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Wang P, Sun C, Zhu T, Xu Y. Structural insight into mechanisms for dynamic regulation of PKM2. Protein Cell 2015; 6:275-287. [PMID: 25645022 PMCID: PMC4383751 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-015-0132-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyruvate kinase isoform M2 (PKM2) converts phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate and plays an important role in cancer metabolism. Here, we show that post-translational modifications and a patient-derived mutation regulate pyruvate kinase activity of PKM2 through modulating the conformation of the PKM2 tetramer. We determined crystal structures of human PKM2 mutants and proposed a "seesaw" model to illustrate conformational changes between an inactive T-state and an active R-state tetramers of PKM2. Biochemical and structural analyses demonstrate that PKM2(Y105E) (phosphorylation mimic of Y105) decreases pyruvate kinase activity by inhibiting FBP (fructose 1,6-bisphosphate)-induced R-state formation, and PKM2(K305Q) (acetylation mimic of K305) abolishes the activity by hindering tetramer formation. K422R, a patient-derived mutation of PKM2, favors a stable, inactive T-state tetramer because of strong intermolecular interactions. Our study reveals the mechanism for dynamic regulation of PKM2 by post-translational modifications and a patient-derived mutation and provides a structural basis for further investigation of other modifications and mutations of PKM2 yet to be discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Wang
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center and Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Chang Sun
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center and Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Tingting Zhu
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center and Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Yanhui Xu
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center and Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433 China
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52
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Aslan E, Adem S. In vitro effects of some flavones on human pyruvate kinase isoenzyme M2. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2015; 29:109-13. [PMID: 25388478 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.21673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Revised: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PKM2 is an important target for designing anticancer drug. Inhibitors and activators of this enzyme are suitable molecules for use in treating cancer. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of certain flavones on PKM2. Apigenin, wogonin, flavone, 3-hydroxyflavone, 5-hydroxyflavone, 6-hydroxyflavone, and 7-hydroxyflavone effectively inhibited PKM2, with IC50 in the range of 0.99-2.120 μM. The kinetic study indicated that these compounds acted as noncompetitive with Ki values of 3.53-5.67 μM toward phosphoenolpyruvate. Scutellarin and tangeritin demonstrated strong activation effect with AC50 values < 2 μM. Diosmetin, baicalin, baicalein, and luteolin showed an intermediate-level activator effect. These results demonstrate that flavone and their analogs could serve as leading compounds to develop new potent and selective inhibitor and activator for PKM2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdem Aslan
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Cankiri Karatekin University, Cankiri, Turkey.
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53
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Palsson-McDermott EM, Curtis AM, Goel G, Lauterbach MAR, Sheedy FJ, Gleeson LE, van den Bosch MWM, Quinn SR, Domingo-Fernandez R, Johnston DGW, Jiang JK, Jiang JK, Israelsen WJ, Keane J, Thomas C, Clish C, Vander Heiden M, Vanden Heiden M, Xavier RJ, O'Neill LAJ. Pyruvate kinase M2 regulates Hif-1α activity and IL-1β induction and is a critical determinant of the warburg effect in LPS-activated macrophages. Cell Metab 2015; 21:65-80. [PMID: 25565206 PMCID: PMC5198835 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2014.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 812] [Impact Index Per Article: 90.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2014] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 12/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages activated by the TLR4 agonist LPS undergo dramatic changes in their metabolic activity. We here show that LPS induces expression of the key metabolic regulator Pyruvate Kinase M2 (PKM2). Activation of PKM2 using two well-characterized small molecules, DASA-58 and TEPP-46, inhibited LPS-induced Hif-1α and IL-1β, as well as the expression of a range of other Hif-1α-dependent genes. Activation of PKM2 attenuated an LPS-induced proinflammatory M1 macrophage phenotype while promoting traits typical of an M2 macrophage. We show that LPS-induced PKM2 enters into a complex with Hif-1α, which can directly bind to the IL-1β promoter, an event that is inhibited by activation of PKM2. Both compounds inhibited LPS-induced glycolytic reprogramming and succinate production. Finally, activation of PKM2 by TEPP-46 in vivo inhibited LPS and Salmonella typhimurium-induced IL-1β production, while boosting production of IL-10. PKM2 is therefore a critical determinant of macrophage activation by LPS, promoting the inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva M Palsson-McDermott
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Anne M Curtis
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Gautam Goel
- Centre for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Gastrointestinal Unit and Centre for the Study of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Broad Institute of Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Mario A R Lauterbach
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Frederick J Sheedy
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Laura E Gleeson
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Mirjam W M van den Bosch
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Susan R Quinn
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Raquel Domingo-Fernandez
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Daniel G W Johnston
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | - Jain-Kang Jiang
- National Institutes of Health (NIH), Chemical Genomics Centre, National Centre for Advancing Translational Sciences, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - William J Israelsen
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Joseph Keane
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Craig Thomas
- National Institutes of Health (NIH), Chemical Genomics Centre, National Centre for Advancing Translational Sciences, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Clary Clish
- Broad Institute of Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | | | - Matthew Vanden Heiden
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ramnik J Xavier
- Centre for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Gastrointestinal Unit and Centre for the Study of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Broad Institute of Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Luke A J O'Neill
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
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54
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Li Z, Yang P, Li Z. The multifaceted regulation and functions of PKM2 in tumor progression. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2014; 1846:285-96. [PMID: 25064846 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2014.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Revised: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Tumor cells undergo metabolic rewiring from oxidative phosphorylation towards aerobic glycolysis to maintain the increased anabolic requirements for cell proliferation. It is widely accepted that specific expression of the M2 type pyruvate kinase (PKM2) in tumor cells contributes to this aerobic glycolysis phenotype. To date, researchers have uncovered myriad forms of functional regulation for PKM2, which confers a growth advantage on the tumor cells to enable them to adapt to various microenvironmental signals. Here the richness of our understanding on the modulations and functions of PKM2 in tumor progression is reviewed, and some new insights into the paradoxical expression and functional differences of PKM2 in distinct cancer types are offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongwei Li
- Institute of Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Molecular Engineering of National Ministry of Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Peng Yang
- Institute of Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Molecular Engineering of National Ministry of Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Zhuoyu Li
- Institute of Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Molecular Engineering of National Ministry of Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China; College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China.
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55
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DeGuire SM, Earl DC, Du Y, Crews BA, Jacobs AT, Ustione A, Daniel C, Chong KM, Marnett LJ, Piston DW, Bachmann BO, Sulikowski GA. Fluorescent Probes of the Apoptolidins and their Utility in Cellular Localization Studies. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201408906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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56
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DeGuire SM, Earl DC, Du Y, Crews BA, Jacobs AT, Ustione A, Daniel C, Chong KM, Marnett LJ, Piston DW, Bachmann BO, Sulikowski GA. Fluorescent probes of the apoptolidins and their utility in cellular localization studies. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 54:961-4. [PMID: 25430909 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201408906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Revised: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Apoptolidin A has been described among the top 0.1% most-cell-selective cytotoxic agents to be evaluated in the NCI 60 cell line panel. The molecular structure of apoptolidin A consists of a 20-membered macrolide with mono- and disaccharide moieties. In contrast to apoptolidin A, the aglycone (apoptolidinone) shows no cytotoxicity (>10 μM) when evaluated against several tumor cell lines. Apoptolidin H, the C27 deglycosylated analogue of apoptolidin A, displayed sub-micromolar activity against H292 lung carcinoma cells. Selective esterification of apoptolidins A and H with 5-azidopentanoic acid afforded azido-functionalized derivatives of potency equal to that of the parent macrolide. They also underwent strain-promoted alkyne-azido cycloaddition reactions to provide access to fluorescent and biotin-functionalized probes. Microscopy studies demonstrate apoptolidins A and H localize in the mitochondria of H292 human lung carcinoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M DeGuire
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, TN 37232 (USA)
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57
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DeLaBarre B, Hurov J, Cianchetta G, Murray S, Dang L. Action at a distance: allostery and the development of drugs to target cancer cell metabolism. CHEMISTRY & BIOLOGY 2014; 21:1143-61. [PMID: 25237859 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2014.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Revised: 08/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cells must carefully regulate their metabolism to maintain growth and division under varying nutrient and oxygen levels. Compelling data support the investigation of numerous enzymes as therapeutic targets to exploit metabolic vulnerabilities common to several cancer types. We discuss the rationale for developing such drugs and review three targets with central roles in metabolic pathways crucial for cancer cell growth: pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme splice variant 2 (PKM2) in glycolysis, glutaminase in glutaminolysis, and mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and 2 isozymes (IDH1/2) in the tricarboxylic acid cycle. These targets exemplify the drugging approach to cancer metabolism, with allosteric modulation being the common theme. The first glutaminase and mutant IDH1/2 inhibitors have entered clinical testing, and early data are promising. Cancer metabolism provides a wealth of novel targets, and targeting allosteric sites promises to yield selective drugs with the potential to transform clinical outcomes across many cancer types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byron DeLaBarre
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jonathan Hurov
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | - Stuart Murray
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Lenny Dang
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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58
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Li L, Zhang Y, Qiao J, Yang JJ, Liu ZR. Pyruvate kinase M2 in blood circulation facilitates tumor growth by promoting angiogenesis. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:25812-21. [PMID: 25070887 PMCID: PMC4162182 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.576934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Revised: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
It is long known that pyruvate kinase isoform M2 (PKM2) is released into the circulation of cancer patients. The PKM2 levels in patients have been suggested as a diagnostic marker for many types of cancers. However, it is not known how PKM2 is released in the blood, and whether the circulating PKM2 has any physiological function(s) in tumor progression. In this report, we demonstrate that PKM2 in the blood facilitates tumor growth by promoting tumor angiogenesis. Our experiments show that PKM2 promotes tumor angiogenesis by increasing endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and cell-ECM adhesion. Only the dimeric PKM2 possess the activity in promoting tumor angiogenesis, which is consistent with the observations that PKM2 in circulation of cancer patients is a dimer form.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jingjuan Qiao
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303
| | - Jenny J Yang
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303
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59
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Chen C, Wang T, Wu F, Huang W, He G, Ouyang L, Xiang M, Peng C, Jiang Q. Combining structure-based pharmacophore modeling, virtual screening, and in silico ADMET analysis to discover novel tetrahydro-quinoline based pyruvate kinase isozyme M2 activators with antitumor activity. Drug Des Devel Ther 2014; 8:1195-210. [PMID: 25214764 PMCID: PMC4159224 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s62921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Compared with normal differentiated cells, cancer cells upregulate the expression of pyruvate kinase isozyme M2 (PKM2) to support glycolytic intermediates for anabolic processes, including the synthesis of nucleic acids, amino acids, and lipids. In this study, a combination of the structure-based pharmacophore modeling and a hybrid protocol of virtual screening methods comprised of pharmacophore model-based virtual screening, docking-based virtual screening, and in silico ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity) analysis were used to retrieve novel PKM2 activators from commercially available chemical databases. Tetrahydroquinoline derivatives were identified as potential scaffolds of PKM2 activators. Thus, the hybrid virtual screening approach was applied to screen the focused tetrahydroquinoline derivatives embedded in the ZINC database. Six hit compounds were selected from the final hits and experimental studies were then performed. Compound 8 displayed a potent inhibitory effect on human lung cancer cells. Following treatment with Compound 8, cell viability, apoptosis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were examined in A549 cells. Finally, we evaluated the effects of Compound 8 on mice xenograft tumor models in vivo. These results may provide important information for further research on novel PKM2 activators as antitumor agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Department of Pharmacy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
- College of Pharmacy and the First Affiliated Hospital, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ting Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Department of Pharmacy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Cardiology, General Hospital of Chengdu Military Command, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fengbo Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Department of Pharmacy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Huang
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Systematic Research, Development and Utilization of Chinese Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Gu He
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Department of Pharmacy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Liang Ouyang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Department of Pharmacy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Mingli Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Department of Pharmacy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Cheng Peng
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Systematic Research, Development and Utilization of Chinese Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qinglin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Department of Pharmacy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
- College of Pharmacy and the First Affiliated Hospital, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China
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60
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Qian Y, Wang X, Chen X. Inhibitors of glucose transport and glycolysis as novel anticancer therapeutics. World J Transl Med 2014; 3:37-57. [DOI: 10.5528/wjtm.v3.i2.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic reprogramming and altered energetics have become an emerging hallmark of cancer and an active area of basic, translational, and clinical cancer research in the recent decade. Development of effective anticancer therapeutics may depend on improved understanding of the altered cancer metabolism compared to that of normal cells. Changes in glucose transport and glycolysis, which are drastically upregulated in most cancers and termed the Warburg effect, are one of major focuses of this new research area. By taking advantage of the new knowledge and understanding of cancer’s mechanisms, numerous therapeutic agents have been developed to target proteins and enzymes involved in glucose transport and metabolism, with promising results in cancer cells, animal tumor models and even clinical trials. It has also been hypothesized that targeting a pathway or a process, such as glucose transport or glucose metabolism, rather than a specific protein or enzyme in a signaling pathway may be more effective. This is based on the observation that cancer somehow can always bypass the inhibition of a target drug by switching to a redundant or compensatory pathway. In addition, cancer cells have higher dependence on glucose. This review will provide background information on glucose transport and metabolism in cancer, and summarize new therapeutic developments in basic and translational research in these areas, with a focus on glucose transporter inhibitors and glycolysis inhibitors. The daunting challenges facing both basic and clinical researchers of the field are also presented and discussed.
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61
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Abstract
Pyruvate kinase converts phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate, catalyzing the rate-limiting step of glycolysis. The M1 isoenzyme of pyruvate kinase (PKM1) is found in adult tissues; whereas, PKM2 is a splicesome variant found in embryonic and cancer cells. PKM2 expression in malignant cells is a result of the tumor microenvironment and is responsible for maintaining a glycolytic phenotype. PKM2 has other nonmetabolic functions in malignant cells, including transcriptional coactivation and protein kinase activity. PKM2 activators have antitumor properties by inducing tetramerization of two PKM2 dimers causing PKM2 to function like PKM1. Restoring PKM2 to PKM1-like levels of activity causes reversal of the Warburg effect in cancer cells. PKM2 activators have therapeutic potential in the treatment of cancer and other metabolic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven L Warner
- Tolero Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 2975 W Executive Parkway, Suite 320, Lehi, UT 84043, USA
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62
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Considerations for the design and reporting of enzyme assays in high-throughput screening applications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pisc.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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63
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Iqbal MA, Gupta V, Gopinath P, Mazurek S, Bamezai RNK. Pyruvate kinase M2 and cancer: an updated assessment. FEBS Lett 2014; 588:2685-92. [PMID: 24747424 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Revised: 04/06/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cells are characterized by high glycolytic rates to support energy regeneration and anabolic metabolism, along with the expression of pyruvate kinase isoenzyme M2 (PKM2). The latter catalyzes the last step of glycolysis and reprograms the glycolytic flux to feed the special metabolic demands of proliferating cells. Besides, PKM2 has moonlight functions, such as gene transcription, favoring cancer. Accumulating evidence suggests a critical role played by the low-activity-dimeric PKM2 in tumor progression, supported by the identification of mutations which result in the down-regulation of its activity and tumorigenesis in a nude mouse model. This review discusses PKM2 regulation and the benefits it confers to cancer cells. Further, conflicting views on PKM2's role in cancer, its therapeutic relevance and future directions in the field are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Askandar Iqbal
- National Centre of Applied Human Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Vibhor Gupta
- National Centre of Applied Human Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Prakasam Gopinath
- National Centre of Applied Human Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Sybille Mazurek
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Rameshwar N K Bamezai
- National Centre of Applied Human Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India.
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64
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Kandile NG, Zaky HT. New pyrano[2,3-c]pyridazine derivatives with antimicrobial activity synthesized using piperidine as the organocatalyst. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2014; 30:44-51. [PMID: 24666292 DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2013.877896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A simple and efficient method for the synthesis of highly diverse pyrano[2,3-c]pyridazines was achieved by a one pot multicomponent reaction using piperidine as the organocatalyst. The synthesis of a series of heterocyclic derivatives with varying functionality (e.g. thiazine, tetrazole and pyrimidine) incorporating the pyrano[2,3-c]pyridazine moiety were achieved via reaction of 2a-e with different reagents. The structures of the synthesized derivatives were elucidated by FTIR, MS, (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopy. A number of the newly synthesized targeted compounds 2b-e, 3a-c and 4a-c were evaluated for their in vitro antibacterial activity and were compared with chloramphenicol and nystatin as broad spectrum reference standard antibiotics. Tests were carried out against Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC3160) and Enterococcusi fecalis as Gram-positive bacteria, and Escherichia coli (MTCC1652) and Klebsiella pneumonia as Gram-negative bacteria. Antifungal potential against Candida albicans, and Aspergillus albicans strains were also evaluated. The results revealed that compounds 3a and 3c showed strong significant activity relative to the reference against these bacterial and fungal strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia G Kandile
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Women, Ain Shams University , Heliopolis, Cairo , Egypt
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65
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Xu Y, Liu XH, Saunders M, Pearce S, Foulks JM, Parnell KM, Clifford A, Nix RN, Bullough J, Hendrickson TF, Wright K, McCullar MV, Kanner SB, Ho KK. Discovery of 3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxamide activators of the M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2). Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:515-9. [PMID: 24374270 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Activators of the pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) are currently attracting significant interest as potential anticancer therapies. They may achieve a novel antiproliferation response in cancer cells through modulation of the classic 'Warburg effect' characteristic of aberrant metabolism. In this Letter, we describe the optimization of a weakly active screening hit to a structurally novel series of small molecule 3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxamides as potent PKM2 activators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Xu
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA.
| | - Xiao-Hui Liu
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Michael Saunders
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Scott Pearce
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Jason M Foulks
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - K Mark Parnell
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Adrianne Clifford
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Rebecca N Nix
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Jeremy Bullough
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Thomas F Hendrickson
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Kevin Wright
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Michael V McCullar
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Steven B Kanner
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
| | - Koc-Kan Ho
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4140 Dublin Boulevard, Suite 200, Dublin, CA 94568, USA
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Csókás D, Károlyi BI, Bősze S, Szabó I, Báti G, Drahos L, Csámpai A. 2,3-Dihydroimidazo[1,2-b]ferroceno[d]pyridazines and a 3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrimido[1,2-b]ferroceno[d]pyridazine: Synthesis, structure and in vitro antiproliferation activity on selected human cancer cell lines. J Organomet Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2013.10.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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67
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Abstract
Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are critical regulatory events in physiology and pathology, and they represent an important target space for pharmacological intervention. However, targeting PPIs with small molecules is challenging owing to the large surface area involved in protein-protein binding and the lack of obvious small-molecule-binding pockets at many protein-protein interfaces. Nonetheless, successful examples of small-molecule modulators of PPIs have been growing in recent years. This article reviews some of the recent advances in the discovery of small-molecule regulators of PPIs that involve key oncogenic proteins. Our discussion focuses on the three key modes of action for these small-molecule modulators: orthosteric inhibition, allosteric regulation, and interfacial binding/stabilization. Understanding the opportunities and challenges of these diverse mechanisms will help guide future efforts in developing small-molecule modulators against PPIs.
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68
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Synthesis, spectroscopy, X-ray analysis and in vitro antiproliferative effect of ferrocenylmethylene-hydrazinylpyridazin-3(2H)-ones and related ferroceno[d]pyridazin-1(2H)-ones. J Organomet Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2013.06.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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69
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Parnell KM, Foulks JM, Nix RN, Clifford A, Bullough J, Luo B, Senina A, Vollmer D, Liu J, McCarthy V, Xu Y, Saunders M, Liu XH, Pearce S, Wright K, O'Reilly M, McCullar MV, Ho KK, Kanner SB. Pharmacologic activation of PKM2 slows lung tumor xenograft growth. Mol Cancer Ther 2013; 12:1453-60. [PMID: 23720766 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-13-0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Inactivation of the M2 form of pyruvate kinase (PKM2) in cancer cells is associated with increased tumorigenicity. To test the hypothesis that tumor growth may be inhibited through the PKM2 pathway, we generated a series of small-molecule PKM2 activators. The compounds exhibited low nanomolar activity in both biochemical and cell-based PKM2 activity assays. These compounds did not affect the growth of cancer cell lines under normal conditions in vitro, but strongly inhibited the proliferation of multiple lung cancer cell lines when serine was absent from the cell culture media. In addition, PKM2 activators inhibited the growth of an aggressive lung adenocarcinoma xenograft. These findings show that PKM2 activation by small molecules influences the growth of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, and suggest that such compounds may augment cancer therapies.
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70
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Yang W, Lu Z. Regulation and function of pyruvate kinase M2 in cancer. Cancer Lett 2013; 339:153-8. [PMID: 23791887 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2013.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2013] [Revised: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Altered metabolism is fundamental to the growth and survival of cancer cells. Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2), a key enzyme in cancer metabolism, has been demonstrated to play a central role not only in metabolic reprogramming but also in direct regulation of gene expression and subsequent cell cycle progression. This review outlines the current understanding of PKM2 protein kinase activity and regulatory mechanisms underlying PKM2 expression, enzymatic activity, and nuclear localization, thus highlighting PKM2 as a potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Yang
- Brain Tumor Center and Department of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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71
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Bettaieb A, Bakke J, Nagata N, Matsuo K, Xi Y, Liu S, AbouBechara D, Melhem R, Stanhope K, Cummings B, Graham J, Bremer A, Zhang S, Lyssiotis CA, Zhang ZY, Cantley LC, Havel PJ, Haj FG. Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B regulates pyruvate kinase M2 tyrosine phosphorylation. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:17360-71. [PMID: 23640882 PMCID: PMC3682537 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.441469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Revised: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is a physiological regulator of glucose homeostasis and adiposity and is a drug target for the treatment of obesity and diabetes. Here we identify pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) as a novel PTP1B substrate in adipocytes. PTP1B deficiency leads to increased PKM2 total tyrosine and Tyr(105) phosphorylation in cultured adipocytes and in vivo. Substrate trapping and mutagenesis studies identify PKM2 Tyr-105 and Tyr-148 as key sites that mediate PTP1B-PKM2 interaction. In addition, in vitro analyses illustrate a direct effect of Tyr-105 phosphorylation on PKM2 activity in adipocytes. Importantly, PTP1B pharmacological inhibition increased PKM2 Tyr-105 phosphorylation and decreased PKM2 activity. Moreover, PKM2 Tyr-105 phosphorylation is regulated nutritionally, decreasing in adipose tissue depots after high-fat feeding. Further, decreased PKM2 Tyr-105 phosphorylation correlates with the development of glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in rodents, non-human primates, and humans. Together, these findings identify PKM2 as a novel substrate of PTP1B and provide new insights into the regulation of adipose PKM2 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kimber Stanhope
- From the Nutrition Department and
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616
| | - Bethany Cummings
- From the Nutrition Department and
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616
| | - James Graham
- From the Nutrition Department and
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616
| | - Andrew Bremer
- the Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Sheng Zhang
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Costas A. Lyssiotis
- the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Medicine, and
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, and
| | - Zhong-Yin Zhang
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Lewis C. Cantley
- the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Medicine, and
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, and
| | - Peter J. Havel
- From the Nutrition Department and
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616
| | - Fawaz G. Haj
- From the Nutrition Department and
- the Department of Internal Medicine and
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California Davis, Sacramento, California 95817
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72
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Guo C, Linton A, Jalaie M, Kephart S, Ornelas M, Pairish M, Greasley S, Richardson P, Maegley K, Hickey M, Li J, Wu X, Ji X, Xie Z. Discovery of 2-((1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)methyl)-4H-pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-ones as novel PKM2 activators. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:3358-63. [PMID: 23622982 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.03.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase is an emerging target for antitumor therapy. In this letter, we describe the discovery of 2-((1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)methyl)-4H-pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-ones as potent and selective PKM2 activators which were found to have a novel binding mode. The original lead identified from high throughput screening was optimized into an efficient series via computer-aided structure-based drug design. Both a representative compound from this series and an activator described in the literature were used as molecular tools to probe the biological effects of PKM2 activation on cancer cells. Our results suggested that PKM2 activation alone is not sufficient to alter cancer cell metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuangxing Guo
- Oncology Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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73
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Tamada M, Suematsu M, Saya H. Pyruvate kinase M2: multiple faces for conferring benefits on cancer cells. Clin Cancer Res 2013; 18:5554-61. [PMID: 23071357 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-12-0859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The M2 splice isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2), an enzyme that catalyzes the later step of glycolysis, is a key regulator of aerobic glycolysis (known as the Warburg effect) in cancer cells. Expression and low enzymatic activity of PKM2 confer on cancer cells the glycolytic phenotype, which promotes rapid energy production and flow of glycolytic intermediates into collateral pathways to synthesize nucleic acids, amino acids, and lipids without the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. PKM2 enzymatic activity has also been shown to be negatively regulated by the interaction with CD44 adhesion molecule, which is a cell surface marker for cancer stem cells. In addition to the glycolytic functions, nonglycolytic functions of PKM2 in cancer cells are of particular interest. PKM2 is induced translocation into the nucleus, where it activates transcription of various genes by interacting with and phosphorylating specific nuclear proteins, endowing cancer cells with a survival and growth advantage. Therefore, inhibitors and activators of PKM2 are well underway to evaluate their anticancer effects and suitability for use as novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayumi Tamada
- Division of Gene Regulation, Institute for Advanced Medical Research, School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
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74
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M2 pyruvate kinase provides a mechanism for nutrient sensing and regulation of cell proliferation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:5881-6. [PMID: 23530218 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1217157110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We show that the M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (M2PYK) exists in equilibrium between monomers and tetramers regulated by allosteric binding of naturally occurring small-molecule metabolites. Phenylalanine stabilizes an inactive T-state tetrameric conformer and inhibits M2PYK with an IC50 value of 0.24 mM, whereas thyroid hormone (triiodo-L-thyronine, T3) stabilizes an inactive monomeric form of M2PYK with an IC50 of 78 nM. The allosteric activator fructose-1,6-bisphosphate [F16BP, AC50 (concentration that gives 50% activation) of 7 μM] shifts the equilibrium to the tetrameric active R-state, which has a similar activity to that of the constitutively fully active isoform M1PYK. Proliferation assays using HCT-116 cells showed that addition of inhibitors phenylalanine and T3 both increased cell proliferation, whereas addition of the activator F16BP reduced proliferation. F16BP abrogates the inhibitory effect of both phenylalanine and T3, highlighting a dominant role of M2PYK allosteric activation in the regulation of cancer proliferation. X-ray structures show constitutively fully active M1PYK and F16BP-bound M2PYK in an R-state conformation with a lysine at the dimer-interface acting as a peg in a hole, locking the active tetramer conformation. Binding of phenylalanine in an allosteric pocket induces a 13° rotation of the protomers, destroying the peg-in-hole R-state interface. This distinct T-state tetramer is stabilized by flipped out Trp/Arg side chains that stack across the dimer interface. X-ray structures and biophysical binding data of M2PYK complexes explain how, at a molecular level, fluctuations in concentrations of amino acids, thyroid hormone, and glucose metabolites switch M2PYK on and off to provide the cell with a nutrient sensing and growth signaling mechanism.
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75
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Pyruvate kinase M2 activators promote tetramer formation and suppress tumorigenesis. Nat Chem Biol 2013; 8:839-47. [PMID: 22922757 PMCID: PMC3711671 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 562] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells engage in a metabolic program to enhance biosynthesis and support cell proliferation. The regulatory properties of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) influence altered glucose metabolism in cancer. The interaction of PKM2 with phosphotyrosine-containing proteins inhibits enzyme activity and increases the availability of glycolytic metabolites to support cell proliferation. This suggests that high pyruvate kinase activity may suppress tumor growth. We show that expression of PKM1, the pyruvate kinase isoform with high constitutive activity, or exposure to published small-molecule PKM2 activators inhibits the growth of xenograft tumors. Structural studies reveal that small-molecule activators bind PKM2 at the subunit interaction interface, a site that is distinct from that of the endogenous activator fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP). However, unlike FBP, binding of activators to PKM2 promotes a constitutively active enzyme state that is resistant to inhibition by tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins. These data support the notion that small-molecule activation of PKM2 can interfere with anabolic metabolism.
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76
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PKM2, a Central Point of Regulation in Cancer Metabolism. Int J Cell Biol 2013; 2013:242513. [PMID: 23476652 PMCID: PMC3586519 DOI: 10.1155/2013/242513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Aerobic glycolysis is the dominant metabolic pathway utilized by cancer cells, owing to its ability to divert glucose metabolites from ATP production towards the synthesis of cellular building blocks (nucleotides, amino acids, and lipids) to meet the demands of proliferation. The M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2) catalyzes the final and also a rate-limiting reaction in the glycolytic pathway. In the PK family, PKM2 is subjected to a complex regulation by both oncogenes and tumour suppressors, which allows for a fine-tone regulation of PKM2 activity. The less active form of PKM2 drives glucose through the route of aerobic glycolysis, while active PKM2 directs glucose towards oxidative metabolism. Additionally, PKM2 possesses protein tyrosine kinase activity and plays a role in modulating gene expression and thereby contributing to tumorigenesis. We will discuss our current understanding of PKM2's regulation and its many contributions to tumorigenesis.
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77
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M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase is dispensable for tumor maintenance and growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 110:489-94. [PMID: 23267074 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1212780110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Many cancer cells have increased rates of aerobic glycolysis, a phenomenon termed the Warburg effect. In addition, in tumors there is a predominance of expression of the M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2). M2 expression was previously shown to be necessary for aerobic glycolysis and to provide a growth advantage to tumors. We report that knockdown of pyruvate kinase in tumor cells leads to a decrease in the levels of pyruvate kinase activity and an increase in the pyruvate kinase substrate phosphoenolpyruvate. However, lactate production from glucose, although reduced, was not fully inhibited. Furthermore, we are unique in reporting increased serine and glycine biosynthesis from both glucose and glutamine following pyruvate kinase knockdown. Although pyruvate kinase knockdown results in modest impairment of proliferation in vitro, in vivo growth of established xenograft tumors is unaffected by PKM2 absence. Our findings indicate that PKM2 is dispensable for tumor maintenance and growth in vivo, suggesting that other metabolic pathways bypass its function.
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78
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Morgan HP, Walsh MJ, Blackburn EA, Wear MA, Boxer MB, Shen M, Mcnae IW, Nowicki MW, Michels PAM, Auld DS, Fothergill-Gilmore LA, Walkinshaw MD. A new family of covalent inhibitors block nucleotide binding to the active site of pyruvate kinase. Biochem J 2012; 448:67-72. [PMID: 22906073 PMCID: PMC3498827 DOI: 10.1042/bj20121014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
PYK (pyruvate kinase) plays a central role in the metabolism of many organisms and cell types, but the elucidation of the details of its function in a systems biology context has been hampered by the lack of specific high-affinity small-molecule inhibitors. High-throughput screening has been used to identify a family of saccharin derivatives which inhibit LmPYK (Leishmania mexicana PYK) activity in a time- (and dose-) dependent manner, a characteristic of irreversible inhibition. The crystal structure of DBS {4-[(1,1-dioxo-1,2-benzothiazol-3-yl)sulfanyl]benzoic acid} complexed with LmPYK shows that the saccharin moiety reacts with an active-site lysine residue (Lys335), forming a covalent bond and sterically hindering the binding of ADP/ATP. Mutation of the lysine residue to an arginine residue eliminated the effect of the inhibitor molecule, providing confirmation of the proposed inhibitor mechanism. This lysine residue is conserved in the active sites of the four human PYK isoenzymes, which were also found to be irreversibly inhibited by DBS. X-ray structures of PYK isoforms show structural differences at the DBS-binding pocket, and this covalent inhibitor of PYK provides a chemical scaffold for the design of new families of potentially isoform-specific irreversible inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugh P. Morgan
- Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, The King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK
| | - Martin J. Walsh
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human, Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, U.S.A
| | - Elizabeth A. Blackburn
- Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, The King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK
| | - Martin A. Wear
- Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, The King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK
| | - Matthew B. Boxer
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human, Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, U.S.A
| | - Min Shen
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human, Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, U.S.A
| | - Iain W. Mcnae
- Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, The King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK
| | - Matthew W. Nowicki
- Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, The King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK
| | - Paul A. M. Michels
- Research Unit for Tropical Diseases, de Duve Institute and Laboratory of Biochemistry, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 74, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Douglas S. Auld
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human, Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, U.S.A
| | - Linda A. Fothergill-Gilmore
- Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, The King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK
| | - Malcolm D. Walkinshaw
- Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, The King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK
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79
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Benjamin DI, Cravatt BF, Nomura DK. Global profiling strategies for mapping dysregulated metabolic pathways in cancer. Cell Metab 2012; 16:565-77. [PMID: 23063552 PMCID: PMC3539740 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2012.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2012] [Revised: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells possess fundamentally altered metabolism that provides a foundation to support tumorigenicity and malignancy. Our understanding of the biochemical underpinnings of cancer has benefited from the integrated utilization of large-scale profiling platforms (e.g., genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics), which, together, can provide a global assessment of how enzymes and their parent metabolic networks become altered in cancer to fuel tumor growth. This review presents several examples of how these integrated platforms have yielded fundamental insights into dysregulated metabolism in cancer. We will also discuss questions and challenges that must be addressed to more completely describe, and eventually control, the diverse metabolic pathways that support tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel I Benjamin
- Program in Metabolic Biology, Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, University of California, Berkeley, 127 Morgan Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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80
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Yacovan A, Ozeri R, Kehat T, Mirilashvili S, Sherman D, Aizikovich A, Shitrit A, Ben-Zeev E, Schutz N, Bohana-Kashtan O, Konson A, Behar V, Becker OM. 1-(sulfonyl)-5-(arylsulfonyl)indoline as activators of the tumor cell specific M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:6460-8. [PMID: 22963766 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.08.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2012] [Revised: 08/05/2012] [Accepted: 08/13/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cells preferentially use glycolysis rather than oxidative phosphorylation for their rapid growth. They consume large amount of glucose to produce lactate even when oxygen is abundant, a phenomenon known as the Warburg effect. This metabolic change originates from a shift in the expression of alternative spliced isoforms of the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase (PK), from PKM1 to PKM2. While PKM1 is constitutively active, PKM2 is switched from an inactive dimer form to an active tetramer form by small molecule activators. The prevalence of PKM2 in cancer cells relative to the prevalence of PKM1 in many normal cells, suggests a therapeutic strategy whereby activation of PKM2 may counter the abnormal cellular metabolism in cancer cells, and consequently decreased cellular proliferation. Herein we describe the discovery and optimization of a series of PKM2 activators derived from the 2-((2,3-dihydrobenzo[b][1,4] dioxin-6-yl)thio)-1-(2-methyl-1-(methylsulfonyl)indolin-5-yl) ethanone scaffold. The synthesis, SAR analysis, enzyme active site docking, enzymatic reaction kinetics, selectivity and pharmaceutical properties are discussed.
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81
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Kung C, Hixon J, Choe S, Marks K, Gross S, Murphy E, DeLaBarre B, Cianchetta G, Sethumadhavan S, Wang X, Yan S, Gao Y, Fang C, Wei W, Jiang F, Wang S, Qian K, Saunders J, Driggers E, Woo HK, Kunii K, Murray S, Yang H, Yen K, Liu W, Cantley LC, Vander Heiden MG, Su SM, Jin S, Salituro FG, Dang L. Small molecule activation of PKM2 in cancer cells induces serine auxotrophy. CHEMISTRY & BIOLOGY 2012; 19:1187-98. [PMID: 22999886 PMCID: PMC3775715 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2012.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Revised: 07/14/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Proliferating tumor cells use aerobic glycolysis to support their high metabolic demands. Paradoxically, increased glycolysis is often accompanied by expression of the lower activity PKM2 isoform, effectively constraining lower glycolysis. Here, we report the discovery of PKM2 activators with a unique allosteric binding mode. Characterization of how these compounds impact cancer cells revealed an unanticipated link between glucose and amino acid metabolism. PKM2 activation resulted in a metabolic rewiring of cancer cells manifested by a profound dependency on the nonessential amino acid serine for continued cell proliferation. Induction of serine auxotrophy by PKM2 activation was accompanied by reduced carbon flow into the serine biosynthetic pathway and increased expression of high affinity serine transporters. These data support the hypothesis that PKM2 expression confers metabolic flexibility to cancer cells that allows adaptation to nutrient stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Kung
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Jeff Hixon
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Sung Choe
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Kevin Marks
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Stefan Gross
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Erin Murphy
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Byron DeLaBarre
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | | | | | - Xiling Wang
- Shanghai ChemPartner Company, No. 5 Building 998 Halei Road, Pudong Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Shunqi Yan
- Schrodinger, 103 SW Main Street, Portland, OR 97204, USA
| | - Yi Gao
- Shanghai ChemPartner Company, No. 5 Building 998 Halei Road, Pudong Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Cheng Fang
- Shanghai ChemPartner Company, No. 5 Building 998 Halei Road, Pudong Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Wentao Wei
- Viva Biotech, 334 Aidisheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Fan Jiang
- Viva Biotech, 334 Aidisheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Shaohui Wang
- Shanghai ChemPartner Company, No. 5 Building 998 Halei Road, Pudong Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Kevin Qian
- Viva Biotech, 334 Aidisheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jeff Saunders
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Ed Driggers
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Hin Koon Woo
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Kaiko Kunii
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Stuart Murray
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Hua Yang
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Katharine Yen
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Wei Liu
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Lewis C. Cantley
- Department of Medicine-Division of Signal Transduction, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Matthew G. Vander Heiden
- Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Shinsan M. Su
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Shengfang Jin
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | | | - Lenny Dang
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
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82
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Chaneton B, Gottlieb E. Rocking cell metabolism: revised functions of the key glycolytic regulator PKM2 in cancer. Trends Biochem Sci 2012; 37:309-16. [PMID: 22626471 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2012.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Revised: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cell metabolism is exemplified by high glucose consumption and lactate production. Pyruvate kinase (PK), which catalyzes the final step of glycolysis, has emerged as a potential regulator of this metabolic phenotype. The M2 isoform of PK (PKM2) is highly expressed in cancer cells. However, the mechanisms by which PKM2 coordinates high energy requirements with high anabolic activities to support cancer cell proliferation are still not completely understood. Current research has elucidated novel regulatory mechanisms for PKM2, contributing to its important role in cancer. This review summarizes the current understanding and explores future directions in the field, highlighting controversies regarding the activity and specificity of PKM2 in cancer. In light of this knowledge, the potential therapeutic implications and strategies are critically discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Chaneton
- Cancer Research UK, The Beatson Institute for Cancer Research, Switchback Road, Glasgow, UK
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83
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Granchi C, Minutolo F. Anticancer agents that counteract tumor glycolysis. ChemMedChem 2012; 7:1318-50. [PMID: 22684868 PMCID: PMC3516916 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Can we consider cancer to be a "metabolic disease"? Tumors are the result of a metabolic selection, forming tissues composed of heterogeneous cells that generally express an overactive metabolism as a common feature. In fact, cancer cells have increased needs for both energy and biosynthetic intermediates to support their growth and invasiveness. However, their high proliferation rate often generates regions that are insufficiently oxygenated. Therefore, their carbohydrate metabolism must rely mostly on a glycolytic process that is uncoupled from oxidative phosphorylation. This metabolic switch, also known as the Warburg effect, constitutes a fundamental adaptation of tumor cells to a relatively hostile environment, and supports the evolution of aggressive and metastatic phenotypes. As a result, tumor glycolysis may constitute an attractive target for cancer therapy. This approach has often raised concerns that antiglycolytic agents may cause serious side effects toward normal cells. The key to selective action against cancer cells can be found in their hyperbolic addiction to glycolysis, which may be exploited to generate new anticancer drugs with minimal toxicity. There is growing evidence to support many glycolytic enzymes and transporters as suitable candidate targets for cancer therapy. Herein we review some of the most relevant antiglycolytic agents that have been investigated thus far for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Granchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa (Italy)
| | - Filippo Minutolo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa (Italy)
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84
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Design, synthesis and antiviral activity of novel pyridazines. Eur J Med Chem 2012; 54:33-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2012.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2012] [Revised: 04/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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85
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Cheong H, Lu C, Lindsten T, Thompson CB. Therapeutic targets in cancer cell metabolism and autophagy. Nat Biotechnol 2012; 30:671-8. [PMID: 22781696 DOI: 10.1038/nbt.2285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The metabolism of cancer cells is reprogrammed both by oncogene signaling and by dysregulation of metabolic enzymes. The resulting altered metabolism supports cellular proliferation and survival but leaves cancer cells dependent on a continuous supply of nutrients. Thus, many metabolic enzymes have become targets for new cancer therapies. Recently, two processes—expression of specific isoforms of metabolic enzymes and autophagy—have been shown to be crucial for the adaptation of tumor cells to changes in nutrient availability. An increasing number of approved and experimental therapeutics target these two processes. A better understanding of the molecular basis of cancer-associated metabolic changes may lead to improved cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heesun Cheong
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
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86
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Abstract
Metabolism generates oxygen radicals, which contribute to oncogenic mutations. Activated oncogenes and loss of tumor suppressors in turn alter metabolism and induce aerobic glycolysis. Aerobic glycolysis or the Warburg effect links the high rate of glucose fermentation to cancer. Together with glutamine, glucose via glycolysis provides the carbon skeletons, NADPH, and ATP to build new cancer cells, which persist in hypoxia that in turn rewires metabolic pathways for cell growth and survival. Excessive caloric intake is associated with an increased risk for cancers, while caloric restriction is protective, perhaps through clearance of mitochondria or mitophagy, thereby reducing oxidative stress. Hence, the links between metabolism and cancer are multifaceted, spanning from the low incidence of cancer in large mammals with low specific metabolic rates to altered cancer cell metabolism resulting from mutated enzymes or cancer genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi V Dang
- Abramson Cancer Center, Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA.
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87
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Pyruvate kinase M2 promotes de novo serine synthesis to sustain mTORC1 activity and cell proliferation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:6904-9. [PMID: 22509023 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1204176109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the fact that most cancer cells display high glycolytic activity, cancer cells selectively express the less active M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2). Here we demonstrate that PKM2 expression makes a critical regulatory contribution to the serine synthetic pathway. In the absence of serine, an allosteric activator of PKM2, glycolytic efflux to lactate is significantly reduced in PKM2-expressing cells. This inhibition of PKM2 results in the accumulation of glycolytic intermediates that feed into serine synthesis. As a consequence, PKM2-expressing cells can maintain mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 activity and proliferate in serine-depleted medium, but PKM1-expressing cells cannot. Cellular detection of serine depletion depends on general control nonderepressible 2 kinase-activating transcription factor 4 (GCN2-ATF4) pathway activation and results in increased expression of enzymes required for serine synthesis from the accumulating glycolytic precursors. These findings suggest that tumor cells use serine-dependent regulation of PKM2 and GCN2 to modulate the flux of glycolytic intermediates in support of cell proliferation.
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88
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Jones NP, Schulze A. Targeting cancer metabolism--aiming at a tumour's sweet-spot. Drug Discov Today 2011; 17:232-41. [PMID: 22207221 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2011.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2011] [Revised: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 12/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Targeting cancer metabolism has emerged as a hot topic for drug discovery. Most cancers have a high demand for metabolic inputs (i.e. glucose/glutamine), which aid proliferation and survival. Interest in targeting cancer metabolism has been renewed in recent years with the discovery that many cancer-related (e.g. oncogenic and tumour suppressor) pathways have a profound effect on metabolism and that many tumours become dependent on specific metabolic processes. Considering the recent increase in our understanding of cancer metabolism and the increasing knowledge of the enzymes and pathways involved, the question arises: could metabolism be cancer's Achilles heel? During recent years, interest into the possible therapeutic benefit of targeting metabolic pathways in cancer has increased dramatically with academic and pharmaceutical groups actively pursuing this aspect of tumour physiology. Therefore, what has fuelled this revived interest in targeting cancer metabolism and what are the major advances and potential challenges faced in the race to develop new therapeutics in this area? This review will attempt to answer these questions by summarising recent developments in this field. We aim to illustrate why we, and others, believe that targeting metabolism in cancer presents such a promising therapeutic rationale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil P Jones
- Cancer Research Technology, Wolfson Institute of Biomedical Research, University College London, UK.
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89
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Walsh MJ, Brimacombe KR, Veith H, Bougie JM, Daniel T, Leister W, Cantley LC, Israelsen WJ, Vander Heiden MG, Shen M, Auld DS, Thomas CJ, Boxer MB. 2-Oxo-N-aryl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoline-6-sulfonamides as activators of the tumor cell specific M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:6322-7. [PMID: 21958545 PMCID: PMC3224553 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.08.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Revised: 08/25/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Compared to normal differentiated cells, cancer cells have altered metabolic regulation to support biosynthesis and the expression of the M2 isozyme of pyruvate kinase (PKM2) plays an important role in this anabolic metabolism. While the M1 isoform is a highly active enzyme, the alternatively spliced M2 variant is considerably less active and expressed in tumors. While the exact mechanism by which decreased pyruvate kinase activity contributes to anabolic metabolism remains unclear, it is hypothesized that activation of PKM2 to levels seen with PKM1 may promote a metabolic program that is not conducive to cell proliferation. Here we report the third chemotype in a series of PKM2 activators based on the 2-oxo-N-aryl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoline-6-sulfonamide scaffold. The synthesis, structure activity relationships, selectivity and notable physiochemical properties are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin J. Walsh
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - Kyle R. Brimacombe
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - Henrike Veith
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - James M. Bougie
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - Thomas Daniel
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - William Leister
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - Lewis C. Cantley
- Division of Signal Transduction, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115 USA
| | - William J. Israelsen
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Matthew G. Vander Heiden
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Min Shen
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - Douglas S. Auld
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - Craig J. Thomas
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
| | - Matthew B. Boxer
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, NIH Center for Translational Therapeutics, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA
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90
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Morgan HP, McNae IW, Nowicki MW, Zhong W, Michels PAM, Auld DS, Fothergill-Gilmore LA, Walkinshaw MD. The trypanocidal drug suramin and other trypan blue mimetics are inhibitors of pyruvate kinases and bind to the adenosine site. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:31232-40. [PMID: 21733839 PMCID: PMC3173065 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.212613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Ehrlich's pioneering chemotherapeutic experiments published in 1904 (Ehrlich, P., and Shiga, K. (1904) Berlin Klin. Wochenschrift 20, 329-362) described the efficacy of a series of dye molecules including trypan blue and trypan red to eliminate trypanosome infections in mice. The molecular structures of the dyes provided a starting point for the synthesis of suramin, which was developed and used as a trypanocidal drug in 1916 and is still in clinical use. Despite the biological importance of these dye-like molecules, the mode of action on trypanosomes has remained elusive. Here we present crystal structures of suramin and three related dyes in complex with pyruvate kinases from Leishmania mexicana or from Trypanosoma cruzi. The phenyl sulfonate groups of all four molecules (suramin, Ponceau S, acid blue 80, and benzothiazole-2,5-disulfonic acid) bind in the position of ADP/ATP at the active sites of the pyruvate kinases (PYKs). The binding positions in the two different trypanosomatid PYKs are nearly identical. We show that suramin competitively inhibits PYKs from humans (muscle, tumor, and liver isoenzymes, K(i) = 1.1-17 μM), T. cruzi (K(i) = 108 μM), and L. mexicana (K(i) = 116 μM), all of which have similar active sites. Synergistic effects were observed when examining suramin inhibition in the presence of an allosteric effector molecule, whereby IC(50) values decreased up to 2-fold for both trypanosomatid and human PYKs. These kinetic and structural analyses provide insight into the promiscuous inhibition observed for suramin and into the mode of action of the dye-like molecules used in Ehrlich's original experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugh P. Morgan
- From the Structural Biochemistry Group, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Iain W. McNae
- From the Structural Biochemistry Group, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew W. Nowicki
- From the Structural Biochemistry Group, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Wenhe Zhong
- From the Structural Biochemistry Group, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Paul A. M. Michels
- the Research Unit for Tropical Diseases, de Duve Institute and Laboratory of Biochemistry, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 74, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium, and
| | - Douglas S. Auld
- the National Institutes of Health Chemical Genomics Center, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20850
| | - Linda A. Fothergill-Gilmore
- From the Structural Biochemistry Group, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Malcolm D. Walkinshaw
- From the Structural Biochemistry Group, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, Scotland, United Kingdom
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91
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Granchi C, Roy S, De Simone A, Salvetti I, Tuccinardi T, Martinelli A, Macchia M, Lanza M, Betti L, Giannaccini G, Lucacchini A, Giovannetti E, Sciarrillo R, Peters GJ, Minutolo F. N-Hydroxyindole-based inhibitors of lactate dehydrogenase against cancer cell proliferation. Eur J Med Chem 2011; 46:5398-407. [PMID: 21944286 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.08.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2011] [Revised: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Current cancer research is being increasingly focused on the study of distinctive characters of tumour metabolism, resulting in a switch from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis (Warburg effect). Isoform 5 of human lactate dehydrogenase (hLDH5), which catalyzes the final step in the glycolytic cascade (pyruvate to lactate), constitutes a relatively new and untapped anti-cancer target. In this study, careful design and synthesis of a selected series of aryl-substituted N-hydroxyindole-2-carboxylates (NHIs) has led to several hLDH5-inhibitors, showing "first-in-class" potency and isoform selectivity. Enzyme kinetics studies indicated that these inhibitors exhibit a competitive mode of inhibition. Some representative examples were tested against two human pancreatic carcinoma cell lines, and displayed a good anti-proliferative activity, which was even more evident under hypoxic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Granchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy
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92
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Abstract
Genetic events in cancer activate signalling pathways that alter cell metabolism. Clinical evidence has linked cell metabolism with cancer outcomes. Together, these observations have raised interest in targeting metabolic enzymes for cancer therapy, but they have also raised concerns that these therapies would have unacceptable effects on normal cells. However, some of the first cancer therapies that were developed target the specific metabolic needs of cancer cells and remain effective agents in the clinic today. Research into how changes in cell metabolism promote tumour growth has accelerated in recent years. This has refocused efforts to target metabolic dependencies of cancer cells as a selective anticancer strategy.
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