analyses previously revealed age-dependent changes in innate immunity transcripts in the mouse brain. We have now validated four putative secretory inflammatory markers that are also elevated in mouse liver. We include limited, first time analysis of human Niemann-Pick Type C liver and cerebellum. Furthermore, we utilized 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD, an emerging therapeutic) administered intraperitoneally in mice, which abrogates inflammatory pathology in the liver but has limited effect on the brain. By analyzing the corresponding effects on inflammatory plasma proteins, we identified cathepsin S as a lead indicator of liver disease. In contrast, lysozyme was a marker of both brain and liver disease. 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin had no effect on transcripts of neuron-specific 24-hydroxylase, and its product 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol was not a useful indicator in mouse plasma. Our data suggest that dual analysis of levels of the inflammatory markers lysozyme and cathepsin S may enable detection of multiple distinct states of neurodegeneration in plasma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Suhail Alam
- From the Center for Rare and Neglected Diseases and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
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