Snacking patterns influence energy and nutrient intakes but not body mass index

Dietary sodium intake in young Korean adults and its relationship with eating frequency and taste preference

Dietary sodium intake is considered one of the major causal factors for hypertension. Thus, to control the increase of blood pressure and reduce the risk of hypertension-related clinical complications, a reduction in sodium intake is recommended. The present study aimed at determining the association of dietary sodium intake with meal and snack frequency, snacking time, and taste preference in Korean young adults aged 20-26 years, using a 125-item dish-frequency questionnaire. The mean dietary sodium intakes of men and women were 270.6 mmol/day and 213.1 mmol/day, which were approximately 310% and 245% of the daily sodium intake goal for Korean men and women, respectively. Dietary sodium intake was positively correlated with systolic blood pressure in the total group, and BMI in the total and men-only groups. In the total and men-only groups, those who consumed meals more times per day consumed more dietary sodium, but the number of times they consumed snacks was negatively correlated with dietary sodium intake in the total, men-only, and women-only groups. In addition, those who consumed snacks in the evening consumed more sodium than those who did so in the morning in the men-only group. The sodium intake was also positively associated with preference for salty and sweet taste in the total and women-only groups. Such a high intake of sodium in these young subjects shows that a reduction in sodium intake is important for the prevention of hypertension and related diseases in the future.

Prevalence and energy intake from snacking in Brazil: analysis of the first nationwide individual survey

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Snacking has increased globally. We examine snacking patterns and common snack foods in Brazil.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Data from the first of two non-consecutive food diaries from 34,003 individuals (aged ≥ 10 years) in the first Brazillian nationally representative dietary survey (2008-2009) were used. Meals were defined as the largest (kcal) eating event reported during select times of the day (Breakfast, 0600-1000 hours; Lunch, 1200-1500 hours; Dinner, 1800-2100 hours); all other eating occasions were considered snacks. We estimate daily energy intake, percentage of persons consuming snacks, number of daily snacks and per capita and per consumer energy from snacks (kcal/day, kcal/snack and % of daily energy from snacks).

RESULTS

In all, 74% of Brazilians (≥ 10 years) snacked, reporting an average 1.6 snacks/day. Also, 23% of the sample were heavy snackers (≥ 3 snacks/day). Snacking accounted for 21% of daily energy intake in the full sample but 35.5% among heavy snackers. Compared with non-snackers (1548 kcal/day), light (1-2 snacks/day) and heavy snackers consumed more daily energy (1929 and 2334 kcal/day, respectively). Taking into account time of day, the largest percentage of persons reported afternoon/early evening snacking (1501-1759 hours, 47.7%). Sweetened coffee and tea, sweets and desserts, fruit, sugar-sweetened beverages, and high-calorie salgados (fried/baked dough with meat/cheese/vegetable) were the top five most commonly consumed snacks. Differences were observed by age groups. Trends in commercial sales were observed, especially for sugar-sweetened beverages.

CONCLUSIONS

Many commonly consumed snack foods in Brazil are classified, in the US, as being high in solid fats and added sugars. The public health impact of snacking in Brazil requires further exploration.

Relation between eating habits and a high body mass index among freshman students: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to examine the relation between eating habits and a high body mass index (BMI) in first-year freshman university students and included 2525 freshman university students 18 to 22 years old from a Turkish population.

METHODS

İn this study, 48% of the students were men. They were asked to complete a questionnaire on their dietary habits including the frequency of their consumption of individual food items, demographic data, and smoking habit.

RESULTS

The effects of eating habits on increased BMI (≥25) were analyzed. Of 2259 subjects included in the analyses, 322 were overweight or obese and 1937 had normal and thin BMI (<25). Multivariate analyses identified male gender, recent weight change, and high number of meals as independent predictors of obesity/overweight. Frequent consumptions of beer, alcoholic drinks other than beer and wine (e.g., spirits including whisky, gin, raki, vodka), coffee, tea, coke, red meat, variety meat, and eggs were associated with a significantly higher risk of obesity/overweight, whereas frequent consumption of snacks was associated with a low risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings of further studies, possibly taking into consideration the absolute quantities of consumption along with cultural and local issues, would guide the adoption of healthier feeding behaviors in this particular age group.

Association of nutrient-dense snack combinations with calories and vegetable intake

BACKGROUND

With other factors such as general diet and insufficient exercise, eating non-nutrient dense snack foods such as potato chips contributes to childhood obesity. We examined whether children consumed fewer calories when offered high-nutrient dense snacks consisting of cheese and vegetables than children who were offered non-nutrient dense snacks (ie, potato chips).

METHODS

Two hundred one children (115 girls) entering the third to sixth grades were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 snacking conditions: (1) potato chips only, (2) cheese-only, (3) vegetables only, and (4) cheese and vegetables. Children were allowed to eat snacks freely provided while watching 45-minute TV programs. Satiety was measured before they started eating snacks, in the middle of the study, and 20 minutes after they finished eating the snacks. Parents completed a questionnaire regarding their family environment.

RESULTS

Children consumed 72% fewer calories when eating a combined snack compared with when they were served potato chips, P < .001. Children who ate the combination snack needed significantly fewer calories to achieve satiety than those who ate potato chips, P < .001. The effects of the snack conditions on caloric intake were more pronounced among overweight or obese children (P = .02) and those from low-involvement families (P = .049)

CONCLUSIONS

The combination snack of vegetables and cheese can be an effective means for children to reduce caloric intake while snacking. The effect was more pronounced among children who were overweight or obese and children from low-involvement families.

Characterizing dinner meals served and consumed by low-income preschool children

BACKGROUND

A dinner meal is consumed by approximately 95% of preschool children, yet few studies have characterized the dinner meal within a broader environmental context. The primary goal of this study was to identify the average quantities of foods served and consumed at the dinner meal by preschool children. A secondary goal was to look at factors that influenced the total amounts of food and energy consumed among preschoolers at the dinner meal.

METHOD

Food intake at a family dinner meal was measured using digital photography in African-American and Hispanic-American preschool children (n = 231). Pictorial records were converted to gram and energy estimates of food served and consumed; grams were converted to kilocalories for each food using Nutrition Data System for Research (NDSR) nutritional software. Foods were categorized by groups/subgroups. Comparison of means and coefficient of variation was examined overall and by food groups for food grams (and energy) served, consumed, and wasted. The relationship of mother/child characteristics to amounts served and consumed were analyzed by regression and analysis of variance (ANOVA).

RESULTS

Plate waste was high; 30% of the foods served to the child at the dinner meal were not consumed. The amounts of food and beverage served and consumed varied within and among the food groups studied. The proportion of children served a major food group at the dinner meal varied considerably: 44% fruit/juice, 97% vegetables, 99% grains, 97% meats, 74% dairy, 66% sweetened beverages, 92% fat and oils, and 40% sweets and sugars. The amount of food served was positively associated with the amount consumed (p < 0.0001). Energy density of the dinner meal was positively associated with energy intake consumed (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Plate waste and variation in amounts served and consumed was substantial. The amount of food served was positively associated with the amount of food consumed by preschool children.

Snack frequency: associations with healthy and unhealthy food choices

Objective

We examined associations between snack frequency, sociodemographic characteristics, BMI, dietary and eating behaviour. In order to identify whether various subgroups of high-frequency snack consumers exist, we investigated underlying food patterns and lifestyle factors.

Design

The data were based on the Swiss Food Panel Questionnaire of 2010, which included an FFQ, questions relating to sociodemographics and lifestyle factors. Data were examined using ANOVA, regression analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. Gender differences were also investigated in the analysis of the data.

Setting

A sample of 6189 adults participating in the Swiss Food Panel filled in a questionnaire (response rate 30 %).

Subjects

The sample consisted of both men and women, with a mean age of 54·4 (sd 13·5) years.

Results

There was no association between snack frequency and BMI. Consumption frequency of sweets and savouries as well as fruit intake increased with increasing snack frequency. Additionally, three different subgroups of high-frequency snack consumers could be revealed: healthy, moderate and unhealthy dietary-pattern groups. The latter included respondents who were less health-conscious and was characterized by high alcohol consumption frequency, daily breakfast skipping and watching television during the main meal.

Conclusions

High snack frequency occurred in the context of healthy as well as unhealthy dietary behaviour and lifestyle patterns. Women made healthier dietary food choices and were more likely to consume fruits as snacks, while men chose unhealthy foods, such as sweets and savouries, more often.

Sweet and salty. An assessment of the snacks and beverages sold in vending machines on US post-secondary institution campuses

This study assessed the nutritional quality of snacks and beverages sold in vending machines. The contents of snack and beverage vending machines in 78 buildings on 11 US post-secondary education campuses were surveyed. Of the 2607 snack machine slots surveyed, the most common snacks vended were salty snacks (e.g., chips, pretzels) and sweets (i.e., candy and candy bars). The 1650 beverage machine slots assessed contained twice as many sugar-sweetened beverages as non-calorie-containing beverages. Only two institutions sold both milk and 100% juice in vending machines. The portion of snacks and beverages sold averaged more than 200 cal. Neither snacks nor beverages were nutrient dense. The majority of snacks were low in fiber and high in calories and fat and almost half were high in sugar. Most beverages were high in calories and sugar. This study's findings suggest that vending machines provide limited healthful choices. Findings from benchmark assessments of components of the food environment, like the vending options reported here, can provide valuable input to campus administrators, health services, food service, and students who want to establish campus policies to promote healthful eating.

Improving the Accuracy of Self-Reports on Diet and Physical Exercise: The Co-Twin Control Method

The objective was to examine the association between several obesity-related nongenetic behaviors and body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) in young adult twins using reports from both twins on their similarities and differences. A total of 713 monozygotic (MZ) and 698 same-sex dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs aged 22–28 years filled in structured questionnaires to compare their eating, physical activity and dieting behavior with their co-twin's behavior, and to report their own eating and exercise habits. In both MZ and DZ pairs, the co-twins for whom both twin pair members concordantly answered that this twin eats more, snacks more, eats more fatty foods and sweet and fatty delicacies, chooses less healthy foods, eats faster and exercises less, had significantly higher BMIs (0.6–2.9 kg/m2) and WCs (1.5–7.5 cm). Multivariate regression analysis identified co-twin differences in the amount of food consumed as the strongest independent predictor of intrapair differences in BMI (β = 0.63 and 1.21, for MZ and DZ, respectively,p< .001) and WC (β = 1.52 and 3.53, for MZ and DZ, respectively,p< .001). Higher leisure-time physical activity and healthier dietary choices clustered in the same subjects. The measurement of habitual dietary intake and physical activity has previously relied on subjective self-reports that are prone to misreporting. By using comparative measures within twin pairs we found that the amount of food consumed is the major contributor to obesity independent of genetic predisposition.

Associations between snacking and weight loss and nutrient intake among postmenopausal overweight to obese women in a dietary weight-loss intervention

Snacking may play a role in weight control. The associations of timing and frequency of snacking with observed weight change and nutrient intake were assessed in an ancillary study to a 12-month randomized controlled trial in Seattle, WA. Overweight-to-obese postmenopausal women (n=123) enrolled in the two dietary weight-loss arms from 2007 to 2008 with complete data at 12 months were included in these analyses. Generalized linear models were used to test the associations between snacking and weight loss (percent) and nutrient intake at the 12-month time point. Participants were, on average, 58 years old and mainly non-Hispanic white (84%). Ninety-seven percent reported one or more snacks per day. Weight loss (percent) was significantly lower among mid-morning (10:30 am to 11:29 am) snackers (7.0%, 95% confidence interval: 4.3 to 9.7) compared to non-mid-morning snackers (11.4%, 95% confidence interval: 10.2 to 12.6; P=0.005). A higher proportion of mid-morning snackers reported more than one snack per day (95.7%), compared to afternoon (82.8%) and evening (80.6%) snackers, although differences were not statistically significant (P>0.005). Women who reported two or more snacks per day vs one or no snacks per day had higher fiber intake (P=0.027). Afternoon snackers had higher fruit and vegetable intake compared to non-afternoon-snackers (P=0.035). These results suggest that snack meals can be a source for additional fruits, vegetables, and fiber-rich foods; however, snacking patterns might also reflect unhealthy eating habits and impede weight-loss progress. Future dietary weight-loss interventions should evaluate the effects of timing, frequency, and quality of snacks on weight loss.

The "snacking child" and its social network: some insights from an Italian survey

BACKGROUND

The hypothesis underlying this work is that the social network of a child might have an impact on the alimentary behaviors, in particular for what concerns snack consumption patterns.

METHODS

1215 Italian children 6-10 ys old were interviewed using a CATI facility in January 2010. 608 "snackers" and 607 "no-snackers" were identified. Information regarding family composition, child and relatives BMI, mother perception of child weight, child, father and mother physical activity, TV watching, social network, leisure time habits and dietary habits of peers, were collected. Association of variables with the status of snacker was investigated using a multivariable logistic regression model.

RESULTS

Snackers children seem to be part of more numerous social network (1.40 friends vs 1.14, p = 0.042) where the majority of peers are also eating snacks, this percentage being significantly higher (89.5 vs 76.3, p < 0.001) than in the "no-snacker" group. The snacking group is identified by the fact that it tends to practice at least 4 hours per week of physical activity (OR: 1.36, CI: 1.03-1.9). No evidence of an association between snacking consumption and overweight status has been shown by our study.

CONCLUSIONS

The snacking child has more active peer-to-peer social relationships, mostly related with sport activities. However, spending leisure time in sportive activities implies being part of a social environment which is definitely a positive one from the point of view of obesity control, and indeed, no increase of overweight/obesity is seen in relation to snack consumption.

Changes in eating behaviour and meal pattern following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass

BACKGROUND

Little is known about eating behaviour and meal pattern subsequent to Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), knowledge important for the nutritional care process. The objective of the study was to obtain basic information of how meal size, eating rate, meal frequency and eating behaviour change upon the RYGB surgery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Voluntary chosen meal size and eating rate were measured in a longitudinal, within subject, cohort study of 43 patients, 31 women and 12 men, age 42.6 (s.d. 9.7) years, body mass index (BMI) 44.5 (4.9) kg m(-2). Thirty-one non-obese subjects, 37.8 (13.6) years, BMI 23.7 (2.7) kg m(-2) served as a reference group. All subjects completed a meal pattern questionnaire and the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R21).

RESULTS

Six weeks postoperatively meal size was 42% of the preoperative meal size, (P<0.001). After 1 and 2 years, meal size increased but was still lower than preoperative size 57% (P<0.001) and 66% (P<0.001), respectively. Mean meal duration was constant before and after surgery. Mean eating rate measured as amount consumed food per minute was 45% of preoperative eating rate 6 weeks postoperatively (P<0.001). After 1 and 2 years, eating rate increased to 65% (P<0.001) and 72% (P<0.001), respectively, of preoperative rate. Number of meals per day increased from 4.9 (95% confidence interval, 4.4,5.4) preoperatively to 6 weeks: 5.2 (4.9,5.6), (not significant), 1 year 5.8 (5.5,6.1), (P=0.003), and 2 years 5.4 (5.1,5.7), (not significant). Emotional and uncontrolled eating were significantly decreased postoperatively, (both P<0.001 at all-time points), while cognitive restraint was only transiently increased 6 weeks postoperatively (P=0.011).

CONCLUSIONS

Subsequent to RYGB, patients display markedly changed eating behaviour and meal patterns, which may lead to sustained weight loss.

The effect of ready-to-eat cereal consumption on energy intake, body weight and anthropometric measurements: results from a randomized, controlled intervention trial

The objective of this work was to determine the effect of consumption of ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) in the evening in place of a normal evening snack on body weight, anthropometric measurements and energy intake in overweight individuals. Seventy overweight participants who were self-reported habitual evening snackers were assigned to either the control or treatment group. For 6 weeks the treatment group consumed RTEC instead of their normal evening snack. Body weight, anthropometric and food intake measurements were taken at 2-week intervals. There were no significant differences between groups in any anthropometric measurements; however, within the treatment group, body weight (p = 0.030) and waist circumference (p = 0.0003) were reduced after 6 weeks compared with baseline. Evening energy intake was lower in the treatment group compared with the control group (p = 0.007). These data indicate that replacing evening snacks with RTEC in overweight habitual evening snackers significantly reduces post dinner energy intake and may assist with weight management.

No consistent association between consumption of energy-dense snack foods and annual weight and waist circumference changes in Dutch adults

BACKGROUND

There is conflicting evidence regarding an association between the consumption of energy-dense snack (EDS) foods and the development of overweight.

OBJECTIVE

In the current study, we examined whether there was an association between the intake of EDS foods and annual weight and waist circumference changes in normal-weight and overweight Dutch adults.

DESIGN

The study population included 9383 men and women from the MORGEN-EPIC (Monitoring Project on Risk Factors for Chronic Diseases in the Netherlands-European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition) study, which is a population-based cohort study in 3 towns in the Netherlands (Amsterdam, Maastricht, and Doetinchem), who had a body mass index (in kg/m(2)) <30 and who were not dieting. Participants were enrolled between 1993 and 1997 and followed for an average of 8.1 y (Amsterdam and Maastricht: 9.9 y; Doetinchem: 4.9 y). Intake of EDS foods (sweets, cakes and pastries, and savory snacks) was assessed at baseline by using a validated food-frequency questionnaire. Multivariate linear and multinomial logistic regression models were applied and stratified by center to examine the association between energy from EDS foods (kcal) and annual weight and waist circumference changes.

RESULTS

The mean (±SD) daily energy intake from EDS foods was 294 ± 192 kcal. In Amsterdam and Maastricht, the annual weight change was 168 ± 572 g/y, whereas in Doetinchem, the annual weight change was 444 ± 816 g/y. In the multivariate regression analysis adjusted for follow-up duration and anthropometric, dietary, and lifestyle factors, there was some, but inconsistent, evidence of an association of EDS-food consumption with annual weight change.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides some, but inconsistent, evidence that consumption of EDS foods is positively associated with an increase in annual weight in normal- to overweight Dutch adults.

Food reinforcement, energy intake, and macronutrient choice

BACKGROUND

Food is a powerful reinforcer that motivates people to eat. The relative reinforcing value of food (RRV(food)) is associated with obesity and energy intake and interacts with impulsivity to predict energy intake.

OBJECTIVE

How RRV(food) is related to macronutrient choice in ad libitum eating tasks in humans has not been studied; however, animal research suggests that sugar or simple carbohydrates may be a determinant of reward value in food. This study assessed which macronutrients are associated with food reinforcement.

DESIGN

Two hundred seventy-three adults with various body mass indexes were assessed for RRV(food), the relative reinforcing value of reading, food hedonics, energy intake in an ad libitum taste test, and usual energy intake derived from repeated 24-h dietary recalls. Multiple regression was used to assess the relation between predictors of total energy and energy associated with macronutrient intake after control for age, sex, income, education, minority status, and other macronutrient intakes.

RESULTS

The results showed that the relative proportion of responding for food compared with reading (RRV(prop)) was positively related to body mass index, laboratory-measured energy intake, and usual energy intake. In addition, RRV(prop) was a predictor of sugar intake but not of total carbohydrate, fat, or protein intake.

CONCLUSION

These results are consistent with basic animal research showing that sugar is related to food reward and with the hypothesis that food reward processes are more strongly related to eating than are food hedonics. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00962117.

Appetitive and Dietary Effects of Consuming an Energy-Dense Food (Peanuts) with or between Meals by Snackers and Nonsnackers

Background. Energy-dense foods are inconsistently implicated in elevated energy intake (EI). This may stem from other food properties and/or differences in dietary incorporation, that is, as snacks or with meals. Objective. Assess intake pattern and food properties on acute appetitive ratings (AR) and EI. Design. 201 normal and overweight adults consuming a standard lunch. Test loads of 1255.2 kJ (300 kcal) were added to the lunch or provided as snack. Loads (peanuts, snack mix, and snack mix with peanuts) were energy, macronutrient, and volumetrically matched with a lunch portion as control. Participants completed meal and snack sessions of their randomly assigned load. Results. No differences were observed in daily EI or AR for meal versus snack or treatment versus control. Consumption of peanuts as a snack tended to strengthen dietary compensation compared to peanuts or other loads with a meal. Conclusions. Inclusion of an energy-dense food as a snack or meal component had comparable influence on AR and EI. Peanuts tended to elicit stronger dietary compensation when consumed as a snack versus with a meal. If substantiated, this latter observation suggests that properties other than those controlled here (energy, macronutrient content, and volume) modify AR and EI.

The impact of eating habits on anthropometric characteristics in French primary school children

BACKGROUND

Obesity is increasing worldwide, reaching alarming proportions. Eating habits have changed over time and nowadays children and adolescents' environment favours the adoption of unhealthy eating behaviours leading to metabolic impairment.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the impact of eating risk factors and their cumulative effect on anthropometric characteristics in French primary school children.

METHODS

A total of 278 healthy French children (7.50 ± 0.67 years old) and their legal representatives agreed to take part in this study. Parents were asked to fill in an eating habits clinical questionnaire with questions about skipping breakfast, snacking between meals, eating in front of the TV and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption. On the basis of the answers, children were classified into four categories as a function of the number of eating risk factors they presented. Body mass index (BMI), the sum of four skinfolds (Σ4 skinfolds: tricipital, bicipital, sub-scapular and supra-iliac) and waist circumference (WC) were measured. BMI was transformed into z-BMI for each child.

RESULTS

ANOVA and unpaired t-test provided significantly higher z-BMI, Σ4 skinfolds and WC in children who were used to skipping breakfast, snacking, watching TV while eating and consuming sugar-sweetened beverages. The more children accumulated eating risk factors, the higher were their z-BMI, Σ4 skinfolds and WC (MANOVA: P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Eating habits appear to be associated with anthropometric characteristics in French primary school children. Anthropometric values (z-BMI, Σ4 skinfolds and WC) increased with the number of eating risk factors they presented.

Dose–response effect of a whey protein preload on within-day energy intake in lean subjects

The effect of consuming different amounts of whey protein on appetite and energy intake was investigated in two separate studies using randomised, crossover designs. Healthy-weight men and women (range: BMI 19·0–25·0 kg/m2, age 19·4–40·4 years) consumed one of four 400 ml liquid preloads, followed by an ad libitum test meal 90 min later. In study 1, preloads were 1675 kJ with 12·5, 25 or 50 % of energy from protein, and in study 2, preloads were 1047 kJ with 10, 20 or 40 % energy from protein. Flavoured water was used as the control in both the studies. Appetite ratings were collected immediately before 30, 60 and 90 min after consuming the preloads; and immediately, 30 and 60 min after consuming the test meal. In study 1, energy intake following the control preload (4136 (sem 337) kJ) was significantly higher than each of the 12·5 % (3520 (sem 296) kJ), 25 % (3384 (sem 265) kJ) and 50 % (2853 (sem 244) kJ) protein preloads (P < 0·05). Intake after the 12·5 % preload was significantly higher than following 25 and 50 % preloads (P < 0·05). In study 2, energy intake following the control preload (4801 (sem 325) kJ) was higher than following the 10 % (4205 (sem 310) kJ), 20 % (3988 (sem 250) kJ) and 40 % (3801 (sem 245) kJ) protein preloads (P < 0·05). There were no differences in subjective appetite ratings between preloads in either study. These findings indicate a dose–response effect of protein content of the preload on energy intake at a subsequent meal.

Snacking is associated with reduced risk of overweight and reduced abdominal obesity in adolescents: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2004

BACKGROUND

Snacking is common in adolescents; however, it is unclear if there is an association between snacking and overweight or obesity within the context of the overall diet.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the associations of snacking with weight status and abdominal obesity in adolescents 12-18 y of age (n = 5811).

DESIGN

We conducted secondary analyses of 24-h diet recalls and anthropometric data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2004. We classified adolescents by frequency of snack consumption (0, 1, 2, 3, and > or =4 snacks/d) and by the percentage of energy intake from snacks (0%, <10%, 10-19%, 20-29%, 30-39%, and > or =40%). We classified adolescents who had a body mass index (BMI) > or =85th percentile of BMI-for-age as overweight or obese. We defined abdominal obesity as a waist circumference > or =90th percentile. We determined covariate-adjusted prevalences of overweight or obesity and abdominal obesity and odds ratios with SUDAAN software (release 9.0.1; Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC).

RESULTS

Mean values of all obesity indicators studied were inversely associated with snacking frequency and percentage of energy from snacks. The prevalence of overweight or obesity and of abdominal obesity decreased with increased snacking frequency and with increased percentage of energy from snacks. Odds ratios (95% CIs) for overweight or obesity and for abdominal obesity ranged from 0.63 (0.48, 0.85) to 0.40 (0.29, 0.57) and from 0.61 (0.43, 0.86) to 0.36 (0.21, 0.63) for 2 to > or =4 snacks/d, respectively. Reduced risks of overweight or obesity and abdominal obesity were associated with snacking.

CONCLUSION

Snackers, compared with nonsnackers, were less likely to be overweight or obese and less likely to have abdominal obesity.

A high eating frequency is associated with an overall healthy lifestyle in middle-aged men and women and reduced likelihood of general and central obesity in men

The role of eating frequency in obesity development is debated. Therefore, we investigated the association between eating frequency, BMI and waist circumference (WC), as well as how eating frequency is related to diet composition and lifestyle factors. A subsample (aged 47–68 years) of men (n1355) and women (n1654) from the Malmö Diet and Cancer cohort was used for the present cross-sectional study. The daily eating frequency was calculated based on the number of self-reported eating occasions during an ordinary day. Regression analysis and ANOVA examined the associations between eating frequency, BMI and WC, while adjusting for potential confounders. The energy percentage (E%) from carbohydrates as well as relative fibre intake (g/MJ) increased with higher eating frequency; while E% from fat, protein and alcohol decreased. A low daily eating frequency was associated with smoking, higher alcohol consumption, and lower leisure-time physical activity. Eating three or fewer meals per d was also associated with increased likelihood of general and central obesity in men when adjusting for total energy intake, lifestyle and dietary factors. However, results did not reach statistical significance among women. The present study suggests that a high daily eating frequency is associated with a healthy lifestyle and dietary pattern in both men and women, and a reduced likelihood of general and central obesity in men. There is a need for prospective studies investigating the association between eating frequency, diet and body composition.

Changes in the contribution of snacks to the daily energy intake of Finnish adults

This study presents data on the contribution of eating occasions to the daily intakes of energy and nutrients. The 48-h dietary data of Finnish adults were gathered from two independent, population-based health surveys undertaken in 2002 and 2007. Snack-dominated and main-meal dominated eating patterns were defined as the habit of obtaining the majority of daily energy from snacks or from main meals. The snack-dominated eating pattern increased in adults from 2002 to 2007, significantly in men. Mostly, similar changes in daily nutrient intakes were observed between study years within eating patterns. Higher alcohol intake in men and higher sucrose intake and lower fibre intake in women were associated with the snack-dominated eating pattern. Due to instability in the snack-dominated eating pattern we conclude that main meals and snacks seem to be parallel ways of composing daily diet with only a few dietary differences.

Type of snack influences satiety responses in adult women

The effect of different snack foods on satiety and plasma glucose and hormone responses was assessed. Nineteen fasted adult women (mean age: 39.2 + or - 0.7 years, mean BMI: 26.1 + or - 0.8 kg/m(2)) consumed test foods including dried plums, low-fat cookies, white bread and water only on separate days. The test foods (with the exception of water) provided 238 kcal and were similar in total carbohydrate, fat and protein content but differed in fiber and sugar content. Subjects rated their feelings of hunger using satiety index scales prior to snack consumption and again every 15 min for 2h following initiation of intake. Blood samples were collected at baseline and 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min following intake. At the end of the 120-min test period, subjects were presented with a meal to be consumed until satisfied. The satiety index AUC was greater for the dried plum trial versus the low-fat cookie trial (p < or = 0.05). There was no difference in post-snack consumption between the dried plums and cookie trials. The dried plums trial elicited lower plasma glucose and insulin AUC than the low-fat cookie trial (p < or = 0.05) and tended to promote a greater plasma ghrelin AOC (p = 0.056). These results demonstrate that consuming dried plums as a snack suppresses hunger relative to a low-fat cookie as evidenced by lower glucose and/or satiety-regulating hormone concentrations.

Snacking increased among U.S. adults between 1977 and 2006

This study built on limited knowledge about patterns and trends of adult snacking in the US. We selected adults aged 19 y and older (n = 44,754) between 1977-1978 and 2003-2006 with results weighted and adjusted for sample design effects. Differences testing, by a Student's t test, used STATA 10 (P < or = 0.01). We defined a snacking event as intake of foods over a 15-min period and excluded food defined as snacks but eaten at a meal. Dietary data were obtained from the first 2 d for the 1977-1978 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS 77) and the 1989-1991 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII 89); and 2-d dietary data from the 1994-1996 CSFII (CSFII 96) and the NHANES from 2 consecutive surveys: NHANES 2003-2004 and NHANES 2005-2006 (NHANES 03-06). Results showed that snacking prevalence increased significantly from 71 to 97% in 2003-2006 with increases in both the 1989-1994 and the 1994-2006 periods. In all adults, snacking occasions increased 0.97 events over this time period (P < 0.01) and the contribution of snacks to total energy intake increased from 18 to 24% (P < 0.01). The energy density of snacks (food plus beverages) also increased progressively over the time period studied. Important changes in snacking food sources were found among desserts, salty snacks, candies, and sweetened beverages. More research is needed to gain a better understanding of the implications for overall energy intake and energy imbalance.

The habitual meal and snacking patterns of university students in two countries and their use of vending machines

BACKGROUND

Dietary patterns and food choices in western and northern European countries can differ from those in countries that surround the Mediterranean basin. However, irregular meal patterns and the consumption of high-energy snacks tend to become common in most countries and their association with the prevalence of obesity has been examined in many studies. The first aim of the present study was to describe the habitual meal and snack intakes, including the use of vending machines, for two groups of first-year university students in two countries of different cultural backgrounds. The second aim was to explore the relationships between body mass index (BMI) and snacking for these two groups.

METHODS

One hundred and sixty first-year undergraduate university students from two defined universities in Greece (n = 80) and Scotland (n = 80) volunteered to complete a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The FFQ comprised 16 questions assessing their meal and snacking habits. Self-assessed height and weight data were collected.

RESULTS

The majority of the 160 students reported a BMI in the healthy range (<25 kg m(-2)). Overall, 26% of the students reported never consuming breakfast. More Scottish students (74%) used vending machines (P < 0.05). More Scottish students consumed chocolate bars and crisps than Greek students (41% and 34% versus 37.5% and 20%, respectively). Only the choice of chocolate bars from vending machines and the consumption of crisps and low fat yogurts were related to BMI (P < 0.05) for both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

University students living in different countries report similar dietary patterns but differ in their snacking habits. No relationships were found between BMI and snacking. There is a need to carry out research to further our understanding of this relationship.

Prospective study of self-reported usual snacking and weight gain in a Mediterranean cohort: the SUN project

BACKGROUND & AIMS

It has been hypothesized that snacking could be a major factor in the development of obesity. However, the relationship between snacking and the increment in body weight remains controversial. Moreover, longitudinal studies about this issue are scarce. Thus, our objective was to prospectively assess the relationship between snacking and weight gain and obesity in a middle-aged free-living population.

METHODS

Longitudinal prospective Spanish dynamic cohort (10,162 university graduates; mean age: 39 years) followed-up for an average of 4.6 years. Dietary habits were ascertained through a validated 136-item food-frequency questionnaire. Usual snackers were defined as those participants who answered affirmatively when asked in the baseline assessment if they usually eat between meals. Validated self-reported weight and body mass index were collected at baseline and during follow-up.

RESULTS

After adjusting for potential confounders, self-reported between-meal snacking was significantly associated with a higher risk of substantial weight gain (> or =3kg/year; p<0.001;> or =5kg/year, p<0.001;> or =10% baseline weight, p<0.001). Among participants with a baseline body mass index lower than 30kg/m(2) (n: 9709) we observed 258 new cases of obesity. Usual snackers presented an adjusted 69% higher risk of becoming obese during follow-up (Hazard Ratio: 1.69; 95% confidence interval: 1.30-2.20).

CONCLUSION

Our results support the hypothesis that self-reported between-meal snacking can be a potential risk factor for obesity.

Effects of food form and timing of ingestion on appetite and energy intake in lean young adults and in young adults with obesity

OBJECTIVE

Overweight and obesity have been attributed to increased eating frequency and the size of eating events. This study explored the influence of the timing of eating events and food form on appetite and daily energy intake.

DESIGN

Crossover, clinical intervention where participants consumed 300-kcal loads of a solid (apple), semisolid (apple sauce), and beverage (apple juice) at a meal or 2 hours later (snack).

SUBJECTS

Twenty normal-weight (body mass index 22.6+/-1.8) and 20 obese (body mass index 32.3+/-1.5) adults. There were 10 men and 10 women within each body mass index group.

MEASUREMENTS

On six occasions, participants reported to the laboratory at their customary midday mealtime. Appetite questionnaires and motor skills tests were completed upon arrival and at 30-minute intervals for the 2 hours participants were in the laboratory and at 30-minute intervals for 4 hours after leaving the laboratory. Diet recalls were collected the next day. Data were collected between January 2006 and March 2007.

RESULTS

Whether consumed with a meal or alone as a snack, the beverage elicited the weakest appetitive response, the solid food form elicited the strongest appetitive response and the semisolid response was intermediate. The appetite shift was greatest for the solid food when consumed as a snack. The interval between test food consumption and the first spontaneous eating event >100 kcal was shortest for the beverage. No significant treatment effects were observed for test day energy intake or between lean individuals and individuals with obesity.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the appetitive findings, consumption of an energy-yielding beverage either with a meal or as a snack poses a greater risk for promoting positive energy than macronutrient-matched semisolid or solid foods consumed at these times.

Health effects of soda drinking in adolescent girls in the United Arab Emirates

BACKGROUND

There is a growing concern in the medical and scientific communities about the harmful effects associated with carbonated soft drinks. In several observational studies, intake of carbonated beverages was associated with reduced bone mass, decreased calcium level in the blood, and increased fracture risk. Soda drinks is a contributing factor in the prevalence and incidence of both dental caries and obesity especially among adolescents and young adults so they are more likely to be diagnosed as diabetic.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims at studying the prevalence of soda drinking among adolescent girls and discovering its health effects.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study was designed, and a multistage random sample was performed in schools and colleges in Dubai. A total of 275 students were selected. A self-administrative questionnaire was distributed and blood, and urine samples were collected. Anthropometric measures and laboratory investigations (lipid profile, renal function, and blood and urine electrolytes) were done.

RESULTS

Age range was 10 to 22 years, with mean of 16.2 years. Prevalence of soda drinking was 81.8%. About half of the ever-drinkers (47.5%) have tried to quit drinking. There was no significant difference in body mass index between drinkers and nondrinkers (chi(2) = 2.1, P > .05). The concentration of blood sodium was less in drinkers, whereas the concentrations of urea and creatinine were not affected by drinking. There was no significant difference in blood calcium between drinkers and non drinkers (P > .05). Drinkers were associated with higher risk of increased calcium and phosphorus excretion in urine (odds ratio, 1.1; 95% confidence interval, 0.38-3.3).

CONCLUSION

Soda drinking was associated with higher risk of obesity and decreasing level of blood calcium and increasing urinary calcium excretion, which may lead to osteoporosis later in life. Soda drinking did not have any effect on renal function tests in our study group.

Eating behaviours and obesity in the adult population of Spain

To examine the association between several eating behaviours and obesity, data were taken from a cross-sectional study conducted with 34 974 individuals aged 25–64 years, representative of the non-institutionalised Spanish population. Obesity was defined as BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. Study associations were summarised with OR obtained from logistic regression, with adjustment for socio-demographic and lifestyle factors. The results showed that those skipping breakfast were more likely to be obese, both in men (OR 1·58; 95 % CI 1·29, 1·93) and women (OR 1·53; 95 % CI 1·15, 2·03). Moreover, obesity was more prevalent in those having only two meals per day than in those having three or four meals in men (OR 1·63; 95 % CI 1·37, 1·95) and women (OR 1·30; 95 % CI 1·05, 1·62). Also, snacking was associated with obesity in women (OR 1·51; 95 % CI 1·17, 1·95). However, no association was observed between obesity and having one or more of the main meals away from home, in either sex. In conclusion, skipping breakfast and eating frequency were associated with obesity. The lack of association between eating away from home and obesity is in contrast to most previous research conducted in Anglo-Saxon countries. Differences in the type of establishment frequented when eating out or in the characteristics of restaurant customers in a Mediterranean population might explain these conflicting results.

Access conditions affect binge-type shortening consumption in rats

When non-food-deprived rats are given intermittent access to certain substances, consumption of those substances is greater than when more frequent access is provided. The present study examined the effects of three different shortening access conditions on subsequent shortening intake in rats. Each of the three different shortening conditions lasted five weeks and was followed by a five-week period in which shortening access was limited by time (1 h of availability) on either an Intermittent (Monday, Wednesday, Friday) or Daily schedule of access. In Part 1, limiting the quantity of shortening provided during the 1-h period of availability attenuated subsequent 1-h shortening intake in the Intermittent access group, but had no statistically significant effect in the Daily access group. In Part 2, unrestricted availability of shortening (24 h/day-7 days/week) attenuated subsequent 1-h shortening intake in all groups. In Part 3, shortening non-availability for five weeks enhanced subsequent 1-h shortening intake in all groups. It was also shown that rats under an Intermittent, but not a Daily, schedule of access consumed as much shortening during a 1-h period of availability, as was consumed in 24 h when shortening availability was unrestricted. These results demonstrate that while intermittent access is necessary and sufficient to stimulate binge-type eating in rats, the behavioral history can modulate binge size.

Food insecurity is not associated with lower energy intakes

We examined the association between food insecurity and total daily energy intakes in American men and women. We estimated the number of daily snacks and meals consumed by individuals in different food security categories. Also, we calculated the energy contribution, energy density, and food group sources of those snacks and meals. Using the 1999-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), we examined the Food Security Survey Module (FSSM) and dietary information from the 24-h recall. Differences in energy intakes between groups were not significant. Women who were food insecure without hunger (FIWOH) and food insecure with hunger (FIWH) had significantly fewer meals than food secure (FS) women. The energy contribution of each meal and the total energy contributed from snacking were both significantly greater for FIWOH women than for FS women. The number of meals was significantly lower whereas the daily number of snacking occasions and the total energy from snacking were significantly increased for FIWOH men relative to FS men. FIWOH men consumed snack foods that had significantly lower energy density than those consumed by FS men. Among men and women, the major sources of meal energy were the grain group, the meat, poultry, and fish group, and the sugar, sweets, and beverages group whereas the major source of snacking energy was the sugar, sweets, and beverages group. Total energy intakes were not different for FI individuals; however, their meal and snack behaviors were different. Focusing solely on total energy intake would miss important consequences of food insecurity.

Relationships between human thirst, hunger, drinking, and feeding

There is a widely held view that hunger prompts feeding to ensure energy needs are met, while thirst cues drinking to address hydration requirements. However, recent changes in the nature of the food supply and eating patterns have raised questions about the functionality of these relationships with respect to maintaining energy balance. The increasing consumption of energy-yielding beverages and foods with diluted energy density, through the use of ingredients such as high-intensity sweeteners and fat replacers, poses new challenges to presumed homeostatic energy regulatory mechanisms. This review draws on findings from a recent observational study and other published evidence to explore whether shifts of food composition and use patterns may be disrupting relationships between thirst, hunger, drinking, and eating, resulting in positive energy balance (e.g., drinking low satiety, energy-yielding beverages in response to hunger). The observational study entailed collecting hourly appetitive ratings and dietary recalls from 50 adults for seven consecutive days. These data reveal a clear bimodal daily hunger pattern, whereas thirst is stronger and more stable throughout the day. Further, approximately 75% of fluid intake occurs peri-prandially, with the majority derived from energy-yielding beverages. While there is published evidence that drinking is responsive to feeding, support for the view that drinking is the more tightly regulated behavior is stronger. Our data indicates that, due to a number of plausible factors, neither absolute values nor changes of hunger or thirst are strong predictors of energy intake. However, it is proposed that stable, high thirst facilitates drinking, and with the increased availability and use of energy-yielding beverages that have low satiety properties, can promote positive energy balance. There are marked individual differences in mean daily hunger and thirst ratings with unknown implications for energy balance.

The effect of feeding frequency on insulin and ghrelin responses in human subjects

Recent work shows that increased meal frequency reduces ghrelin responses in sheep. Human research suggests there is an interaction between insulin and ghrelin. The effect of meal frequency on this interaction is unknown. Therefore, we investigated the effect of feeding frequency on insulin and ghrelin responses in human subjects. Five healthy male volunteers were recruited from the general population: age 24 (SEM 2)years, body mass 75.7 (SEM 3.2) kg and BMI 23.8 (SEM 0.8) kg/m(2). Volunteers underwent three 8-h feeding regimens: fasting (FAST); low-frequency(two) meal ingestion (LOFREQ(MEAL)); high-frequency (twelve) meal ingestion (HIFREQ(MEAL)). Meals were equi-energetic within trials,consisting of 64% carbohydrate, 23% fat and 13% protein. Total energy intake was equal between feeding trials. Total area under the curve for serum insulin and plasma ghrelin responses did not differ between trials (P>0.05), although the hormonal response patterns to the two meal feeding regimens were different. An inverse relationship was found between serum insulin and plasma ghrelin during the FAST andLOFREQ(MEAL) trials (P<0.05); and, in the postprandial period, there was a time delay between insulin responses and successive ghrelin responses.This relationship was not observed during the HIFREQ(MEAL) trial (P>0.05). This study provides further evidence that the postprandial fall in ghrelin might be due, at least partially, to the rise in insulin and that high-frequency feeding may disrupt this relationship.

Short-term dietary compensation in free-living adults

Evidence suggests that compensatory behaviors operate in infants and pre-school children, such that the high variance characteristic of single eating occasions is much reduced over the day. However, the concept has not been fully explored in adults. The present within-subject, observational study investigated short-term dietary compensation patterns in fifty, weight-stable, normal weight (n=27), overweight (n=14), and obese (n=9) free-living adults (11 M, 39 F; age 30+/-11 y; BMI 26.3+/-5.9). Twenty four-hour diet recalls were obtained for 7 consecutive days, by the multi-pass technique. Each 24-h period was divided into 7 eating occasions. The coefficient of variation for energy intake was calculated for each adult, for each eating occasion, and over each 24-h period. Sub-group variability was assessed by BMI and frequency of consumption of sweetened energy-yielding beverages. The mean coefficient of variation for energy intake for the 7 eating occasions was 110.5%, compared to 28.9% for the day as a whole. Correlations between energy intakes at successive eating events were uniformly negative. No significant differences were noted in the sub-group analyses. Significantly greater variation in energy intake was noted for snacks compared to meals (P<0.0001). These data suggest that adults regulate energy intake over a 24-h period more closely than they do at individual eating occasions, similar to the pattern previously observed in children. Further studies of compensatory responses by larger sub-groups of individuals at risk for weight gain are warranted.

Daily eating events among co-living and single-living, diseased older men

OBJECTIVES

To analyse, describe and compare the frequency and energy intake of eating events, including specific food items, among diseased older men living in ordinary housing.

DESIGN

Descriptive and explorative.

SETTING

Interviews were performed in the participants' home.

PARTICIPANTS

Thirty-five co-living and 26 single-living men, 64-88 years of age. Participants had one of three chronic diseases associated with difficulties in buying and preparing food and with difficulties related to the meal situation: Parkinson's disease, rheumatoid arthritis or stroke.

MEASUREMENTS

A repeated 24-h recall was used to assess food intake and meal patterns.

RESULTS

Eating events were distributed over a 24-h period. Co-living men had a higher (p=0.001) number of eating events/day; both hot and cold eating events were consumed more frequently. There was no difference between groups concerning energy intake. Co-living men more often had hot eating events cooked from raw ingredients (p=0.001) and a greater mix of vegetables/roots (p=0.003) included in such eating events.

CONCLUSION

Single-living men may constitute a vulnerable group from a nutritional perspective, while co-living men, besides the pleasure of eating with another person, seem to get support with food and eating events from their partners. Hence, the group of single-living men, particularly those with a disability, should receive particular attention with regard to possible food-related difficulties.

Can working conditions explain differences in eating patterns during working hours?

Objective

The aim of this study was to examine whether there are associations between working conditions and the use of staff canteen or packed meals among Finnish employees.

Setting

Data were obtained from cross-sectional surveys on working conditions, conducted triennially (1997, 2000, 2003) since 1997.

Subjects

In each survey, the subjects were 25–64-year-old employed Finnish employees: 3096 men and 3273 women.

Results

Employees at large workplaces used canteens far more often than those at smaller workplaces. Working conditions played a different role in canteen use at small and large workplaces, as well as among the different sexes. At small workplaces, physically demanding jobs held by female employees and low job control encouraged employees to use the canteen. On the other hand, at large workplaces, low social support at work encouraged the use of canteens among men whereas high mental strain at work meant they used the canteen less. Among women, eating packed meals was not related to working conditions, but among men, low social support and high mental strain at work were associated with more frequent use of packed meals.

Conclusions

The use of a staff canteen is largely determined by the size of the workplace and by employee education. The underlying factor could be the availability of canteens, a question which must be confirmed in further studies, since well-planned mass catering at workplaces has major effects on public health, well-being and the nutrition education of employees.

Snacking behaviours of adolescents and their association with skipping meals

Background

Snacking is likely to play an important role in the development of overweight and obesity, yet little is known about the contexts of snacking in adolescents or how snacking may influence other dietary habits, like meal skipping. This study examines the contexts in which adolescents snack and whether these contexts are associated with demographic characteristics of adolescents and with meal skipping.

Methods

A cross-sectional, self-reported online food habits survey was administered to 3,250 secondary students in years seven and nine. The students were drawn from 37 secondary schools in Victoria, Australia during 2004–2005. Frequencies of meal skipping, and snacking in eight contexts, were compared across gender, year level and region of residence. Logistic regressions were performed to examine associations between snacking contexts and meal skipping adjusting for gender and region.

Results

The most common contexts for snacking among adolescents were after school (4.6 times per week), while watching TV (3.5 times per week) and while hanging out with friends (2.4 times per week). Adolescents were least likely to snack all day long (0.8 times per week) or in the middle of the night (0.4 times per week). Snacking contexts were variously associated with gender, year level and region. In contrast, meal skipping was associated with gender and region of residence but not year level. Adolescents who reported more frequent snacking on the run, on the way to or from school, all day long, or in the middle of the night were more likely to skip meals.

Conclusion

These data suggest adolescents snack frequently, especially in their leisure time. In addition, adolescents who snack on the run, on the way to or from school, all day long or in the middle of the night are more likely to skip meals than are adolescents who don't snack at these times. Understanding the contexts in which adolescents snack, and their associations with skipping meals, may assist those involved in the promotion of healthy food habits among adolescents.

Snack chips fried in corn oil alleviate cardiovascular disease risk factors when substituted for low-fat or high-fat snacks

BACKGROUND

The perception that all high-fat snacks are unhealthy may be wrong.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to assess whether replacing low-fat and high-fat snacks with snacks rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and low in saturated and trans fatty acids would improve cardiovascular health.

DESIGN

Thirty-three adults participated in a randomized crossover trial of 3 controlled feeding phases of 25 d each in which a different type of snack was provided: low-fat (30.8% of energy from fat, 5.2% of energy from PUFAs), high-PUFA (36.3% of energy from fat, 9.7% of energy from PUFAs), or high-fat (37.9% of energy from fat, 5.8% of energy from PUFAs) snack.

RESULTS

Each diet reduced LDL- and total cholesterol concentrations, but reductions were greater with the low-fat and the high-PUFA diets than with the high-fat diet: LDL cholesterol (11.8% and 12.5% compared with 8.8%, respectively; P = 0.03 and 0.01), total cholesterol (10.5% and 10.7% compared with 7.9%, respectively; P = 0.03 and 0.02). The high-PUFA diet tended to reduce triacylglycerol concentrations (9.4%; P = 0.06), and this change was greater than that with the low-fat (P = 0.028) and high-fat (P = 0.0008) diets.

CONCLUSIONS

These data show that snack type affects cardiovascular health. Consuming snack chips rich in PUFA and low in saturated or trans fatty acids instead of high-saturated fatty acid and trans fatty acid or low-fat snacks leads to improvements in lipid profiles concordant with reductions in cardiovascular disease risk.

Influence of sweetened chewing gum on appetite, meal patterning and energy intake

The concurrent increases of snacking and obesity suggest the possibility for some form of inter-meal oral stimulation with high satiety value to moderate rising obesity rates. This study explored the influence of sweetened chewing gum on appetitive ratings, meal patterning and food intake. Three test conditions were imposed after a fixed lunch preload: no gum chewing, gum chewing 2 h after lunch and gum chewing when hungry. Forty-seven participants, 29 males and 18 females, completed each treatment, one day a week for three weeks. Participants were fed lunch in a laboratory setting, and after being instructed on that day's test procedures, they were allowed to leave the laboratory. Throughout the remainder of the day, appetitive, mood and intake data were self-reported. The results indicate appetite ratings, meal patterning and food intake do not differ among the three treatment conditions. While these results did not support an effect of brief chewing of a sweetened gum, further exploration of variations of the sensory properties of gum and exposure patterns may still prove worthwhile.

Effect of a post-dinner snack and partial meal replacement program on weight loss

The objectives of this study were to examine whether providing a structured post-dinner snack would enhance weight loss among obese night snackers participating in a novel partial meal replacement (PMR) program and to examine the efficacy of that program. Sixty adults (age 18-65 years; body mass index >or=30 kg/m2), 29 randomized to the 'post-dinner snack' and 32 to the 'no snack' groups, completed the 8-week program. Both groups showed improvements in weight (-4.23 kg, P < 0.0001), body mass index (-1.48 kg/m2, P < 0.0001), body fat (-1.36%, P < 00.0001), waist circumference (-6.40 cm, P < 0.0001), and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (-2.72 mmol/l, P < 0.01), and on a night snacking question (-1.31, P < 0.0001). The 'post-dinner snack' group did not show significantly greater weight loss outcomes than the 'no snack' group either before or after taking compliance into consideration. Providing a structured post-dinner snack along with a PMR program did not enhance weight loss treatment outcomes; however, the PMR program produced beneficial weight loss changes for obese night snackers.