Copper(I)-Catalyzed Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization

Reactivity of TEMPO toward 16- and 17-electron organometallic reaction intermediates: a time-resolved IR study

The (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl radical (TEMPO) has been employed for an extensive range of chemical applications, ranging from organometallic catalysis to serving as a structural probe in biological systems. As a ligand in an organometallic complex, TEMPO can exhibit several distinct coordination modes. Here we use ultrafast time-resolved infrared spectroscopy to study the reactivity of TEMPO toward coordinatively unsaturated 16- and 17-electron organometallic reaction intermediates. TEMPO coordinates to the metal centers of the 16-electron species CpCo(CO) and Fe(CO)4, and to the 17-electron species CpFe(CO)2 and Mn(CO)5, via an associative mechanism with concomitant oxidation of the metal center. In these adducts, TEMPO thus behaves as an anionic ligand, characterized by a pyramidal geometry about the nitrogen center. Density functional theory calculations are used to facilitate interpretation of the spectra and to further explore the structures of the TEMPO adducts. To our knowledge, this study represents the first direct characterization of the mechanism of the reaction of TEMPO with coordinatively unsaturated organometallic complexes, providing valuable insight into its reactions with commonly encountered reaction intermediates. The similar reactivity of TEMPO toward each of the species studied suggests that these results can be considered representative of TEMPO's reactivity toward all low-valent transition metal complexes.

Cu(I)-catalyzed diamination of conjugated dienes. Complementary regioselectivity from two distinct mechanistic pathways involving Cu(II) and Cu(III) species

Conjugated dienes can be diaminated at the internal and/or terminal double bonds using Cu(I) as catalyst and N,N-di-t-butyldiaziridinone (1) as nitrogen source. The regioselectivity is highly dependent upon the choice of Cu(I) catalyst and the substituents on diene substrates. The diamination likely proceeds via two mechanistically distinct pathways. The N-N bond of N,N-di-t-butyldiaziridinone (1) is first homolytically cleaved by the Cu(I) catalyst to form four-membered Cu(III) species A and Cu(II) radical species B, which are in rapid equilibrium. The internal diamination likely proceeds in a concerted manner via Cu(III) species A, and the terminal diamination likely involves Cu(II) radical species B. Kinetic studies have shown that the diamination is first-order in N,N-di-t-butyldiaziridinone (1), zero-order in olefin, and first-order in total Cu(I) catalyst, and the cleavage of the N-N bond of 1 by the Cu(I) catalyst is the rate-determining step. The internal diamination is favored by use of CuBr without ligand and electron-rich dienes. The terminal diamination is favored when using CuCl-L and dienes with radical-stabilizing groups.

Functional polyolefins: poly(ethylene)-graft-poly(tert-butyl acrylate) via atom transfer radical polymerization from a polybrominated alkane

Poly(cis-cyclooctene) is synthesized via ring-opening metathesis polymerization in the presence of a chain-transfer agent and quantitatively hydrobrominated. Subsequent graft polymerization of tert-butyl acrylate (tBA) via Cu-catalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) from the non-activated secondary alkyl bromide moieties finally results in PE-g-PtBA copolymer brushes. By varying the reaction conditions, a series of well-defined graft copolymers with different graft densities and graft lengths are prepared. The maximum extent of grafting in terms of bromoalkyl groups involved is approximately 80 mol%. DSC measurements on the obtained graft copolymers reveal a decrease in T(m) with increasing grafting density.

Non-surface activity and micellization behavior of cationic amphiphilic block copolymer synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer process

Cationic amphiphilic diblock copolymers of poly(n-butylacrylate)-b-poly(3-(methacryloylamino)propyl)trimethylammonium chloride) (PBA-b-PMAPTAC) with various hydrophobic and hydrophilic chain lengths were synthesized by a reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) process. Their molecular characteristics such as surface activity/nonactivity were investigated by surface tension measurements and foam formation observation. Their micelle formation behavior and micelle structure were investigated by fluorescence probe technique, static and dynamic light scattering (SLS and DLS), etc., as a function of hydrophilic and hydrophobic chain lengths. The block copolymers were found to be non-surface active because the surface tension of the aqueous solutions did not change with increasing polymer concentration. Critical micelle concentration (cmc) of the polymers could be determined by fluorescence and SLS measurements, which means that these polymers form micelles in bulk solution, although they were non-surface active. Above the cmc, the large blue shift of the emission maximum of N-phenyl-1-naphthylamine (NPN) probe and the low micropolarity value of the pyrene probe in polymer solution indicate the core of the micelle is nonpolar in nature. Also, the high value of the relative intensity of the NPN probe and the fluorescence anisotropy of the 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) probe indicated that the core of the micelle is highly viscous in nature. DLS was used to measure the average hydrodynamic radii and size distribution of the copolymer micelles. The copolymer with the longest PBA block had the poorest water solubility and consequently formed micelles with larger size while having a lower cmc. The "non-surface activity" was confirmed for cationic amphiphilic diblock copolymers in addition to anionic ones studied previously, indicating the universality of non-surface activity nature.

An effective C-C double bond formation via Cu(I)-catalyzed dehydrogenation

A dehydrogenation method using Cu(I) and either N,N-di-tert-butylthiadiaziridine 1,1-dioxide or N,N-di-tert-butyldiaziridinone is reported. The dehydrogenation allows a facile introduction of C-C double bond(s) into various carbo- and heterocycles such as oxazolines and thiazolines.

Thiol-Based 'Click' Chemistries in Polymer: Synthesis and Modification

A series of thiol-based ‘click’ reactions is discussed with an emphasis on highlighting the individual chemistries and noting recent literature examples. This is not an exhaustive review but rather serves to demonstrate the versatility and clear potential of thiol-based chemistry in polymer/materials design, synthesis, and modification.

Cu(I)-catalyzed C-H alpha-amination of aryl ketones: direct synthesis of imidazolinones

This paper describes an alpha-amination process of aryl ketones using CuCl as catalyst and di-tert-butyldiaziridinone as the nitrogen source. A variety of imidazolinone derivatives are prepared in moderate yields under mild conditions. A possible catalytic cycle is proposed for this reaction.

Flash chemistry: fast chemical synthesis by using microreactors

This concept article provides a brief outline of the concept of flash chemistry for carrying out extremely fast reactions in organic synthesis by using microreactors. Generation of highly reactive species is one of the key elements of flash chemistry. Another important element of flash chemistry is the control of extremely fast reactions to obtain the desired products selectively. Fast reactions are usually highly exothermic, and heat removal is an important factor in controlling such reactions. Heat transfer occurs very rapidly in microreactors by virtue of a large surface area per unit volume, making precise temperature control possible. Fast reactions often involve highly unstable intermediates, which decompose very quickly, making reaction control difficult. The residence time can be greatly reduced in microreactors, and this feature is quite effective in controlling such reactions. For extremely fast reactions, kinetics often cannot be used because of the lack of homogeneity of the reaction environment when they are conducted in conventional reactors such as flasks. Fast mixing using micromixers solves such problems. The concept of flash chemistry has been successfully applied to various organic reactions including a) highly exothermic reactions that are difficult to control in conventional reactors, b) reactions in which a reactive intermediate easily decomposes in conventional reactors, c) reactions in which undesired byproducts are produced in the subsequent reactions in conventional reactors, and d) reactions whose products easily decompose in conventional reactors. The concept of flash chemistry can be also applied to polymer synthesis. Cationic polymerization can be conducted with an excellent level of molecular-weight control and molecular-weight distribution control.

Cu(I)-catalyzed asymmetric diamination of conjugated dienes

A Cu(I)-catalyzed asymmetric diamination for a variety of conjugated dienes and a triene with encouraging ee's has been effectively achieved using (R)-DTBM-SEGPHOS as a chiral ligand and di- tert-butyldiaziridinone as the nitrogen source.