51
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[Animal experimentation and progress in medicine]. Med Clin (Barc) 2014; 143:448-54. [PMID: 24854194 DOI: 10.1016/j.medcli.2014.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Revised: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Langley GR. Considering a new paradigm for Alzheimer's disease research. Drug Discov Today 2014; 19:1114-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2014.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Jones RC, Greek R. A review of the Institute of Medicine's analysis of using chimpanzees in biomedical research. SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING ETHICS 2014; 20:481-504. [PMID: 23616243 PMCID: PMC4033812 DOI: 10.1007/s11948-013-9442-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 03/17/2013] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We argue that the recommendations made by the Institute of Medicine's 2011 report, Chimpanzees in Biomedical and Behavioral Research: Assessing the Necessity, are methodologically and ethically confused. We argue that a proper understanding of evolution and complexity theory in terms of the science and ethics of using chimpanzees in biomedical research would have had led the committee to recommend not merely limiting but eliminating the use of chimpanzees in biomedical research. Specifically, we argue that a proper understanding of the difference between the gross level of examination of species and examinations on finer levels can shed light on important methodological and ethical inconsistencies leading to ignorance of potentially unethical practices and policies regarding the use of animals in scientific research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert C. Jones
- Department of Philosophy, California State University, Chico, Chico, CA 95929-0730 USA
| | - Ray Greek
- Americans For Medical Advancement, 2251 Refugio Rd, Goleta, CA 93117 USA
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54
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Interspecies differences with in vitro and in vivo models of vascular tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2013; 34:9842-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.07.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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56
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Greek R, Hansen LA. Questions regarding the predictive value of one evolved complex adaptive system for a second: Exemplified by the SOD1 mouse. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 113:231-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2013.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2013] [Revised: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Abstract
Many critical public health issues require non-traditional approaches. Although many novel strategies are used, one approach not widely applied involves improving the treatment of animals. Emerging infectious diseases are pressing public health challenges that could benefit from improving the treatment of animals. Other human health issues, that overlap with animal treatment issues, and that warrant further exploration, are medical research and domestic violence. The diverse nature of these health issues and their connection with animal treatment suggest that there may be other similar intersections. Public health would benefit by including the treatment of animals as a topic of study and policy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aysha Akhtar
- 1] Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics, 91 Iffley Road, Oxford OX4 1EG, England, UK [2] Office of Counterterrorism and Emerging Threats, FDA, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA. E-mail:
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59
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O'Connor MD. The 3R principle: advancing clinical application of human pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cell Res Ther 2013; 4:21. [PMID: 23510719 PMCID: PMC3706962 DOI: 10.1186/scrt169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The first derivation of human embryonic stem cells brought with it a clear understanding that animal models of human disease might be replaced by an unlimited supply of human cells for research, drug discovery, and drug development. With the advent of clinical trials using human pluripotent stem cell-based therapies, it is both timely and relevant to reflect on factors that will facilitate future translation of this technology. Human pluripotent cells are increasingly being used to investigate the molecular mechanisms that underpin normal and pathological human development. Their differentiated progeny are also being used to identify novel pharmaceuticals, to screen for toxic effects of known chemicals, and to investigate cell or tissue transplantation strategies. The intrinsic assumption of these research efforts is that the information gained from these studies will be more accurate, and therefore of greater relevance, than traditional investigations based on animal models of human disease and injury. This review will therefore evaluate how animals and animal-derived products are used for human pluripotent stem cell research, and will indicate how efforts to further reduce or remove animals and animal products from this research will increase the clinical translation of human pluripotent stem cell technologies through drug discovery, toxicology screening, and cell replacement therapies.
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60
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Greek R, Menache A. Systematic reviews of animal models: methodology versus epistemology. Int J Med Sci 2013; 10:206-21. [PMID: 23372426 PMCID: PMC3558708 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.5529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Systematic reviews are currently favored methods of evaluating research in order to reach conclusions regarding medical practice. The need for such reviews is necessitated by the fact that no research is perfect and experts are prone to bias. By combining many studies that fulfill specific criteria, one hopes that the strengths can be multiplied and thus reliable conclusions attained. Potential flaws in this process include the assumptions that underlie the research under examination. If the assumptions, or axioms, upon which the research studies are based, are untenable either scientifically or logically, then the results must be highly suspect regardless of the otherwise high quality of the studies or the systematic reviews. We outline recent criticisms of animal-based research, namely that animal models are failing to predict human responses. It is this failure that is purportedly being corrected via systematic reviews. We then examine the assumption that animal models can predict human outcomes to perturbations such as disease or drugs, even under the best of circumstances. We examine the use of animal models in light of empirical evidence comparing human outcomes to those from animal models, complexity theory, and evolutionary biology. We conclude that even if legitimate criticisms of animal models were addressed, through standardization of protocols and systematic reviews, the animal model would still fail as a predictive modality for human response to drugs and disease. Therefore, systematic reviews and meta-analyses of animal-based research are poor tools for attempting to reach conclusions regarding human interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray Greek
- Americans For Medical Advancement, 2251 Refugio Rd, Goleta, CA 93117, USA.
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61
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Abstract
Although the mouse is widely used as an animal model for the in vitro culture of human preimplantation embryos, arguments can be made for the validity of many domestic species as more relevant, applicable models of early human development. Here, we describe the advantages and disadvantages of domestic species as animal models to develop in vitro culture methods and conditions that successfully support human embryo development. In vitro embryo culture procedures are described and compared between species for the bovine, ovine, caprine, and porcine species.
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62
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Freeman TC, Ivens A, Baillie JK, Beraldi D, Barnett MW, Dorward D, Downing A, Fairbairn L, Kapetanovic R, Raza S, Tomoiu A, Alberio R, Wu C, Su AI, Summers KM, Tuggle CK, Archibald AL, Hume DA. A gene expression atlas of the domestic pig. BMC Biol 2012; 10:90. [PMID: 23153189 PMCID: PMC3814290 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7007-10-90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This work describes the first genome-wide analysis of the transcriptional landscape of the pig. A new porcine Affymetrix expression array was designed in order to provide comprehensive coverage of the known pig transcriptome. The new array was used to generate a genome-wide expression atlas of pig tissues derived from 62 tissue/cell types. These data were subjected to network correlation analysis and clustering. RESULTS The analysis presented here provides a detailed functional clustering of the pig transcriptome where transcripts are grouped according to their expression pattern, so one can infer the function of an uncharacterized gene from the company it keeps and the locations in which it is expressed. We describe the overall transcriptional signatures present in the tissue atlas, where possible assigning those signatures to specific cell populations or pathways. In particular, we discuss the expression signatures associated with the gastrointestinal tract, an organ that was sampled at 15 sites along its length and whose biology in the pig is similar to human. We identify sets of genes that define specialized cellular compartments and region-specific digestive functions. Finally, we performed a network analysis of the transcription factors expressed in the gastrointestinal tract and demonstrate how they sub-divide into functional groups that may control cellular gastrointestinal development. CONCLUSIONS As an important livestock animal with a physiology that is more similar than mouse to man, we provide a major new resource for understanding gene expression with respect to the known physiology of mammalian tissues and cells. The data and analyses are available on the websites http://biogps.org and http://www.macrophages.com/pig-atlas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom C Freeman
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - Alasdair Ivens
- Fios Genomics Ltd, ETTC, King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JL UK,Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh Ashworth
Labs, King's Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JT
| | - J Kenneth Baillie
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - Dario Beraldi
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK,Cancer Research UK, Cambridge Research Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson
way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Mark W Barnett
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - David Dorward
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - Alison Downing
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - Lynsey Fairbairn
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - Ronan Kapetanovic
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - Sobia Raza
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - Andru Tomoiu
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - Ramiro Alberio
- Division of Animal Sciences, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham,
Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire LE12 5RD UK
| | - Chunlei Wu
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute,
MEM-216, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Andrew I Su
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute,
MEM-216, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Kim M Summers
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | | | - Alan L Archibald
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
| | - David A Hume
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9PS, UK
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Garrels W, Holler S, Cleve N, Niemann H, Ivics Z, Kues WA. Assessment of fecundity and germ line transmission in two transgenic pig lines produced by sleeping beauty transposition. Genes (Basel) 2012; 3:615-33. [PMID: 24705079 PMCID: PMC3899982 DOI: 10.3390/genes3040615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2012] [Revised: 09/10/2012] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, we described a simplified injection method for producing transgenic pigs using a non-autonomous Sleeping Beauty transposon system. The founder animals showed ubiquitous expression of the Venus fluorophore in almost all cell types. To assess, whether expression of the reporter fluorophore affects animal welfare or fecundity, we analyzed reproductive parameters of two founder boars, germ line transmission, and organ and cell specific transgene expression in animals of the F1 and F2 generation. Molecular analysis of ejaculated sperm cells suggested three monomeric integrations of the Venus transposon in both founders. To test germ line transmission of the three monomeric transposon integrations, wild-type sows were artificially inseminated. The offspring were nursed to sexual maturity and hemizygous lines were established. A clear segregation of the monomeric transposons following the Mendelian rules was observed in the F1 and F2 offspring. Apparently, almost all somatic cells, as well as oocytes and spermatozoa, expressed the Venus fluorophore at cell-type specific levels. No detrimental effects of Venus expression on animal health or fecundity were found. Importantly, all hemizygous lines expressed the fluorophore in comparable levels, and no case of transgene silencing or variegated expression was found after germ line transmission, suggesting that the insertions occurred at transcriptionally permissive loci. The results show that Sleeping Beauty transposase-catalyzed transposition is a promising approach for stable genetic modification of the pig genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Garrels
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Farm Animal Genetics, Höltystraße 10, 31535 Neustadt, Germany.
| | - Stephanie Holler
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Farm Animal Genetics, Höltystraße 10, 31535 Neustadt, Germany.
| | - Nicole Cleve
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Farm Animal Genetics, Höltystraße 10, 31535 Neustadt, Germany.
| | - Heiner Niemann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Farm Animal Genetics, Höltystraße 10, 31535 Neustadt, Germany.
| | - Zoltan Ivics
- Paul-Ehrlich-Institute, Paul-Ehrlich-Straße 51-59, 63225 Langen, Germany.
| | - Wilfried A Kues
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Farm Animal Genetics, Höltystraße 10, 31535 Neustadt, Germany.
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Zoobiquity: What Animals Can Teach Us About Health and the Science of Healing. By Barbara Natterson-Horowitz and Kathryn Bowers. Knopf Doubleday Publishing: New York, NY, USA, 2012; Hardback, 320 pp;16.23; ISBN-10: 0307593487. Animals (Basel) 2012. [PMCID: PMC4494279 DOI: 10.3390/ani2040559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
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The ability of animal studies to detect serious post marketing adverse events is limited. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2012; 64:345-9. [PMID: 22982732 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 08/02/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The value of animal studies to assess drug safety is unclear because many such studies are biased and have methodological shortcomings. We studied whether post-marketing serious adverse reactions to small molecule drugs could have been detected on the basis of animal study data included in drug registration files. Of 93 serious adverse reactions related to 43 small molecule drugs, only 19% were identified in animal studies as a true positive outcome, which suggests that data from animal studies are of limited value to pharmacovigilance activities. Our study shows that drug registration files can be used to study the predictive value of animal studies and that the value of animal studies in all stages of the drug development should be investigated in a collaborative endeavour between regulatory authorities, industry, and academia.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The concept of conserved processes presents unique opportunities for using nonhuman animal models in biomedical research. However, the concept must be examined in the context that humans and nonhuman animals are evolved, complex, adaptive systems. Given that nonhuman animals are examples of living systems that are differently complex from humans, what does the existence of a conserved gene or process imply for inter-species extrapolation? METHODS We surveyed the literature including philosophy of science, biological complexity, conserved processes, evolutionary biology, comparative medicine, anti-neoplastic agents, inhalational anesthetics, and drug development journals in order to determine the value of nonhuman animal models when studying conserved processes. RESULTS Evolution through natural selection has employed components and processes both to produce the same outcomes among species but also to generate different functions and traits. Many genes and processes are conserved, but new combinations of these processes or different regulation of the genes involved in these processes have resulted in unique organisms. Further, there is a hierarchy of organization in complex living systems. At some levels, the components are simple systems that can be analyzed by mathematics or the physical sciences, while at other levels the system cannot be fully analyzed by reducing it to a physical system. The study of complex living systems must alternate between focusing on the parts and examining the intact whole organism while taking into account the connections between the two. Systems biology aims for this holism. We examined the actions of inhalational anesthetic agents and anti-neoplastic agents in order to address what the characteristics of complex living systems imply for inter-species extrapolation of traits and responses related to conserved processes. CONCLUSION We conclude that even the presence of conserved processes is insufficient for inter-species extrapolation when the trait or response being studied is located at higher levels of organization, is in a different module, or is influenced by other modules. However, when the examination of the conserved process occurs at the same level of organization or in the same module, and hence is subject to study solely by reductionism, then extrapolation is possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray Greek
- Americans For Medical Advancement (www.AFMA-curedisease.org), 2251 Refugio Rd, Goleta, CA, 93117, USA
| | - Mark J Rice
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, PO Box 100254, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0254, USA
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Tsoulfas G. Commentary on "Interaction between Kupffer cells and platelets in the early period of hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury". J Surg Res 2012; 179:e51-2. [PMID: 22494915 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2012.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2012] [Revised: 01/28/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Tsoulfas
- Department of Surgery, Aristoteleion University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece.
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68
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Nambiar PR, Turnquist SE, Morton D. Spontaneous tumor incidence in rasH2 mice: review of internal data and published literature. Toxicol Pathol 2012; 40:614-23. [PMID: 22328410 DOI: 10.1177/0192623311436181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Alternate transgenic mouse models are accepted as replacements for the standard carcinogenicity mouse bioassay by regulatory agencies with a companion 2-year rat bioassay. The slower rate of industry acceptance of these shorter transgenic mouse cancer bioassays has been due to lack of historical data and diagnostic criteria, and the use of nonstandardized terminologies in published data. To address these issues, especially that of generating a large historical database, a retrospective analysis of the spontaneous tumor incidences in rasH2 mice from internally sponsored 6-month carcinogenicity studies was compared to the published literature. Incidences of common spontaneous tumors (incidences > 1%) observed in these studies were lung bronchiolo-alveolar adenomas (mean 3.9-9.9%; range 0-18%), lung bronchiolo-alveolar adenocarcinomas (mean 1.4-2.4%; range 0-5%), splenic hemangiosarcomas (mean 3.0-3.9%; range 0-17%), cutaneous squamous cell papillomas (mean 1.1-1.2%; range 0-4%), Harderian gland adenoma (mean 0.8-1.2%; range 0-4%), and hepatocellular adenomas (mean 1.8%; 0-9% in males only). The remarkable similarity in the tumor incidences in multiple rasH2 studies over a decade and the observed stability of the inserted human gene are important indicators of the minimal drift in this model. Overall, the historical control data for spontaneous neoplasms should assist in the interpretation of future rasH2 mouse studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prashant R Nambiar
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., Groton, Connecticut 06340, USA.
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Abstract
Diabetes is one of the major global public health problems and is gradually getting worse particularly in developing nations where 95% of patients are suffering from type 2 diabetes (T2D). Animal models in diabetes research are very common where rodents are the best choice of use due to being smaller in size, easy to handle, omnivorous in nature, and non-wild tranquil behavior. Normally rodent models are classified into two major classes namely: (1) genetic or spontaneously induced models and (2) non-genetic or experimentally induced models. Non-genetic models are more popular compared to genetic models due to lower cost, wider availability, easier to induce diabetes, and of course easier to maintain compared to genetic models. A number of non-genetic models have been developed in last three decades for diabetes research including adult alloxan/streptozotocin (STZ) models, partial pancreatectomy model, high-fat (HF) diet-fed models, fructose-fed models, HF diet-fed STZ models, nicotinamide-STZ models, monosodium-glutamate (MSG) induced models, and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) models. A T2D model should have the all major pathogenesis of the disease usually found in humans; however, none of the above-mentioned models are without limitations. This chapter comparatively evaluates most of the experimentally induced rodent models of T2D with their limitations, advantages, disadvantages, and criticality of development in order to help diabetes research groups to more appropriately select the animal models to work on their specific research question.
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Abstract
Personalized medicine is based on intraspecies differences. It is axiomatic that small differences in genetic make-up can result in dramatic differences in response to drugs or disease. To express this in more general terms: in any given complex system, small changes in initial conditions can result in dramatically different outcomes. Despite human variability and intraspecies variation in other species, nonhuman species are still the primary model for ascertaining data for humans. We call this practice into question and conclude that human-based research should be the primary means for obtaining data about human diseases and responses to drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andre Menache
- Americans For Medical Advancement, 2251 Refugio Rd, Goleta, CA 93117, USA
| | - Mark J Rice
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, PO Box 100254, Gainesville, FL 32610-0254, USA
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71
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Patients are not rodents writ large. Am J Med Sci 2011; 342:345. [PMID: 21952175 DOI: 10.1097/maj.0b013e3182323f78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Differential down-modulation of HLA class I and II molecule expression on human tumor cell lines upon in vivo transfer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2011; 60:1639-45. [PMID: 21833593 PMCID: PMC3197938 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-011-1086-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2010] [Accepted: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Previous evidence from our laboratory showed that Epstein–Barr virus–immortalized lymphoblastoid B cells undergo a prominent down-modulation of HLA-II molecule expression when injected intraperitoneally in SCID mice, while HLA-I remains almost unaffected. Since this phenomenon can alter the experimental outcome of therapeutic protocols of adoptive cell therapy, we decided to evaluate the behavior of MHC antigens in a panel of cell lines belonging to the B- and T-cell lineages, as well as in epithelial tumor cell lines. Cells were administered in mice either intraperitoneally or subcutaneously and recovered 4 days later for HLA molecule expression analysis. Collected data showed a highly heterogeneous in vivo behavior of the various cell lines, which could alternatively down-modulate, completely abrogate or maintain unchanged the expression of either MHC-I or MHC-II molecules. Moreover, the site of injection impacted differentially on these aspects. Although such phenomena still lack a comprehensive clarification, epigenetic mechanisms are likely to be involved as epigenetic drugs could partially counteract MHC down-modulation in vivo. Nonetheless, it has to be pointed out that careful attention must be paid to the assessment of therapeutic efficacy of translational protocols of adoptive immunotherapy, as modulation of MHC molecules on human target cells when transferred in a mouse environment could readily interfere with the desired and expected therapeutic effects.
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73
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Abstract
During liver resection surgery for cancer or liver transplantation, the liver is subject to ischaemia (reduction in blood flow) followed by reperfusion (restoration of blood flow), which results in liver injury [ischemia-reperfusion (IR) or IR injury]. Modulation of IR injury can be achieved in various ways. These include hypothermia, ischaemic preconditioning (IPC) (brief cycles of ischaemia followed by reperfusion of the organ before the prolonged period of ischaemia i.e. a conditioning response), ischaemic postconditioning (conditioning after the prolonged period of ischaemia but before the reperfusion), pharmacological agents to decrease IR injury, genetic modulation of IR injury, and machine perfusion (pulsatile perfusion). Hypothermia decreases the metabolic functions and the oxygen consumption of organs. Static cold storage in University of Wisconsin solution reduces IR injury and has prolonged organ storage and improved the function of transplanted grafts. There is currently no evidence for any clinical advantage in the use of alternate solutions for static cold storage. Although experimental data from animal models suggest that IPC, ischaemic postconditioning, various pharmacological agents, gene therapy, and machine perfusion decrease IR injury, none of these interventions can be recommended in clinical practice. This is because of the lack of randomized controlled trials assessing the safety and efficacy of ischaemic postconditioning, gene therapy, and machine perfusion. Randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials assessing the safety and efficacy of IPC and various pharmacological agents have demonstrated biochemical or histological improvements but this has not translated to clinical benefit. Further well designed randomized controlled trials are necessary to assess the various new protective strategies in liver resection.
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74
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Greek R, Greek J. Is the use of sentient animals in basic research justifiable? Philos Ethics Humanit Med 2010; 5:14. [PMID: 20825676 PMCID: PMC2949619 DOI: 10.1186/1747-5341-5-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Accepted: 09/08/2010] [Indexed: 05/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals can be used in many ways in science and scientific research. Given that society values sentient animals and that basic research is not goal oriented, the question is raised: "Is the use of sentient animals in basic research justifiable?" We explore this in the context of funding issues, outcomes from basic research, and the position of society as a whole on using sentient animals in research that is not goal oriented. We conclude that the use of sentient animals in basic research cannot be justified in light of society's priorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray Greek
- Americans For Medical Advancement, 2251 Refugio Rd, Goleta, CA 93117, USA
| | - Jean Greek
- Americans For Medical Advancement, 2251 Refugio Rd, Goleta, CA 93117, USA
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75
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de Jong M, Maina T. Of mice and humans: are they the same?--Implications in cancer translational research. J Nucl Med 2010; 51:501-4. [PMID: 20237033 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.109.065706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal models have been instrumental in elucidating key biochemical and physiologic processes of cancer onset and propagation in a living organism. Most importantly, they have served as a surrogate for patients in the evaluation of novel diagnostic and therapeutic anticancer drugs, including radiopharmaceuticals. Experimental tumors raised in rodents constitute the major preclinical tool of new-agent screening before clinical testing. Such models for oncologic applications today include solid tumors raised in syngeneic fully immunocompetent hosts and human xenografts induced in immunodeficient mouse strains, and tumors spontaneously growing in genetically engineered mice represent the newest front-line experimental modality. The power of these models to predict clinical efficacy is a matter of dispute, as each model presents inherent strengths and weaknesses in faithfully mirroring the extremely complex process of human carcinogenesis. Differences in size and physiology, as well as variations in the homology of targets between mice and humans, may lead to translational limitations. Other factors affecting the predictive power of preclinical models may be animal handling during experimentation and suboptimal compilation and interpretation of preclinical data. However, animal models will remain a unique source of in vivo information and the irreplaceable link between in vitro studies and our patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion de Jong
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Greek J, Shanks N. Thoughts on animal models for human disease and treatment. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2009; 235:363; author reply 364. [PMID: 19681714 DOI: 10.2460/javma.235.4.363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Shanks N, Greek R, Greek J. Are animal models predictive for humans? Philos Ethics Humanit Med 2009; 4:2. [PMID: 19146696 PMCID: PMC2642860 DOI: 10.1186/1747-5341-4-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 438] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2008] [Accepted: 01/15/2009] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
It is one of the central aims of the philosophy of science to elucidate the meanings of scientific terms and also to think critically about their application. The focus of this essay is the scientific term predict and whether there is credible evidence that animal models, especially in toxicology and pathophysiology, can be used to predict human outcomes. Whether animals can be used to predict human response to drugs and other chemicals is apparently a contentious issue. However, when one empirically analyzes animal models using scientific tools they fall far short of being able to predict human responses. This is not surprising considering what we have learned from fields such evolutionary and developmental biology, gene regulation and expression, epigenetics, complexity theory, and comparative genomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niall Shanks
- Wichita State University, Department of History, 1845 N Fairmont, Fiske Hall, Wichita KS 67260, USA
| | - Ray Greek
- Americans For Medical Advancement, 2251 Refugio Rd Goleta, CA 93117, USA
| | - Jean Greek
- Americans For Medical Advancement, 2251 Refugio Rd Goleta, CA 93117, USA
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Animal models of cancer in interventional radiology. Eur Radiol 2009; 19:1049-53. [PMID: 19137307 DOI: 10.1007/s00330-008-1263-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2008] [Accepted: 11/23/2008] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Animal models will play an increasingly important role in oncology research, especially for solid tumours such as hepatocellular carcinoma that are resistant to chemotherapy. Many models have been used, but there is a need for increased awareness of the limitations of these models and also a need for guidance for future model development.
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