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Liang S, Fu C, Wagner D, Guo H, Zhan D, Dong C, Long M. Two-dimensional kinetics of beta 2-integrin and ICAM-1 bindings between neutrophils and melanoma cells in a shear flow. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2008; 294:C743-53. [PMID: 18199704 PMCID: PMC2678683 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00250.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Cell adhesion, mediated by specific receptor-ligand interactions, plays an important role in biological processes such as tumor metastasis and inflammatory cascade. For example, interactions between beta 2-integrin (lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 and/or Mac-1) on polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) and ICAM-1 on melanoma cells initiate the bindings of melanoma cells to PMNs within the tumor microenvironment in blood flow, which in turn activate PMN-melanoma cell aggregation in a near-wall region of the vascular endothelium, therefore enhancing subsequent extravasation of melanoma cells in the microcirculations. Kinetics of integrin-ligand bindings in a shear flow is the determinant of such a process, which has not been well understood. In the present study, interactions of PMNs with WM9 melanoma cells were investigated to quantify the kinetics of beta 2-integrin and ICAM-1 bindings using a cone-plate viscometer that generates a linear shear flow combined with a two-color flow cytometry technique. Aggregation fractions exhibited a transition phase where it first increased before 60 s and then decreased with shear durations. Melanoma-PMN aggregation was also found to be inversely correlated with the shear rate. A previously developed probabilistic model was modified to predict the time dependence of aggregation fractions at different shear rates and medium viscosities. Kinetic parameters of beta 2-integrin and ICAM-1 bindings were obtained by individual or global fittings, which were comparable to respectively published values. These findings provide new quantitative understanding of the biophysical basis of leukocyte-tumor cell interactions mediated by specific receptor-ligand interactions under shear flow conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shile Liang
- Dept. of Bioengineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802-6804, USA
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52
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Phadke PA, Vaidya KS, Nash KT, Hurst DR, Welch DR. BRMS1 suppresses breast cancer experimental metastasis to multiple organs by inhibiting several steps of the metastatic process. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2008; 172:809-17. [PMID: 18276787 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2008.070772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) inhibits formation of macroscopic lung metastases in breast, ovary, and melanoma xenograft models. Because it is unclear which step(s) of the metastatic cascade are affected by BRMS1, the major aim of this study was to determine when and how BRMS1 acts to suppress metastasis. We also examined whether BRMS1 expression globally blocks metastasis or selectively inhibits metastatic outgrowths in specific tissues. Metastatic human breast carcinoma cell lines MDA-MB-231 and -435 expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP; 231 GFP and 435 GFP) and cell lines transduced with the BRMS1 gene (231 GFP-BRMS1 and 435 GFP-BRMS1) were injected into the left cardiac ventricle to achieve the widest possible cellular distribution, by minimizing first-pass clearance in the lungs. Compared with parental cells, BRMS1-expressing clones formed significantly fewer metastases in all organs tested. When cells were injected directly into the vasculature, fewer of the BRMS1-expressing cells reached lungs or bone compared with parental cells, suggesting that restoration of BRMS1 expression increased cell death during transit. Susceptibility to anoikis was verified in vitro by demonstrating decreased survival on poly-hydroxyethyl methacrylate-coated dishes. Most of the BRMS1-expressing cells reaching secondary sites failed to proliferate, suggesting that BRMS1 also inhibits colonization. Coupled with previous reports showing modest effects of BRMS1 on adhesion and invasion, our results indicate that BRMS1 inhibits metastases in multiple organs by blocking several steps in the metastatic cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pushkar A Phadke
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0019, USA
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53
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Duffy MJ, McGowan PM, Gallagher WM. Cancer invasion and metastasis: changing views. J Pathol 2007; 214:283-93. [DOI: 10.1002/path.2282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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54
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55
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Urquidi V, Goodison S. Genomic signatures of breast cancer metastasis. Cytogenet Genome Res 2007; 118:116-29. [PMID: 18000362 DOI: 10.1159/000108292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2006] [Accepted: 09/28/2006] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite significant advances in the treatment of primary cancer, the ability to predict the metastatic behavior of a patient's cancer, as well as to detect and eradicate such recurrences, remain major clinical challenges in oncology. While many potential molecular biomarkers have been identified and tested previously, none have greatly improved the accuracy of specimen evaluation over routine histopathological criteria and they predict individual outcomes poorly. However, the recent introduction of high-throughput microarray technology has opened new avenues in genomic investigation of cancer, and through application in tissue-based studies and appropriate animal models, has facilitated the identification of gene expression signatures that are associated with the lethal progression of breast cancer. The use of these approaches has the potential to greatly impact our knowledge of tumor biology, to provide efficient biomarkers, and enable development towards customized prognostication and therapies for the individual.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Urquidi
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida, Jacksonville, FL, USA
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56
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Sharma A, Tran MA, Liang S, Sharma AK, Amin S, Smith CD, Dong C, Robertson GP. Targeting mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase in the mutant (V600E) B-Raf signaling cascade effectively inhibits melanoma lung metastases. Cancer Res 2007; 66:8200-9. [PMID: 16912199 PMCID: PMC2777627 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-0809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Malignant melanoma has a high propensity for metastatic spread, making it the most deadly form of skin cancer. B-RAF has been identified as the most mutated gene in these invasive cells and therefore an attractive therapeutic target. However, for uncertain reasons, chemotherapy inhibiting B-Raf has not been clinically effective. This has raised questions whether this pathway is important in melanoma metastasis or whether targeting a protein other than B-Raf in the signaling cascade could more effectively inhibit this pathway to reduce lung metastases. Here, we investigated the role played by (V600E)B-Raf in melanoma metastasis and showed that targeting this signaling cascade significantly reduces lung metastases. Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated inhibition was used in mice to reduce expression (activity) of each member of the signaling cascade and effects on metastasis development were measured. Targeting any member of the signaling cascade reduced metastasis but inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (Mek) 1 and Mek 2 almost completely prevented lung tumor development. Mechanistically, metastatic inhibition was mediated through reduction of melanoma cell extravasation through the endothelium and decreased proliferative capacity. Targeting B-Raf with the pharmacologic inhibitor BAY 43-9006, which was found ineffective in clinical trials and seems to act primarily as an angiogenesis inhibitor, did not decrease metastasis, whereas inhibition of Mek using U0126 decreased cellular proliferative capacity, thereby effectively reducing number and size of lung metastases. In summary, this study provides a mechanistic basis for targeting Mek and not B-Raf in the mutant (V600E)B-Raf signaling cascade to inhibit melanoma metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arati Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Pennsylvania
| | - Melissa A. Tran
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Pennsylvania
| | - Shile Liang
- Department of Bioengineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Arun K. Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Pennsylvania
- The Penn State Melanoma Therapeutics Program, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Shantu Amin
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Pennsylvania
- The Penn State Melanoma Therapeutics Program, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Charles D. Smith
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Pennsylvania
- The Penn State Melanoma Therapeutics Program, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Cheng Dong
- The Penn State Melanoma Therapeutics Program, Hershey, Pennsylvania
- Department of Bioengineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Gavin P. Robertson
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Pennsylvania
- Department of Pathology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Pennsylvania
- Department of Dermatology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Pennsylvania
- The Foreman Foundation for Melanoma Research Hershey, Pennsylvania
- The Penn State Melanoma Therapeutics Program, Hershey, Pennsylvania
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Champine PJ, Michaelson J, Weimer BC, Welch DR, DeWald DB. Microarray analysis reveals potential mechanisms of BRMS1-mediated metastasis suppression. Clin Exp Metastasis 2007; 24:551-65. [PMID: 17896182 PMCID: PMC2214901 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-007-9092-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2007] [Accepted: 07/27/2007] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
We used Affymetrix microarrays to compare gene expression profiles of the metastatic parental breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-435 (435) and the non-metastatic daughter cell line created by the stable expression of the BReast cancer Metastasis Suppressor 1 (BRMS1) gene in 435 cells, MDA-MB-435-BRMS1 (435/BRMS1). Analysis of microarray data provided insight into some of the potential mechanisms by which BRMS1 inhibits tumor formation at secondary sites. Furthermore, due to the importance of the microenvironment, we also examined gene expression under different growth conditions (i.e., plus or minus serum). Expression of 565 genes was significantly (adjusted P-value <0.05) altered regardless of in vitro growth conditions. BRMS1 expression significantly increased multiple major histocompatability complex (MHC) genes and significantly decreased expression of several genes associated with protein localization and secretion. The pattern of gene expression associated with BRMS1 expression suggests that metastasis suppression may be mediated by enhanced immune recognition, altered transport, and/or secretion of metastasis-associated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia J. Champine
- Center for Integrated BioSystems, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4700, USA
| | - Jacob Michaelson
- Center for Integrated BioSystems, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4700, USA
| | - Bart C. Weimer
- Center for Integrated BioSystems, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4700, USA
| | - Danny R. Welch
- Department of Pathology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0019, USA
- National Foundation for Cancer Research, Center for Metastasis Research, Logan, Utah 84322-5305, USA
| | - Daryll B. DeWald
- National Foundation for Cancer Research, Center for Metastasis Research, Logan, Utah 84322-5305, USA
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-5305, USA
- Correspondence to: D.B. DeWald, Department of Biology and Center for Integrated BioSystems, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-5305 (435)-797-1909
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Liang S, Sharma A, Peng HH, Robertson G, Dong C. Targeting mutant (V600E) B-Raf in melanoma interrupts immunoediting of leukocyte functions and melanoma extravasation. Cancer Res 2007; 67:5814-20. [PMID: 17575149 PMCID: PMC2724629 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-4233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) facilitate melanoma cell extravasation under dynamic flow conditions by the binding of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) on melanoma cells to beta2 integrins on PMNs, which is mediated by endogenously produced chemokine interleukin 8 (IL-8) from the tumor microenvironment. However, little is known about the role of B-Raf, the most mutated gene in malignant melanomas, in this process. In this study, we investigated the functional importance of B-Raf in melanoma extravasation by using short interfering RNA to reduce expression/activity of mutant (V600E)B-Raf in melanoma. Results indicated that knockdown of mutant (V600E)B-Raf inhibited melanoma cell extravasation in vitro and subsequent lung metastasis development in vivo. Mechanistic studies showed that inhibition of (V600E)B-Raf significantly reduced the constitutive secretion of IL-8 from melanoma cells as well as the capacity of endogenous IL-8 production from the melanoma-PMN microenvironment. Furthermore, a reduction in ICAM-1 expression on melanoma cells was detected following mutant (V600E)B-Raf knockdown. Together, these results suggest that targeting mutant (V600E)B-Raf reduces melanoma cell extravasation by decreasing IL-8 production and interrupting ICAM-1-beta2 integrin binding of melanoma cells to the endothelium mediated by PMNs in the microcirculation, which provides a rationale and mechanistic basis for targeting mutant (V600E)B-Raf to inhibit melanoma extravasation and subsequent metastasis development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shile Liang
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Arati Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine
| | - Hsin-Hsin Peng
- Department of Bioengineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Gavin Robertson
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine
- Department of Pathology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine
- Department of Dermatology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine
- The Foreman Foundation for Melanoma Research
- The Penn State Melanoma Therapeutics Program, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Cheng Dong
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
- Department of Bioengineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
- The Penn State Melanoma Therapeutics Program, Hershey, Pennsylvania
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59
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Singh LS, Berk M, Oates R, Zhao Z, Tan H, Jiang Y, Zhou A, Kirmani K, Steinmetz R, Lindner D, Xu Y. Ovarian cancer G protein-coupled receptor 1, a new metastasis suppressor gene in prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007; 99:1313-27. [PMID: 17728215 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djm107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metastasis is a process by which tumors spread from primary organs to other sites in the body and is the major cause of death for cancer patients. The ovarian cancer G protein-coupled receptor 1 (OGR1) gene has been shown to be expressed at lower levels in metastatic compared with primary prostate cancer tissues. METHODS We used an orthotopic mouse metastasis model, in which we injected PC3 metastatic human prostate cancer cells stably transfected with empty vector (vector-PC3) or OGR1-expressing vector (OGR1-PC3) into the prostate lobes of athymic or NOD/SCID mice (n = 3-8 mice per group). Migration of PC3 cells transiently transfected with vector control or with OGR1- or GPR4 (a G protein-coupled receptor with the highest homology to OGR1)-expressing vectors was measured in vitro by Boyden chamber assays. G protein alpha-inhibitory subunit 1 (G alpha(i1)) expression after treatment with pertussis toxin (PTX) was measured using immunoblotting analysis. The inhibitory factor present in the conditioned medium was extracted using organic solvents and analyzed by mass spectrometry. RESULTS In vivo, all 26 mice carrying tumors that were derived from vector-PC3 cells developed prostate cancer metastases (mean = 100%, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 83.97% to 100%) but few (4 of 32) mice carrying tumors derived from OGR1-expressing PC3 cells (mean = 12.50%, 95% CI = 4.08% to 29.93%) developed metastases. However, exogenous OGR1 overexpression had no effect on primary prostate tumor growth in vivo. In vitro, expression of OGR1, but not GPR4, inhibited cell migration (mean percentage of cells migrated, 30.2% versus 100%, difference = 69.8%, 95% CI = 63.0% to 75.9%; P<.001) via increased expression of G alpha(i1) and the secretion of a chloroform/methanol-extractable heat-insensitive factor into the conditioned medium through a PTX-sensitive pathway. CONCLUSION OGR1 is a novel metastasis suppressor gene for prostate cancer. OGR1's constitutive activity via G alpha(i) contributes to its inhibitory effect on cell migration in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisam Shanjukumar Singh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 975 W. Walnut St, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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60
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Abstract
Metastasis is the most lethal attribute of cancer cells and clinical decisions regarding treatment are based largely upon the likelihood of developing metastases. However, improvements in detection as well as recent experimental data have raised questions about the most appropriate definition of a metastasis, especially whether the mere presence of cells at secondary sites constitute a metastatic lesion. After reviewing the experimental basis of metastasis, a definition of metastasis is proffered along with a proposal to consider regarding modification of staging parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny R Welch
- Department of Pathology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0019, USA.
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61
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Head K, Gong S, Joseph S, Wang C, Burkhardt T, Rossi MR, LaDuca J, Matsui SI, Vaughan M, Hicks DG, Heintz N, Cowell JK. Defining the expression pattern of the LGI1 gene in BAC transgenic mice. Mamm Genome 2007; 18:328-37. [PMID: 17565425 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-007-9024-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2007] [Accepted: 04/13/2007] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The LGI1 gene has been implicated in the development of epilepsy and the invasion phenotype of glial cells. Controversy over the specific tissue expression pattern of this gene has stemmed from conflicting reports generated using immunohistochemistry and the polymerase chain reaction. LGI1 is one of a four-member family of secreted proteins with high homology and here we demonstrate, using GFP-tagged constructs from the four LGI1family members, that commonly used antibodies against LGI1 cross-react with different family members. With the uncertainty surrounding the use of commercially available antibodies to truly establish the expression pattern of LGI1, we generated transgenic mice carrying the LGI1-containing BAC, RP23-127G7, which had been modified to express the GFP reporter gene under the control of the endogenous regulatory elements required for LGI1 expression. Three founder mice were generated, and immunohistochemistry was used to determine the tissue-specific pattern of expression. In the brain, distinct regions of glial and neuronal cell expression were identified, as well as the choriod plexus, which is largely pia-derived. In addition, strong expression levels were identified in glandular regions of the prostate, individual tubules in the kidney, sympathetic ganglia in the kidney, sebaceous glands in the skin, the islets of Langerhans, the endometrium, and the ovary and testes. All other major organs analyzed were negative. The pattern of reporter gene expression was identical in three individual founder mice, arguing against a position effect altering expression profile due to the integration site of the BAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Head
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Elm and Carlton Streets, Buffalo, New York 14263, USA
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Abstract
Most cancer deaths are due to the development of metastases, hence the most important improvements in morbidity and mortality will result from prevention (or elimination) of such disseminated disease. Some would argue that treatments directed against metastasis are too late because cells have already escaped from the primary tumour. Such an assertion runs contrary to the significant but (for many common adult cancers) fairly modest improvements in survival following the use of adjuvant radiation and chemotherapy designed to eliminate disseminated cells after surgical removal of the primary tumour. Nonetheless, the debate raises important issues concerning the accurate early identification of clonogenic, metastatic cells, the discovery of novel, tractable targets for therapy, and the monitoring of minimal residual disease. We focus on recent findings regarding intrinsic and extrinsic molecular mechanisms controlling metastasis that determine how, when, and where cancers metastasise, and their implications for patient management in the 21st century.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne A Eccles
- Tumour Biology and Metastasis, Cancer Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Institute of Cancer Research, Sutton, UK.
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63
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Fuchs B, Mahlum E, Halder C, Maran A, Yaszemski M, Bode B, Bolander M, Sarkar G. High expression of tumor endothelial marker 7 is associated with metastasis and poor survival of patients with osteogenic sarcoma. Gene 2007; 399:137-43. [PMID: 17560052 PMCID: PMC2066185 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2007.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2007] [Revised: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 05/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Our objective is to identify genes regulating metastasis of osteogenic sarcoma (OGS) since metastasis is the primary cause of mortality among patients with OGS. To identify such genes, we first created a database of differentially expressed genes between six low-grade and six high-grade OGS tumors, and between a normal immortalized osteoblast cell line (FOB) and four commercially available OGS-derived cell lines. We specifically searched for surface proteins over-expressed in high-grade OGS, since we hypothesize that tumor-cell specific surface markers are key to metastasis. A gene encoding Tumor Endothelial Marker7 (TEM7) was selected as a candidate for further study. TEM7 expression pattern was assessed by RT-PCR, Western blotting and immunostaining. TEM7 mRNA was abundantly expressed in SAOS cells (derived from high-grade OGS), but not in FOB or MG63 cells (derived from low-grade OGS). Virtually no expression of TEM7 protein was observed in FOB cells but abundant expression was noted in SAOS and TE85 cells. Employing immunostaining of 92 human OGS specimens (50 high-grade and 42 low-grade) collected before chemotherapy show 97% (37 of 38) of high-grade OGS specimens with metastasis have high TEM7 staining. Further, we found that elevated expression of TEM7 correlated with poor survival (p<0.04) of affected patients. Inhibiting TEM7 function by siRNA inhibited invasion and migration of OGS cells with metastatic potential. Our results suggest TEM7 expression level closely parallels histology-based prognostication of OGS metastasis and, therefore, it is a therapeutic target. This is the first demonstration of a link between TEM7 and cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Fuchs
- Department of Orthopedics, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st St Rochester, Minnesota 55905, United States
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64
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Arias JI, Aller MA, Sánchez-Patan F, Arias J. Inflammation and cancer: is trophism the link? Surg Oncol 2007; 15:235-42. [PMID: 17400443 DOI: 10.1016/j.suronc.2007.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2006] [Revised: 01/26/2007] [Accepted: 02/22/2007] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The pathophysiological mechanisms of the inflammatory response can be common to wound repair and tumor development. We propose that this response evolves in three phases, the nervous or immediate phase, the immune or intermediate phase, and the endocrine or late phase. In wound repair and in these phases, the interstitial space successively presents edema due to ischemia-revascularization and nutrition by diffusion (nervous phase), infiltration by leukocytes, which would mediate the nutrition of damaged neighbor cells (immune phase) and by angiogenesis, nutrition mediated by the capillaries that favor regeneration or scarring (endocrine phase). At the same time, in tumor development, it is considered that the cancerous cell successively occupies the interstitial space, expressing three different phenotypes: the hypoxia-reperfusion phenotype, with anaerobic glycolisis, oxidative stress and edema (dormant stage); the immune phenotype that expresses the functions corresponding to leukocytes, including the hyperproduction of pro-inflammatory mediators, lymphangiogenesis, the invasion of lymph nodes (N stage) and systemic inflammatory response syndrome; and lastly, the endocrine phenotype, in which the appearance of both local (tumor or T stage) and systemic (metastasis or M stage) angiogenesis induce a growing disease.
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65
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Abstract
One of the most aggressive cancers is hepatocellular carcinoma, which is associated with a very poor patient outcome due to a high recurrence rate and metastatic spread. NM23, the first metastasis suppressor gene to be identified, has been widely studied in human cancers. However, conflicting results have been obtained depending on the tumor type and the evaluation protocol. The current knowledge of NM23 as a diagnostic and/or prognostic marker in hepatocellular carcinoma is reviewed herein. Most studies demonstrate an inverse association between the expression of NM23-H1 and the metastatic potential, which is not observed with the closely related NM23-H2 isoform. Transfection of metastatic hepatoma cells with NM23 reduced their metastatic potential, as for other tumor cell lines. The demonstration of a causative role of NM23 in metastatic dissemination in a mouse model of hepatocarcinoma suggests that hepatocarcinoma-derived cells could be good models for the analysis of the molecular mechanisms involved in NM23 action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Boissan
- INSERM U680, Faculté de Médecine, Université P. et M. Curie (UPMC-Paris 6), 27 rue Chaligny, Paris, F-75012, France
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66
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Garzia L, Roma C, Tata N, Pagnozzi D, Pucci P, Zollo M. H-prune-nm23-H1 protein complex and correlation to pathways in cancer metastasis. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2007; 38:205-13. [PMID: 17103319 DOI: 10.1007/s10863-006-9036-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is a multi-step process, one of the latest events correspond to metastasis formation and dissemination, to date the major cause of deaths. The h-prune-nm23-H1 protein complex and its activation of PDE-cAMP activity have been shown to correlate with breast cancer progression and metastasis formation. Here, we describe the protein complex formation and its involvement in cell migration. By gene expression studies and protein-protein pull-down analyses coupled to mass spectrometry we have identified new genes and pathways along which the h-prune-nm23-H1 complex exerts its function. We review here h-prune binding to the glycogen synthase kinase (GSK-3beta) and identify a new h-prune protein partner, Gelsolin, an ATP severing protein acting in focal adhesions, in a MDA-435 breast cancer cellular model. The results presented here underline the importance of this protein complex leading to new translational studies involved into the inhibition of cell migration, thus enhancing the potential of using this knowledge to direct inhibition of metastases formation in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia Garzia
- Centro di Ingegneria Genetica e Biotecnologia Avanzate, CEINGE, Via Comunale Margherita 482, 80131, Naples, Italy
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67
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Kaetzel DM, Zhang Q, Yang M, McCorkle JR, Ma D, Craven RJ. Potential roles of 3'-5' exonuclease activity of NM23-H1 in DNA repair and malignant progression. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2007; 38:163-7. [PMID: 17039395 DOI: 10.1007/s10863-006-9040-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
NM23-H1 is a metastasis suppressor protein that exhibits 3'-5' exonuclease activity in vitro. As 3'-5' exonucleases are generally required for maintenance of genome integrity, this activity represents a plausible candidate mediator of the metastasis suppressor properties of the NM23-H1 molecule. Consistent with an antimutator function, ablation of the yeast NM23 homolog, YNK1, results in increased mutation rates following exposure to UV irradiation and exposure to the DNA damaging agents etoposide, cisplatin, and MMS. In human cells, a DNA repair function is further suggested by increased NM23-H1 expression and nuclear translocation following DNA damage. Also, forced expression of NM23-H1 in NM23-deficient and metastatic cell lines results in coordinate downregulation of multiple DNA repair genes, possibly reflecting genomic instability associated with the NM23-deficient state. To assess the relevance of the 3'-5' exonuclease activity of NM23-H1 to its antimutator and metastasis suppressor functions, a panel of mutants harboring defects in the 3'-5' exonuclease and other enzymatic activities of the molecule (NDPK, histidine kinase) have been expressed by stable transfection in the melanoma cell line, 1205Lu. Pilot in vivo metastasis assays indicate 1205Lu cells are highly responsive to the metastasis suppressor effects of NM23-H1, thus providing a valuable model for measuring the extent to which the nuclease function opposes metastasis and metastatic progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Kaetzel
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536-0298, USA.
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Hicks DG, Yoder BJ, Short S, Tarr S, Prescott N, Crowe JP, Dawson AE, Budd GT, Sizemore S, Cicek M, Choueiri TK, Tubbs RR, Gaile D, Nowak N, Accavitti-Loper MA, Frost AR, Welch DR, Casey G. Loss of breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 protein expression predicts reduced disease-free survival in subsets of breast cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 12:6702-8. [PMID: 17121889 PMCID: PMC1661839 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-0635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aims to determine the effect of loss of breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) protein expression on disease-free survival in breast cancer patients stratified by estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), or HER2 status, and to determine whether loss of BRMS1 protein expression correlated with genomic copy number changes. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN A tissue microarray immunohistochemical analysis was done on tumors of 238 newly diagnosed breast cancer patients who underwent surgery at the Cleveland Clinic between January 1, 1995 and December 31, 1996, and a comparison was made with 5-year clinical follow-up data. Genomic copy number changes were determined by array-based comparative genomic hybridization in 47 breast cancer cases from this population and compared with BRMS1 staining. RESULTS BRMS1 protein expression was lost in nearly 25% of cases. Patients with tumors that were PR negative (P=0.006) or HER2 positive (P=0.039) and <50 years old at diagnosis (P=0.02) were more likely to be BRMS1 negative. No overall correlation between BRMS1 staining and disease-free survival was observed. A significant correlation, however, was seen between loss of BRMS1 protein expression and reduced disease-free survival when stratified by either loss of ER (P=0.008) or PR (P=0.029) or HER2 overexpression (P=0.026). Overall, there was poor correlation between BRMS1 protein staining and copy number status. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest a mechanistic relationship between BRMS1 expression, hormone receptor status, and HER2 growth factor. BRMS1 staining could potentially be used in patient stratification in conjunction with other prognostic markers. Further, mechanisms other than genomic deletion account for loss of BRMS1 gene expression in breast tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sarah Short
- Departments of Clinical and Anatomic Pathology
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Steven Sizemore
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Muzaffer Cicek
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | | | | | - Daniel Gaile
- Roswell Park Cancer Research Institute, Buffalo, New York; and
| | - Norma Nowak
- Roswell Park Cancer Research Institute, Buffalo, New York; and
| | - Mary Ann Accavitti-Loper
- Department of Pathology and Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Andra R. Frost
- Department of Pathology and Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Danny R. Welch
- Department of Pathology and Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Graham Casey
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
- Requests for reprints: Graham Casey, Department of Cancer Biology, ND50, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195. Phone: 216-445-9754; Fax: 216-445-6269; E-mail:
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69
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Zhang Z, Yamashita H, Toyama T, Yamamoto Y, Kawasoe T, Iwase H. Reduced expression of the breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 mRNA is correlated with poor progress in breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 12:6410-4. [PMID: 17085653 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-1347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE It is well established that breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) suppresses metastasis of breast cancer in animal models without affecting the growth of the primary tumor. It has also been shown to suppress the metastasis of tumors derived from breast and melanoma cell lines. However, its clinical importance for breast cancer patients remains undetermined. This prompted us to investigate its expression level in breast cancer patients to clarify its clinical significance. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The level of expression of BRMS1 mRNA was assessed by LightCycler quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR in 161 cases of invasive carcinoma of the breast. Associations between BRMS1 mRNA expression and various clinicopathologic factors were sought. RESULTS It was found that BRMS1 mRNA was expressed at significantly higher levels in patients>50 years of age, with tumor size<2 cm, or with progesterone receptor-positive and HER2-negative tumors. No differences were found between BRMS1 mRNA expression and axillary lymph node metastasis and histologic grade groups. Patients with high levels of expression of BRMS1 mRNA have a better prognosis than those with low expression. Univariate and multivariate prognostic analysis showed that BRMS1 mRNA is an independent prognostic factor for disease-free survival in breast cancer. CONCLUSIONS These results provide clinical evidence to support the notion that BRMS1 is a breast carcinoma metastasis suppressor gene. Our results also suggest that measuring BRMS1 expression will help to identify those breast cancer patients with worse disease-free survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenhuan Zhang
- Department of Breast and Endocrine Surgery, Nagoya City University Hospital, Nagoya, Japan
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70
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Vasko VV, Saji M. Molecular mechanisms involved in differentiated thyroid cancer invasion and metastasis. Curr Opin Oncol 2007; 19:11-7. [PMID: 17133106 DOI: 10.1097/cco.0b013e328011ab86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The majority of patients with thyroid cancer have an excellent prognosis, however patients with extensive local invasion and distant metastasis frequently do not respond to standard treatments and have worsened prognosis. Understanding the specific mechanisms involved in thyroid cancer invasion and metastasis is critical in order to develop new treatments specifically targeted for these patients. RECENT FINDINGS The genetic basis for thyroid cancer initiation and development is well characterized, with the majority of studies implicating activation of the RAS-RAF-ERK and PI3K/PDK1/Akt signaling pathways. Over the last several years, data from a concerted effort to define the pathways involved in invasion and metastasis suggest that reactivation of embryonic pathways involved in cell movement, to include epithelial to mesenchymal transition and collective cell migration, may be involved in cancer cell migration and invasion. The previously identified thyroid oncogenes, BRAF, RET/PTC and Ras, appear to be important regulators of this process. SUMMARY The molecular mechanisms that control cell migration during embryological development, such as epithelial to mesenchymal transition, appear to be reactivated in invading thyroid cancer cells. Elucidation of the signal-transduction networks and molecules that are involved in thyroid cancer invasion may lead to novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasyl V Vasko
- Department of Pediatrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA.
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71
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Lombardi G, Di Cristofano C, Capodanno A, Iorio MC, Aretini P, Isola P, Tancredi M, Collecchi P, Naccarato AG, Porta RP, Bevilacqua G, Caligo MA. High level of messenger RNA forBRMS1 in primary breast carcinomas is associated with poor prognosis. Int J Cancer 2007; 120:1169-78. [PMID: 17163420 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.22379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BRMS1 is regarded as a metastasis suppressor gene for its ability to reduce metastatic potential of human and murine breast cancer cells as well as human melanoma cells. However, BRMS1 association to human tumor progression is not clearly understood. In the present study we analyzed BRMS1 mRNA expression in tumor progression and its potential prognostic value for breast carcinoma. BRMS1 mRNA expression level was quantified by real-time PCR in 47 tumoral, in 14 peritumoral and in 15 metastatic microdissected cellular populations from 47 breast cancer patients with 10-year follow up. We found BRMS1 expression to be higher in carcinoma cells than in matching normal epithelial cell populations in 10 out of 14 cases (p = 0.0005), while lymph-nodal carcinoma cells showed lower BRMS1 expression in 9 out of 15 cases (p = 0.001). Using both in vivo (human mammary breast carcinomas) and in vitro systems (breast cancer cell lines) we were able to demonstrate that BRMS1 overexpression was not a bias effect induced by cell proliferation rate. BRMS1 expression levels did not correlate with standard breast cancer prognostic factors but BRMS1 higher expression was associated with patient shorter disease-free and overall survival. Our findings are apparently inconsistent with the concept of BRMS1 as a metastasis suppressor gene. One possible explanation is that epithelial cells increase their BRMS1 expression as a compensatory response to tumor formation or metastasis progression, which is elevated in proportion to tumor aggressiveness, whereas those cells of the primary tumor that cannot upregulate BRMS1 escape to form metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazia Lombardi
- Division of Surgical, Molecular and Ultrastructural Pathology, Department of Oncology, University of Pisa and Pisa University Hospital, Via Roma 57, 56126 Pisa, Italy
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72
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Bandyopadhyay S, Wang Y, Zhan R, Pai SK, Watabe M, Iiizumi M, Furuta E, Mohinta S, Liu W, Hirota S, Hosobe S, Tsukada T, Miura K, Takano Y, Saito K, Commes T, Piquemal D, Hai T, Watabe K. The tumor metastasis suppressor gene Drg-1 down-regulates the expression of activating transcription factor 3 in prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2006; 66:11983-90. [PMID: 17178897 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-0943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The tumor metastasis suppressor gene Drg-1 has been shown to suppress metastasis without affecting tumorigenicity in immunodeficient mouse models of prostate and colon cancer. Expression of Drg-1 has also been found to have a significant inverse correlation with metastasis or invasiveness in various types of human cancer. However, how Drg-1 exerts its metastasis suppressor function remains unknown. In the present study, to elucidate the mechanism of action of the Drg-1 gene, we did a microarray analysis and found that induction of Drg-1 significantly inhibited the expression of activating transcription factor (ATF) 3, a member of the ATF/cyclic AMP-responsive element binding protein family of transcription factors. We also showed that Drg-1 attenuated the endogenous level of ATF3 mRNA and protein in prostate cancer cells, whereas Drg-1 small interfering RNA up-regulated the ATF3 expression. Furthermore, Drg-1 suppressed the promoter activity of the ATF3 gene, indicating that Drg-1 regulates ATF3 expression at the transcriptional level. Our immunohistochemical analysis on prostate cancer specimens revealed that nuclear expression of ATF3 was inversely correlated to Drg-1 expression and positively correlated to metastases. Consistently, we have found that ATF3 overexpression promoted invasiveness of prostate tumor cells in vitro, whereas Drg-1 suppressed the invasive ability of these cells. More importantly, overexpression of ATF3 in prostate cancer cells significantly enhanced spontaneous lung metastasis of these cells without affecting primary tumorigenicity in a severe combined immunodeficient mouse model. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that Drg-1 suppresses metastasis of prostate tumor cells, at least in part, by inhibiting the invasive ability of the cells via down-regulation of the expression of the ATF3 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sucharita Bandyopadhyay
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, Illinois 62794, USA
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73
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Zhang S, Lin QD, DI W. Suppression of human ovarian carcinoma metastasis by the metastasis-suppressor gene, BRMS1. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2006; 16:522-31. [PMID: 16681721 DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1438.2006.00547.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastasis-suppressor genes, by definition, suppress metastasis without affecting tumorigenicity and, hence, present attractive targets as prognostic or therapeutic markers. BRMS1 (breast cancer metastasis suppressor) has recently been identified as a metastasis-suppressor gene for human breast cancer and melanoma. Expression of BRMS1 messenger RNA (mRNA) in multitissue including normal prostate, ovarian, testis, and colon has been detected by northern blot analysis. We hypothesize that the role of BRMS1 in tumor progression may not be limited to breast cancer and melanoma. We previously found that BRMS1 mRNA levels in primary ovarian epithelial carcinomas were significantly lower than that in normal ovarian and benign tumors (P < 0.05), and statistical analysis of BRMS1 mRNA levels revealed that BRMS1 mRNA levels were significantly higher in early tumor stages (I, II) compared with advanced tumor stages (III, IV) in which lymph node or distant metastases were present (P < 0.01). Our data showed that reduced BRMS1 mRNA seems to influence ovarian carcinoma metastatic ability. Therefore, we transfected BRMS1 plasmid into highly malignant ovarian carcinoma cell line, HO-8910PM, and examined cell biologic behaviors including proliferation, adhesion, invasion, and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. BRMS1 expression did not alter the proliferation of HO-8910PM cells in vitro and primary tumor formation in vivo. But, BRMS1 expression significantly suppressed the cell adhesion to extracellular matrix components and in vitro cell invasion in BRMS1-transfected HO-8910PM cells compared to parental HO-8910PM and vector-only transfectants (HO-8910PM-vect). Furthermore, motility of BRMS1 transfectants was inhibited. lung colony formation of intravenously injected BRMS1 transfectants in nude mice was significantly reduced. Also, BRMS1 transfectants form significantly less metastatic to organs of peritoneal cavity in orthotopically implanted ovarian tumor nude models. We further discovered that BRMS1 expression did downregulate expression of an actin-bundling protein associated with cell motility -fascin, which perhaps is the mechanism underlying BRMS1 suppression of metastasis. These data suggested that in addition to its already described role in breast cancer and melanoma, BRMS1 functions as a metastasis-suppressor gene in ovarian carcinoma by modifying several metastatic-associated phenotypes, offering a new target for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Second Medical University, Shanghai, China
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74
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia S Steeg
- Women's Cancers Section, Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute Building 37, Room 1122, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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75
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Ranganathan AC, Adam AP, Aguirre-Ghiso JA. Opposing roles of mitogenic and stress signaling pathways in the induction of cancer dormancy. Cell Cycle 2006; 5:1799-807. [PMID: 16929185 PMCID: PMC2517052 DOI: 10.4161/cc.5.16.3109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer dormancy is a poorly understood stage of cancer progression. However, the ability to control this step of the disease offers novel therapeutic opportunities. Here we summarize recent findings that implicate the extracellular matrix and adhesion receptor signaling in the escape or induction of tumor dormancy. We further review evidence suggesting that imbalances in the activity ratio of ERK to p38 signaling may determine the fate (i.e., tumorigenicity vs. dormancy) of different carcinoma cells. Special attention is placed on the mechanisms that p38 signaling regulates during the induction of dormancy and how modulation of these pathways may offer a therapeutic opportunity. We also review evidence for a novel drug-resistance mechanism in dormant tumor cells that when blocked may enable killing of dormant tumor cells. Finally, we explore the notion that dormancy of tumor cells may be the result of a selective adaptive response that allows disseminated tumor cells to pause their growth and cope with stress signaling imposed by dissemination and/or treatment until growth can be restored.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Julio A. Aguirre-Ghiso
- Correspondence to: Julio A. Aguirre-Ghiso; Gen*NY*Sis Center For Excellence in Cancer Genomics, Room 216; 1 Discovery Drive; Rensselaer, New York 12144-3456 USA; Tel.: 518.591.7152; Fax: 518.591.7151;
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76
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Su B, Zheng Q, Vaughan MM, Bu Y, Gelman IH. SSeCKS metastasis-suppressing activity in MatLyLu prostate cancer cells correlates with vascular endothelial growth factor inhibition. Cancer Res 2006; 66:5599-607. [PMID: 16740695 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-4123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
SSeCKS, a Src-suppressed protein kinase C substrate with metastasis suppressor activity, is the rodent orthologue of human gravin/AKAP12, a scaffolding protein for protein kinase A and protein kinase C. We show here that the tetracycline-regulated reexpression of SSeCKS in MatLyLu (MLL) prostate cancer cells suppressed formation of macroscopic lung metastases in both spontaneous and experimental models of in vivo metastasis while having minimal inhibitory effects on the growth of primary-site s.c. tumors. SSeCKS decreased angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo by suppressing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in MLL tumor cells as well as in stromal cells. The forced reexpression of VEGF(165) and VEGF(121) isoforms was sufficient to reverse aspects of SSeCKS metastasis-suppressor activity in both the experimental and spontaneous models. SSeCKS reexpression in MLL cells resulted in the down-regulation of proangiogenic genes, such as osteopontin, tenascin C, KGF, angiopoietin, HIF-1alpha, and PDGFRbeta, and the up-regulation of antiangiogenic genes, such as vasostatin and collagen 18a1, a precursor of endostatin. These results suggest that SSeCKS suppresses formation of metastatic lesions by inhibiting VEGF expression and by inducing soluble antiangiogenic factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Su
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York, USA
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77
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Rinker-Schaeffer CW, O’Keefe JP, Welch DR, Theodorescu D. Metastasis suppressor proteins: discovery, molecular mechanisms, and clinical application. Clin Cancer Res 2006; 12:3882-9. [PMID: 16818682 PMCID: PMC1525213 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-1014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Clinically and experimentally, primary tumor formation and metastasis are distinct processes — locally growing tumors can progress without the development of metastases. This observation prompted the hypothesis that the molecular processes regulating tumorigenicity and metastasis are distinguishable and could be targeted therapeutically. During the process of transformation and subsequent progression to a malignant phenotype, both genetic and epigenetic alterations alter a cell’s ability to perceive and respond to signals that regulate normal tissue homeostasis. A minority of tumorigenic cells accrue the full complement of alterations that enables them to disseminate from the primary tumor, survive insults from the immune system and biophysical forces, and respond to growth-promoting and/or inhibitory signals from the distant tissues and thrive there. Identification of genes and proteins that specifically inhibit the ability of cells to form metastases (e.g., metastasis suppressors) is providing new insights into the molecular mechanisms that regulate this complex process. This review will highlight: (a ) the functional identification of metastasis suppressors, (b ) the signaling cascades and cellular phenotypes which are controlled or modulated by metastasis suppressors, and (c ) op portunities for translation and clinical trials that are based on mechanistic studies regarding metastasis suppressors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - James P. O’Keefe
- Section of Urology, Department of Surgery, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Danny R. Welch
- Departments of Pathology, Cell Biology, and Pharmacology/Toxicology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama-Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Dan Theodorescu
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville, Virginia
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78
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Lee HJ, Lee EK, Lee KJ, Hong SW, Yoon Y, Kim JS. Ectopic expression of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin suppresses the invasion and liver metastasis of colon cancer cells. Int J Cancer 2006; 118:2490-7. [PMID: 16381001 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.21657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), also known as lipocalin 2, is a 25-kDa lipocalin initially purified from neutrophil granules. It is thought to play a role in regulating cellular growth since its expression is highly upregulated in a variety of proliferative cells such as cancer cells. However, experimental evidence showing a clear causal relationship between NGAL expression and the proliferation of tumor cells is lacking. Here, we found NGAL expression in highly and poorly metastatic colon cancer cell lines of the same genetic origin correlated inversely with the metastatic potential of these cells, which suggests NGAL participates in the metastatic process. To explore the role NGAL plays in tumor growth and metastasis, the KM12SM human colon cancer cell line, which is highly metastatic while showing decreased NGAL expression, was genetically manipulated to overexpress NGAL. The effects of this on tumor growth and liver metastasis were then analyzed using experimental animal models established by injecting BALB/c nude mice with tumor cells subcutaneously or intrasplenically. Ectopic expression of NGAL in the colon cancer cells had little effect on the growth and viability of the tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo. However, NGAL expression not only suppressed the ability of the colon carcinoma cells to invade Matrigel in vitro, it also substantially inhibited liver metastasis in an experimental animal model. Collectively, these results indicate that NGAL may be a candidate metastasis suppressor in colon cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Jeong Lee
- New Biologics Team, Mogam Biotechnology Research Institute, Yongin-city, Republic of Korea
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79
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Kim JH, Choi HJ, Kim B, Kim MH, Lee JM, Kim IS, Lee MH, Choi SJ, Kim KI, Kim SI, Chung CH, Baek SH. Roles of sumoylation of a reptin chromatin-remodelling complex in cancer metastasis. Nat Cell Biol 2006; 8:631-9. [PMID: 16699503 DOI: 10.1038/ncb1415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2006] [Accepted: 04/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Defining the functional modules within transcriptional regulatory factors that govern switching between repression and activation events is a central issue in biology. Recently, we have reported the dynamic role of a beta-catenin-reptin chromatin remodelling complex in regulating a metastasis suppressor gene KAI1 (ref.1), which is capable of inhibiting the progression of tumour metastasis. Here, we identify signalling factors that confer repressive function on reptin and hence repress the expression of KAI1. Biochemical purification of a reptin-containing complex has revealed the presence of specific desumoylating enzymes that reverse the sumoylation of reptin that underlies its function as a repressor. Desumoylation of reptin alters the repressive function of reptin and its association with HDAC1. Furthermore, the sumoylation status of reptin modulates the invasive activity of cancer cells with metastatic potential. These data clearly define a functional model and provide a novel link for SUMO modification in cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Hwa Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Research Center for Functional Cellulomics, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
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80
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Abstract
The use of molecular approaches has become part of the standard of care in the management of pediatric cancer patients. Molecular approaches are now included in the initial diagnosis, definition of prognostically distinct patient subgroups, selection of patients for specific therapies, prediction of risk for toxicities to therapy, and monitoring of patients receiving both conventional and novel targeted therapies. This clinical application of molecular medicine has been based on a growing molecular understanding of cancer biology. Studies of pediatric cancers have contributed to this understanding in many ways. We present a model for understanding cancer biology, using specific examples taken from pediatric oncology, and then discuss the application of molecular techniques to the clinical management of pediatric cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chand Khanna
- Tumor and Metastasis Biology Section, Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Rockville and Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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81
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Hickson JA, Huo D, Vander Griend DJ, Lin A, Rinker-Schaeffer CW, Yamada SD. The p38 kinases MKK4 and MKK6 suppress metastatic colonization in human ovarian carcinoma. Cancer Res 2006; 66:2264-70. [PMID: 16489030 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-3676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Despite considerable efforts to improve early detection of ovarian cancer, the majority of women at time of diagnosis will have metastatic disease. Understanding and targeting the molecular underpinnings of metastasis continues to be the principal challenge in the clinical management of ovarian cancer. Whereas the multistep process of metastasis development has been well established in both clinical and experimental models, the molecular factors and signaling pathways involved in successful colonization of a secondary site by disseminated cancer cells are not well defined. We have previously identified mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase 4/c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK)-activating kinase (MKK4/JNKK1/SEK1, hereafter referred to as MKK4) as a metastasis suppressor protein in ovarian carcinoma. In this study, we elucidate key mechanisms of MKK4-mediated metastasis suppression. Through the use of a kinase-inactive mutant, we show that MKK4 kinase activity is essential for metastasis suppression and prolongation of animal survival. Because MKK4 can activate either of two MAPKs, p38 or JNK, we expressed MKK6 or MKK7, specific activators of these MAPKs, respectively, to delineate which MAPK signaling module was involved in MKK4-mediated metastasis suppression. We observed that MKK6 expression suppressed metastatic colonization whereas MKK7 had no effect. Our finding that MKK4 and MKK6 both suppress metastasis points to the p38 pathway as an important regulatory pathway for metastatic colonization in ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A Hickson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Illinois, USA
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82
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Samant RS, Debies MT, Hurst DR, Moore BP, Shevde LA, Welch DR. Suppression of murine mammary carcinoma metastasis by the murine ortholog of breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (Brms1). Cancer Lett 2006; 235:260-5. [PMID: 15978719 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2005.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2005] [Revised: 04/10/2005] [Accepted: 04/18/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The murine ortholog (Brms1) of human breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 shares 95% identity to the human metastasis suppressor, BRMS1, in amino acid structure. We tested Brms1 for suppression of metastasis of mouse mammary carcinoma cell line 4T1 in syngenic BALB/c mice, using orthotopic (mammary fat pad) injection as well as intravenous injection. As observed for BRMS1, transfection with Brms1 did not inhibit 4T1 primary tumor formation, but significantly suppressed lung colonization. We also show that Brms1 protein interacts with histone deacetylases, indicating involvement of Brms1 in murine Sin3-HDAC complex, like its human counterpart. Thus, because of similarities with its human ortholog, the results suggest that Brms1 will be useful as a model for studying mechanism of action of BRMS1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev S Samant
- Cancer Research Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688, USA.
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83
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Xue C, Liang F, Mahmood R, Vuolo M, Wyckoff J, Qian H, Tsai KL, Kim M, Locker J, Zhang ZY, Segall JE. ErbB3-dependent motility and intravasation in breast cancer metastasis. Cancer Res 2006; 66:1418-26. [PMID: 16452197 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-0550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A better understanding of how epidermal growth factor receptor family members (ErbBs) contribute to metastasis is important for evaluating ErbB-directed therapies. Activation of ErbB3/ErbB2 heterodimers can affect both proliferation and motility. We find that increasing ErbB3-dependent signaling in orthotopic injection models of breast cancer can enhance intravasation and lung metastasis with no effect on primary tumor growth or microvessel density. Enhanced metastatic ability due to increased expression of ErbB2 or ErbB3 correlated with stronger chemotaxis and invasion responses to heregulin beta1. Suppression of ErbB3 expression reduced both intravasation and metastasis. A human breast cancer tumor tissue microarray showed a significant association between ErbB3 and ErbB2 expression and metastasis independent of tumor size. These results indicate that ErbB3-dependent signaling through ErbB3/ErbB2 heterodimers can contribute to metastasis through enhancing tumor cell invasion and intravasation in vivo and that ErbB-directed therapies may be useful for the inhibition of invasion independent of effects on tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengsen Xue
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10801, USA
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Nouhi Z, Chughtai N, Hartley S, Cocolakis E, Lebrun JJ, Ali S. Defining the role of prolactin as an invasion suppressor hormone in breast cancer cells. Cancer Res 2006; 66:1824-32. [PMID: 16452244 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-2292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Prolactin hormone (PRL) is well characterized as a terminal differentiation factor for mammary epithelial cells and as an autocrine growth/survival factor in breast cancer cells. However, this function of PRL may not fully signify its role in breast tumorigenesis. Cancer is a complex multistep progressive disease resulting not only from defects in cell growth but also in cell differentiation. Indeed, dedifferentiation of tumor cells is now recognized as a crucial event in invasion and metastasis. PRL plays a critical role in inducing/maintaining differentiation of mammary epithelial cells, suggesting that PRL signaling could serve to inhibit tumor progression. We show here that in breast cancer cells, PRL and Janus-activated kinase 2, a major kinase involved in PRL signaling, play a critical role in regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT), an essential process associated with tumor metastasis. Activation of the PRL receptor (PRLR), achieved by restoring PRL/JAK2 signaling in mesenchymal-like breast cancer cells, MDA-MB-231, suppressed their mesenchymal properties and reduced their invasive behavior. While blocking PRL autocrine function in epithelial-like breast cancer cells, T47D, using pharmacologic and genetic approaches induced mesenchymal-like phenotypic changes and enhanced their invasive propensity. Moreover, our results indicate that blocking PRL signaling led to activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2) and transforming growth factor-beta/Smad signaling pathways, two major prometastatic pathways. Furthermore, our results indicate that following PRL/JAK2 inhibition, ERK1/2 activation precedes and is required for Smad2 activation and EMT induction in breast cancer cells. Together, these results highlight PRL as a critical regulator of epithelial plasticity and implicate PRL as an invasion suppressor hormone in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaynab Nouhi
- Hormones and Cancer Research Unit, Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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85
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Gelman IH, Gao L. SSeCKS/Gravin/AKAP12 Metastasis Suppressor Inhibits Podosome Formation via RhoA- and Cdc42-Dependent Pathways. Mol Cancer Res 2006; 4:151-8. [PMID: 16547152 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-05-0252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Podosomes are poorly understood actin-rich structures notably found in cancer cell lines or in v-Src-transformed cells that are thought to facilitate some of the invasive properties involved in tumor metastasis. The enrichment of the Tks5/Fish protein, a v-Src substrate, is required for formation of podosomes. We showed previously that the tetracycline-regulated reexpression of the Src-suppressed C kinase substrate (SSeCKS, also known as Gravin/AKAP12) inhibited variables of v-Src-induced oncogenic growth in NIH3T3, correlating with the induction of normal actin cytoskeletal structures and cell morphology but not with gross inhibition of Src phosphorylation activity in the cell. Here, we show that SSeCKS reexpression at physiologic levels suppresses podosome formation, correlating with decreases in Matrigel invasiveness, whereas there is no effect on total cellular tyrosine phosphorylation or on the phosphorylation of Tks5/Fish. Activated forms of RhoA and Cdc42 were capable of rescuing podosome formation in v-Src cells reexpressing SSeCKS, and this correlated with the ability of SSeCKS to inhibit RhoA and Cdc42 activity levels by >5-fold. Interestingly, although activated Rac I had little effect on podosome formation, it could partner with activated RhoA to reverse the cell flattening induced by SSeCKS. These data suggest that v-Src-induced Tks5 tyrosine phosphorylation is insufficient for podosome formation in the absence of RhoA- and/or Cdc42-mediated cytoskeletal remodeling. Additionally, they strengthen the notion that SSeCKS suppresses Src-induced oncogenesis by reestablishing actin-based cytoskeletal architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irwin H Gelman
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Elm and Carlton Streets, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA.
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86
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Hagan S, Al-Mulla F, Mallon E, Oien K, Ferrier R, Gusterson B, García JJC, Kolch W. Reduction of Raf-1 kinase inhibitor protein expression correlates with breast cancer metastasis. Clin Cancer Res 2006; 11:7392-7. [PMID: 16243812 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-05-0283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Raf-1 kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP) was originally identified as the first physiologic inhibitor of the Raf/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway. This pathway regulates fundamental cellular functions, including those that are subverted in cancer cells, such as proliferation, transformation, survival, and metastasis. Recently, RKIP has been recognized as a strong candidate for a metastasis suppressor gene in cell and animal model systems. Therefore, we investigated whether RKIP expression is altered in clinical specimens of human primary breast cancers and their lymph node metastases. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Paraffin-embedded tumor samples from 103 breast cancer patients were examined immunohistochemically for the expression of RKIP, activated ERK, and apoptosis. The specificity of the antibodies used was validated by competition experiments with purified recombinant RKIP protein. RESULTS RKIP expression was high in breast duct epithelia and retained to varying degrees in primary breast tumors. However, in lymph node metastases, RKIP expression was highly significantly reduced or lost (P = 0.000003). No significant correlations were observed between RKIP expression and histologic type, tumor differentiation grade, size, or estrogen receptor status. CONCLUSION This is the first study of RKIP expression in a large clinical cohort. It confirms the results of cell culture and animal studies, suggesting that in human breast cancer, RKIP is a metastasis suppressor gene whose expression must be down-regulated for metastases to develop. RKIP expression is independent of other markers for breast cancer progression and prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Hagan
- Beatson Institute for Cancer Research, Signaling and Proteomics Laboratory, Glasgow, UK
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87
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Vander Griend DJ, Kocherginsky M, Hickson JA, Stadler WM, Lin A, Rinker-Schaeffer CW. Suppression of metastatic colonization by the context-dependent activation of the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase kinases JNKK1/MKK4 and MKK7. Cancer Res 2006; 65:10984-91. [PMID: 16322247 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-2382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Advances in clinical, translational, and basic studies of metastasis have identified molecular changes associated with specific facets of the metastatic process. Studies of metastasis suppressor gene function are providing a critical mechanistic link between signaling cascades and biological outcomes. We have previously identified c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) kinase 1/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase 4 (JNKK1/MKK4) as a prostate cancer metastasis suppressor gene. The JNKK1/MKK4 protein is a dual-specificity kinase that has been shown to phosphorylate and activate the JNK and p38 MAPKs in response to a variety of extracellular stimuli. In this current study, we show that the kinase activity of JNKK1/MKK4 is required for suppression of overt metastases and is sufficient to prolong animal survival in the AT6.1 model of spontaneous metastasis. Ectopic expression of the JNK-specific kinase MKK7 suppresses the formation of overt metastases, whereas the p38-specific kinase MKK6 has no effect. In vivo studies show that both JNKK1/MKK4 and MKK7 suppress the formation of overt metastases by inhibiting the ability of disseminated cells to colonize the lung (secondary site). Finally, we show that JNKK1/MKK4 and MKK7 from disseminated tumor cells are active in the lung but not in the primary tumor, providing a biochemical explanation for why their expression specifically suppressed metastasis while exerting no effect on the primary tumor. Taken together, these studies contribute to a mechanistic understanding of the context-dependent function of metastasis regulatory proteins.
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88
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Nash KT, Welch DR. The KISS1 metastasis suppressor: mechanistic insights and clinical utility. FRONT BIOSCI-LANDMRK 2006; 11:647-59. [PMID: 16146758 PMCID: PMC1343480 DOI: 10.2741/1824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma is a highly metastatic cancer that accounts for the majority of skin cancer deaths. Unfortunately, very few improvements have been made during the last 20 years in the management of melanoma metastases, which is the major cause of melanoma deaths. Therefore, identification of molecular targets that can be exploited in the clinic to treat metastatic disease is desperately needed. The KISS1 metastasis suppressor gene has emerged as a promising molecular target for the management of metastatic disease. This review compiles data regarding the molecular and biochemical properties of KISS1 and its cognate receptor, focusing on the properties believed to be most pertinent to the use of KISS1 in the clinical setting. In addition, clinical data that supports KISS1 as having a dual role as a prognostic indicator and a therapeutic target for the management of metastatic disease will be highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Danny R. Welch
- Send correspondence to: Dr. Danny R. Welch, Department for Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1670 University Blvd., VH-G019A, Birmingham, Al 35294-0019, Tel: 205-934-2956, Fax: 205-975-1126, E-mail:
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89
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Tarbé NG, Rio MC, Hummel S, Weidle UH, Zöller M. Overexpression of the small transmembrane and glycosylated protein SMAGP supports metastasis formation of a rat pancreatic adenocarcinoma line. Int J Cancer 2005; 117:913-22. [PMID: 15986429 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.21275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Small cell transmembrane and glycosylated protein (SMAGP) was recently identified in the metastasizing rat pancreatic adenocarcinoma line BSp73ASML. SMAGP, an evolutionary conserved transmembrane protein, is expressed on lateral epithelial cell membranes. SMAGP expression was restricted to or was upregulated in several metastasizing as compared to nonmetastasizing human and rat tumor lines. In contrast to nontransformed tissue, SMAGP was mainly expressed in the cytoplasm, as has already been described for high-grade human colorectal cancer. This raised the question on the impact of SMAGP on tumor progression. To answer the question, metastasis formation was evaluated in the nonmetastasizing rat pancreatic adenocarcinoma subline BSp73AS (AS), which was stably transfected with SMAGP cDNA (AS-SMAGP). Cytoplasmic SMAGP expression promoted cell agglomeration, but inhibited tumor cell proliferation, adhesion to and migration toward vitronectin and matrigel invasion, which was accompanied by a failure of actin reorganization. AS-SMAGP clones strongly promoted metastasis formation by dislodgment of normal tissue; 82% of rats developed lymph node metastasis as compared to 22% of rats receiving AS or mock-cDNA-transfected AS cells. The incidence of lung metastasis was increased from 6% in AS to 98% in AS-SMAGP tumor-bearing rats. Thus, SMAGP strongly promotes tumor progression. This likely is due to redistribution from the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm. SMAGP redistribution does not only facilitate tumor cell detachment from neighboring cells and the extracellular matrix, but obviously contributes actively by a not yet defined mechanism to tumor cell agglomeration and capillary plugging.
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90
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Navenot JM, Wang Z, Chopin M, Fujii N, Peiper SC. Kisspeptin-10-Induced Signaling of GPR54 Negatively Regulates Chemotactic Responses Mediated by CXCR4: a Potential Mechanism for the Metastasis Suppressor Activity of Kisspeptins. Cancer Res 2005; 65:10450-6. [PMID: 16288036 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-1757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The product of the KiSS-1 gene is absent or expressed at low level in metastatic melanoma and breast cancer compared with their nonmetastatic counterparts. A polypeptide derived from the KiSS-1 product, designated kisspeptin-10 (Kp-10), activates a receptor coupled to Galphaq subunits (GPR54 or KiSS-1R). To study the mechanism by which Kp-10 antagonizes metastatic spread, the effect on CXCR4-mediated signaling, which has been shown to direct organ-specific migration of tumor cells, was determined. Kp-10 blocked chemotaxis of tumor cells expressing CXCR4 in response to low and high concentrations of SDF-1/CXCL12 and inhibited mobilization of calcium ions induced by this ligand. Pretreatment with Kp-10 did not induce down-modulation of cell surface CXCR4 expression, reduce affinity for SDF-1/CXCL12, or alter Galphai subunit activation stimulated by this ligand. Although Kp-10 stimulated prolonged phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, it inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt induced by SDF-1. The ability of Kp-10 to inhibit signaling and chemotaxis induced by SDF-1 indicates that activation of GPR54 signaling may negatively regulate the role of CXCR4 in programming tumor metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Navenot
- Department of Pathology and Immunotherapy Center, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, Georgia 30912, USA.
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91
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Wallden B, Emond M, Swift ME, Disis ML, Swisshelm K. Antimetastatic gene expression profiles mediated by retinoic acid receptor beta 2 in MDA-MB-435 breast cancer cells. BMC Cancer 2005; 5:140. [PMID: 16255778 PMCID: PMC1283145 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-5-140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2005] [Accepted: 10/28/2005] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The retinoic acid receptor beta 2 (RARβ2) gene modulates proliferation and survival of cultured human breast cancer cells. Previously we showed that ectopic expression of RARβ2 in a mouse xenograft model prevented metastasis, even in the absence of the ligand, all-trans retinoic acid. We investigated both cultured cells and xenograft tumors in order to delineate the gene expression profiles responsible for an antimetastatic phenotype. Methods RNA from MDA-MB-435 human breast cancer cells transduced with RARβ2 or empty retroviral vector (LXSN) was analyzed using Agilent Human 1A Oligo microarrays. The one hundred probes with the greatest differential intensity (p < 0.004, jointly) were determined by selecting the top median log ratios from eight-paired microarrays. Validation of differences in expression was done using Northern blot analysis and quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). We determined expression of selected genes in xenograft tumors. Results RARβ2 cells exhibit gene profiles with overrepresentation of genes from Xq28 (p = 2 × 10-8), a cytogenetic region that contains a large portion of the cancer/testis antigen gene family. Other functions or factors impacted by the presence of exogenous RARβ2 include mediators of the immune response and transcriptional regulatory mechanisms. Thirteen of fifteen (87%) of the genes evaluated in xenograft tumors were consistent with differences we found in the cell cultures (p = 0.007). Conclusion Antimetastatic RARβ2 signalling, direct or indirect, results in an elevation of expression for genes such as tumor-cell antigens (CTAG1 and CTAG2), those involved in innate immune response (e.g., RIG-I/DDX58), and tumor suppressor functions (e.g., TYRP1). Genes whose expression is diminished by RARβ2 signalling include cell adhesion functions (e.g, CD164) nutritional or metabolic processes (e.g., FABP6), and the transcription factor, JUN.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blotting, Northern
- Blotting, Western
- Breast Neoplasms/genetics
- Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Cell Adhesion
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Chromosomes, Human, X
- Gene Expression Profiling/methods
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Genetic Vectors
- Genotype
- Humans
- Interferons/metabolism
- Ligands
- Mice
- Models, Statistical
- Neoplasm Metastasis
- Neoplasm Transplantation
- Nucleic Acid Hybridization
- Phenotype
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-jun/metabolism
- RNA/metabolism
- Receptors, Retinoic Acid/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Retinoic Acid/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Signal Transduction
- Transcription, Genetic
- Tretinoin/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Wallden
- Department of Pathology, Box 357470, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mary Emond
- Department of Biostatistics, Box 357232, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mari E Swift
- Department of Pathology, Box 357470, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mary L Disis
- Division of Oncology, Box 358050, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Karen Swisshelm
- Department of Pathology, Box 357470, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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92
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Wimmer-Kleikamp SH, Lackmann M. Eph-modulated cell morphology, adhesion and motility in carcinogenesis. IUBMB Life 2005; 57:421-31. [PMID: 16012051 DOI: 10.1080/15216540500138337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Eph receptor tyrosine kinases (Ephs) and their membrane anchored ephrin ligands (ephrins) form an essential cell-cell communication system that directs the positioning, adhesion and migration of cells and cell layers during development. While less prominent in normal adult tissues, there is evidence that up-regulated expression and de-regulated function of Ephs and ephrins in a large variety of human cancers may promote a more aggressive and metastatic tumour phenotype. However, in contrast to other RTKs, Ephs do not act as classical proto-oncogenes and do not effect cell proliferation or differentiation. Mounting evidence suggests that Eph receptors, through de-regulated re-emergence of their mode of action in the embryo may direct cell movements and positioning during metastasis, invasion and tumour angiogenesis. This review discusses these and other emerging roles of Eph receptors during oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine H Wimmer-Kleikamp
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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93
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Kelly LM, Buggy Y, Hill A, O'Donovan N, Duggan C, McDermott EW, O'Higgins NJ, Young L, Duffy MJ. Expression of the breast cancer metastasis suppressor gene, BRMS1, in human breast carcinoma: lack of correlation with metastasis to axillary lymph nodes. Tumour Biol 2005; 26:213-6. [PMID: 16006775 DOI: 10.1159/000086955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2004] [Accepted: 03/16/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The BRMS1 (breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1) gene has been found to suppress metastasis in animal models without inhibiting primary tumor growth. The aim of this study was to measure expression of BRMS1 mRNA in a panel of human breast carcinomas and compare its expression with parameters of local dissemination such as tumor size and lymph node metastasis. We also compared expression of BRMS1 mRNA in normal breast tissue, fibroadenomas, primary breast cancers and axillary nodal metastases from primary breast cancers. BRMS1 mRNA was detected in 10/11 (90%) specimens of normal breast tissue, 12/16 (75%) fibroadenomas, 64/82 (78%) primary breast cancer and 11/15 (64%) lymph node metastases (p, NS). In the primary cancer, expression was independent of tumor size, tumor grade, metastasis to axillary nodes and hormone receptor status. Furthermore, similar levels of BRMS1 were found in normal breast tissue, primary breast carcinomas and lymph node metastases from primary breast cancer. Our results do not suggest a role for BRMS1 in suppressing metastasis to local lymph nodes in patients with breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise M Kelly
- Department of Surgery, Medical Oncology and Nuclear Medicine, St. Vincent's University Hospital and Conway Institute for Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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94
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Boissan M, Wendum D, Arnaud-Dabernat S, Munier A, Debray M, Lascu I, Daniel JY, Lacombe ML. Increased lung metastasis in transgenic NM23-Null/SV40 mice with hepatocellular carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97:836-45. [PMID: 15928304 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/dji143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The metastasis-suppressing role of the NM23 gene in the metastatic spread of solid tumors is still debated. We examined the role of NM23 in tumor development and metastatic dissemination by using transgenic mice that lack mouse NM23 (NM23-M1) in two mouse models of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that recapitulate all steps of tumor progression. METHODS We induced HCC in mice that contained (NM23-M1(+/+)) or lacked (NM23-M1(-/-)) NM23-M1 by diethylnitrosamine injection or by a crossing scheme that transferred a transgene that leads to liver expression of simian virus 40 large T antigen (ASV mice). We used microscopic examination and immunohistochemistry to analyze tumor progression. Expression of Nm23 protein isoforms (Nm23-M1 and Nm23-M2) and several tumor markers was analyzed in the primary tumor and in metastases by Western blotting. The statistical significance of differences in the incidence of Nm23-M2 overexpression in null mice relative to that in wild-type mice was tested by a one-sided Fisher's exact test. The statistical significance of differences in the incidence of metastases was examined using one-sided chi-square tests. All other statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS In both models, Nm23-M1 and/or Nm23-M2 were overexpressed in the primary liver tumors compared with nontumor liver tissue; however, the lack of the NM23-M1 gene had no effect on primary tumor formation in either model. ASV mice developed pulmonary metastases that were positive for the Hep-Par 1 antibody, which recognizes a specific hepatocyte antigen, whereas the few pulmonary nodules that developed in diethylnitrosamine-injected mice were negative for this antigen. Statistically significantly more ASV/NM23-M1(-/-) mice than ASV/NM23-M1(+/+) mice developed lung metastases (69.2% versus 37.5%; difference = 31.7%, 95% confidence interval = 13.1% to 50.3%; P<.001). In ASV/NM23-M1(+/+) mice, immunohistochemical staining for Nm23-M1 was highly heterogeneous among the primary liver tumors, but weak or negative among lung metastases. CONCLUSIONS The lack of NM23-M1 expression promotes metastasis in the SV40 animal model of liver carcinogenesis.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Neoplasm/metabolism
- Antigens, Viral, Tumor/metabolism
- Biomarkers, Tumor/metabolism
- Blotting, Western
- Chi-Square Distribution
- Cyclin A/analysis
- Diethylnitrosamine
- Disease Progression
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Immunohistochemistry
- Incidence
- Liver/enzymology
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/chemically induced
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/enzymology
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Lung Neoplasms/enzymology
- Lung Neoplasms/secondary
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- NM23 Nucleoside Diphosphate Kinases
- Nucleoside-Diphosphate Kinase/genetics
- Simian virus 40/immunology
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Boissan
- Unité Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale 680, Faculté de Médecine Saint-Antoine, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
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95
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Palmieri D, Halverson DO, Ouatas T, Horak CE, Salerno M, Johnson J, Figg WD, Hollingshead M, Hursting S, Berrigan D, Steinberg SM, Merino MJ, Steeg PS. Medroxyprogesterone acetate elevation of Nm23-H1 metastasis suppressor expression in hormone receptor-negative breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97:632-42. [PMID: 15870434 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/dji111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reestablishment of metastasis suppressor gene expression may constitute a therapeutic strategy for high-risk breast cancer patients. We previously showed that medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), a progestin that has been tested as treatment for advanced breast cancer, elevates expression of the Nm23-H1 metastasis suppressor gene in hormone receptor-negative metastatic human breast carcinoma cell lines in vitro via a glucocorticoid receptor-based mechanism. Here, we tested whether MPA treatment inhibits metastatic colonization of a hormone receptor-negative breast cancer cell line in vivo. METHODS We tested the soft-agar colony-forming efficiency of untransfected MDA-MB-231T human breast carcinoma cells and MDA-MB-231T cells transfected with antisense Nm23-H1 in the presence and absence of MPA. Pharmacokinetic studies were used to establish dose and injection schedules that led to MPA serum levels in mice similar to those achievable in humans. For in vivo studies, nude mice were injected intravenously with MDA-MB-231T cells. After 4 weeks, mice were randomized to control or MPA arms. Endpoints included incidence, number, and size of gross pulmonary metastases; Nm23-H1 protein expression in gross metastases; and side effects. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS MPA reduced colony formation of MDA-MB-231T cells by 40%-50% but had no effect on colony formation of Nm23-H1 antisense transfectants. Metastases developed in 100% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 78% to 100% and 77% to 100%, respectively) of control mice injected with MDA-MB-231T cells. In two independent experiments, only 73% (95% CI = 45% to 92%) and 64% (95% CI = 35% to 87%) of mice injected with 2 mg of MPA developed metastases. Mice injected with 2 mg of MPA showed reductions in the mean numbers, per mouse, of all metastases and of large (>3 mm) metastases (P = .04 and .013, respectively). Nm23-H1 was expressed at high levels in 43% of pulmonary metastases in MPA-treated mice but only 13% of metastases in untreated mice. Mice receiving at least 1-mg doses of MPA gained more weight than control-treated mice but exhibited no bone density alterations or abnormal mammary fat pad histology. CONCLUSION Our preclinical results show that MPA appears to elevate Nm23-H1 metastasis suppressor gene expression, thereby reducing metastatic colonization. The data suggest a new use for an old agent in a molecularly defined subset of breast cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane Palmieri
- Women's Cancers Section, Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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96
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Chen XF, Zhang HT, Qi QY, Sun MM, Tao LY. Expression of E-cadherin and nm23 is associated with the clinicopathological factors of human non-small cell lung cancer in China. Lung Cancer 2005; 48:69-76. [PMID: 15777972 DOI: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2004.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2004] [Revised: 09/07/2004] [Accepted: 09/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
E-cadherin, a calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion molecule, functions as maintenance of epithelial integrity. nm23, encoded by non-metastatic 23 gene, plays a key role in differentiation of many kinds of epithelium. Loss or dysfunction of E-cadherin and nm23 was frequently identified in many types of human cancers and is considered to correlate with invasive/metastatic phenotype. We previously reported that defective expression of E-cadherin might play a role in the development of the malignant phenotype in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) [Q.Y. Fei, H.T. Zhang, X.F. Chen, et al., Defected expression of Ecadherin in non-small cell lung cancer, Lung Cancer 37 (2002) 147-152]. In an attempt to evaluate the significance of E-cadherin and nm23 in human non-small cell lung cancer, we performed mRNA expression and genetic structure analyses of the E-cadherin and nm23 genes in 54 NSCLCs and 46 normal lung tissues. The mRNA expression was determined by semi-quantitative RT-PCR, and genetic structure was examined through PCR-SSCP followed by sequencing. Although no mutation of the E-cadherin and nm23 genes was detected, the results obtained in the present study showed that reduction of E-cadherin and nm23 mRNA expression remarkably correlated with low histological differentiation, increasing stage as well as lymph node metastases (P<0.05). These data provide us with support for the idea that dysfunction of E-cadherin and nm23 has a role in progression of NSCLC and that the examination of E-cadherin and nm23 expression can provide experimental evidence for clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Feng Chen
- Department of Surgery, Shanghai Hospital for Pulmonary Diseases, Shanghai 200433, PR China
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97
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Kim JH, Kim B, Cai L, Choi HJ, Ohgi KA, Tran C, Chen C, Chung CH, Huber O, Rose DW, Sawyers CL, Rosenfeld MG, Baek SH. Transcriptional regulation of a metastasis suppressor gene by Tip60 and β-catenin complexes. Nature 2005; 434:921-6. [PMID: 15829968 DOI: 10.1038/nature03452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2004] [Accepted: 02/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Defining the molecular strategies that integrate diverse signalling pathways in the expression of specific gene programmes that are critical in homeostasis and disease remains a central issue in biology. This is particularly pertinent in cancer biology because downregulation of tumour metastasis suppressor genes is a common occurrence, and the underlying molecular mechanisms are not well established. Here we report that the downregulation of a metastasis suppressor gene, KAI1, in prostate cancer cells involves the inhibitory actions of beta-catenin, along with a reptin chromatin remodelling complex. This inhibitory function of beta-catenin-reptin requires both increased beta-catenin expression and recruitment of histone deacetylase activity. The coordinated actions of beta-catenin-reptin components that mediate the repressive state serve to antagonize a Tip60 coactivator complex that is required for activation; the balance of these opposing complexes controls the expression of KAI1 and metastatic potential. The molecular mechanisms underlying the antagonistic regulation of beta-catenin-reptin and the Tip60 coactivator complexes for the metastasis suppressor gene, KAI1, are likely to be prototypic of a selective downregulation strategy for many genes, including a subset of NF-kappaB target genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Hwa Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
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98
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Ohta S, Lai EW, Pang ALY, Brouwers FM, Chan WY, Eisenhofer G, de Krijger R, Ksinantova L, Breza J, Blazicek P, Kvetnansky R, Wesley RA, Pacak K. Downregulation of metastasis suppressor genes in malignant pheochromocytoma. Int J Cancer 2005; 114:139-43. [PMID: 15523699 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.20670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
There is no reliable method currently available to predict malignant potential of pheochromocytoma based on conventional histology or genetic, molecular or immunohistochemical markers. Metastasis suppressor genes affect the spread of several cancers and, therefore, may provide promise as prognostic markers or therapeutic targets for malignant pheochromocytoma. We hypothesized that the downregulation of metastasis suppressor genes in malignant pheochromocytoma may play a role in malignant behavior. We applied quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (QRT-PCR) to 11 metastasis suppressor genes. These genes are known to be involved in the regulation of important cancer-related cellular events, such as cell growth regulation and apoptosis (nm23-H1, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, TIMP-3, TIMP-4, TXNIP and CRSP-3), cell-cell communication (BRMS-1), invasion (CRMP-1) and cell adhesion (E-Cad and KiSS1). The study included 15 benign and 10 malignant pheochromocytomas. Six metastasis suppressor genes (nm23-H1, TIMP-4, BRMS-1, TXNIP, CRSP-3 and E-Cad) were downregulated significantly in malignant compared to benign pheochromocytoma (p < 0.05, Mann-Whitney U-test). We applied a non-linear rule using median malignant value (MMV) as a threshold to use metastasis suppressor genes to distinguish malignant from benign samples. After cross-validation, the non-linear rule produced no errors in 10 malignant samples and 3 errors in the 15 benign samples, with an overall error rate of 12%. These results suggest that downregulation of metastasis suppressor genes reflect malignant pheochromocytoma with a high degree of sensitivity. Thus, we conclude that altered function of these metastasis suppressor gene pathways may play an important role in the malignant behavior of pheochromocytoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoichiro Ohta
- Pediatric and Reproductive Endocrinology Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD 20892-1583, USA
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99
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Eppert K, Wunder JS, Aneliunas V, Kandel R, Andrulis IL. von Willebrand factor expression in osteosarcoma metastasis. Mod Pathol 2005; 18:388-97. [PMID: 15467717 DOI: 10.1038/modpathol.3800265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A number of genes are implicated in the initiation and progression of osteosarcoma; however, cytogenetic and comparative genomic hybridization studies indicate the involvement of additional unidentified genes. An examination of gene expression profiles in 22 high-grade osteosarcoma tumor specimens from 15 patients (including paired primary and metastatic samples from five patients) indicated that von Willebrand factor (vWF) mRNA expression may increase during tumor progression. vWF, a large glycoprotein previously considered to be expressed exclusively by endothelial cells and megakaryocytes, is involved in platelet aggregation and adhesion to the subendothelial matrix, processes critical to hematogenous tumor cell metastasis to the lung. Analysis of paired primary and metastatic osteosarcoma tumor samples from 10 patients revealed an increase in vWF gene expression in metastases (P=0.005). Immunohistochemistry showed that, in addition to the endothelial cells, vWF protein was also detected in osteosarcoma cells in vivo in 13 of 29 tumor specimens as well as in SAOS2, an osteosarcoma cell line. The tumor cell staining correlated positively with high vWF expression in the sample (P=0.006). Although vascular endothelial cells contribute to the vWF mRNA detected in the tumor samples, there was neither any correlation between vascular density (VD) and vWF mRNA expression nor between VD and clinical outcome. These findings suggest that vWF expression is deregulated in osteosarcoma tumors, potentially contributing to metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kolja Eppert
- Fred A Litwin Centre for Cancer Genetics, Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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100
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Nathoo N, Chahlavi A, Barnett GH, Toms SA. Pathobiology of brain metastases. J Clin Pathol 2005; 58:237-42. [PMID: 15735152 PMCID: PMC1770599 DOI: 10.1136/jcp.2003.013623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/22/2004] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Brain metastasis is a major cause of systemic cancer morbidity and mortality. Many factors participate in the development and maintenance of brain metastases. The survival of the metastasis depends upon crucial interactions between tumour cells and the brain microenvironment during its development at the new site. This review focuses on the pathobiological mechanisms involved in the establishment and regulation of brain metastases. Developments in molecular biology have vastly expanded our knowledge about the mechanisms of invasion, proliferation, metastatic cell signalling, and angiogenesis in brain metastases. Advances in this understanding of the pathobiology of brain metastasis may lead to novel targeted treatment paradigms and a better prognosis for patients with brain metastatic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Nathoo
- Brain Tumor Institute, Taussig Cancer Center and Department of Neurosurgery, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio 44122, USA
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