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Liow LH, Reitan T, Harnik PG. Ecological interactions on macroevolutionary time scales: clams and brachiopods are more than ships that pass in the night. Ecol Lett 2015; 18:1030-9. [PMID: 26293753 DOI: 10.1111/ele.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Competition among organisms has ecological and evolutionary consequences. However, whether the consequences of competition are manifested and measureable on macroevolutionary time scales is equivocal. Marine bivalves and brachiopods have overlapping niches such that competition for food and space may occur. Moreover, there is a long-standing debate over whether bivalves outcompeted brachiopods evolutionarily, because brachiopod diversity declined through time while bivalve diversity increased. To answer this question, we estimate the origination and extinction dynamics of fossil marine bivalve and brachiopod genera from the Ordovician through to the Recent while simultaneously accounting for incomplete sampling. Then, using stochastic differential equations, we assess statistical relationships among diversification and sampling dynamics of brachiopods and bivalves and five paleoenvironmental proxies. None of these potential environmental drivers had any detectable influence on brachiopod or bivalve diversification. In contrast, elevated bivalve extinction rates causally increased brachiopod origination rates, suggesting that bivalves have suppressed brachiopod evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Hsiang Liow
- Department of Biosciences, Centre for Evolutionary and Ecological Synthesis, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066, Blindern, Oslo, 0316, Norway
| | - Trond Reitan
- Department of Biosciences, Centre for Evolutionary and Ecological Synthesis, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066, Blindern, Oslo, 0316, Norway
| | - Paul G Harnik
- Department of Earth and Environment, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, PA, USA
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52
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Nicholson DB, Mayhew PJ, Ross AJ. Changes to the Fossil Record of Insects through Fifteen Years of Discovery. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128554. [PMID: 26176667 PMCID: PMC4503423 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The first and last occurrences of hexapod families in the fossil record are compiled from publications up to end-2009. The major features of these data are compared with those of previous datasets (1993 and 1994). About a third of families (>400) are new to the fossil record since 1994, over half of the earlier, existing families have experienced changes in their known stratigraphic range and only about ten percent have unchanged ranges. Despite these significant additions to knowledge, the broad pattern of described richness through time remains similar, with described richness increasing steadily through geological history and a shift in dominant taxa, from Palaeoptera and Polyneoptera to Paraneoptera and Holometabola, after the Palaeozoic. However, after detrending, described richness is not well correlated with the earlier datasets, indicating significant changes in shorter-term patterns. There is reduced Palaeozoic richness, peaking at a different time, and a less pronounced Permian decline. A pronounced Triassic peak and decline is shown, and the plateau from the mid Early Cretaceous to the end of the period remains, albeit at substantially higher richness compared to earlier datasets. Origination and extinction rates are broadly similar to before, with a broad decline in both through time but episodic peaks, including end-Permian turnover. Origination more consistently exceeds extinction compared to previous datasets and exceptions are mainly in the Palaeozoic. These changes suggest that some inferences about causal mechanisms in insect macroevolution are likely to differ as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- David B. Nicholson
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
- Department of Natural Sciences, National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Peter J. Mayhew
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J. Ross
- Department of Natural Sciences, National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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53
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Voje KL, Holen ØH, Liow LH, Stenseth NC. The role of biotic forces in driving macroevolution: beyond the Red Queen. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20150186. [PMID: 25948685 PMCID: PMC4455800 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A multitude of hypotheses claim that abiotic factors are the main drivers of macroevolutionary change. By contrast, Van Valen's Red Queen hypothesis is often put forward as the sole representative of the view that biotic forcing is the main evolutionary driver. This imbalance of hypotheses does not reflect our current knowledge: theoretical work demonstrates the plausibility of biotically driven long-term evolution, whereas empirical work suggests a central role for biotic forcing in macroevolution. We call for a more pluralistic view of how biotic forces may drive long-term evolution that is compatible with both phenotypic stasis in the fossil record and with non-constant extinction rates. Promising avenues of research include contrasting predictions from relevant theories within ecology and macroevolution, as well as embracing both abiotic and biotic proxies while modelling long-term evolutionary data. By fitting models describing hypotheses of biotically driven macroevolution to data, we could dissect their predictions and transcend beyond pattern description, possibly narrowing the divide between our current understanding of micro- and macroevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kjetil L Voje
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Øistein H Holen
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Lee Hsiang Liow
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Nils Chr Stenseth
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
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54
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Interdependence of specialization and biodiversity in Phanerozoic marine invertebrates. Nat Commun 2015; 6:6602. [PMID: 25779979 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of the dynamics of biodiversity often suggest that diversity has upper limits, but the complex interplay between ecological and evolutionary processes and the relative role of biotic and abiotic factors that set upper limits to diversity are poorly understood. Here we statistically assess the relationship between global biodiversity and the degree of habitat specialization of benthic marine invertebrates over the Phanerozoic eon. We show that variation in habitat specialization correlates positively with changes in global diversity, that is, times of high diversity coincide with more specialized faunas. We identify the diversity dynamics of specialists but not generalists, and origination rates but not extinction rates, as the main drivers of this ecological interdependence. Abiotic factors fail to show any significant relationship with specialization. Our findings suggest that the overall level of specialization and its fluctuations over evolutionary timescales are controlled by diversity-dependent processes--driven by interactions between organisms competing for finite resources.
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55
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Fraser D, Gorelick R, Rybczynski N. Macroevolution and climate change influence phylogenetic community assembly of North American hoofed mammals. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Fraser
- Department of Biology; Carleton University; 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa ON K1S 5B6 Canada
- Palaeobiology; Canadian Museum of Nature; PO Box 3443 Stn ‘D’ Ottawa ON K1P 6P4 Canada
| | - Root Gorelick
- Department of Biology; Carleton University; 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa ON K1S 5B6 Canada
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics; Carleton University; 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa ON K1S 5B6 Canada
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies; Carleton University; 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa ON K1S 5B6 Canada
| | - Natalia Rybczynski
- Department of Biology; Carleton University; 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa ON K1S 5B6 Canada
- Palaeobiology; Canadian Museum of Nature; PO Box 3443 Stn ‘D’ Ottawa ON K1P 6P4 Canada
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56
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Mean annual precipitation explains spatiotemporal patterns of Cenozoic mammal beta diversity and latitudinal diversity gradients in North America. PLoS One 2014; 9:e106499. [PMID: 25203658 PMCID: PMC4159275 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatial diversity patterns are thought to be driven by climate-mediated processes. However, temporal patterns of community composition remain poorly studied. We provide two complementary analyses of North American mammal diversity, using (i) a paleontological dataset (2077 localities with 2493 taxon occurrences) spanning 21 discrete subdivisions of the Cenozoic based on North American Land Mammal Ages (36 Ma--present), and (ii) climate space model predictions for 744 extant mammals under eight scenarios of future climate change. Spatial variation in fossil mammal community structure (β diversity) is highest at intermediate values of continental mean annual precipitation (MAP) estimated from paleosols (∼ 450 mm/year) and declines under both wetter and drier conditions, reflecting diversity patterns of modern mammals. Latitudinal gradients in community change (latitudinal turnover gradients, aka LTGs) increase in strength through the Cenozoic, but also show a cyclical pattern that is significantly explained by MAP. In general, LTGs are weakest when continental MAP is highest, similar to modern tropical ecosystems in which latitudinal diversity gradients are weak or undetectable. Projections under modeled climate change show no substantial change in β diversity or LTG strength for North American mammals. Our results suggest that similar climate-mediated mechanisms might drive spatial and temporal patterns of community composition in both fossil and extant mammals. We also provide empirical evidence that the ecological processes on which climate space models are based are insufficient for accurately forecasting long-term mammalian response to anthropogenic climate change and inclusion of historical parameters may be essential.
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57
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Dunhill AM, Hannisdal B, Benton MJ. Disentangling rock record bias and common-cause from redundancy in the British fossil record. Nat Commun 2014; 5:4818. [PMID: 25187994 PMCID: PMC4164781 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The fossil record documents the history of life, but the reliability of that record has often been questioned. Spatiotemporal variability in sedimentary rock volume, sampling and research effort especially frustrates global-scale diversity reconstructions. Various proposals have been made to rectify palaeodiversity estimates using proxy measures for the availability and sampling of the rock record, but the validity of these approaches remains controversial. Targeting the rich fossil record of Great Britain as a highly detailed regional exemplar, our statistical analysis shows that marine outcrop area contains a signal useful for predicting changes in diversity, collections and formations, whereas terrestrial outcrop area contains a signal useful for predicting formations. In contrast, collection and formation counts are information redundant with fossil richness, characterized by symmetric, bidirectional information flow. If this is true, the widespread use of collection and formation counts as sampling proxies to correct the raw palaeodiversity data may be unwarranted. Palaeodiversity estimations are confounded by fossil availability and sampling. Here, Dunhill et al. use the fossil record of Great Britain to test aspects of the marine and terrestrial fossil records that are commonly used to identify and correct for bias in palaeodiversity estimations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Dunhill
- 1] Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK [2] School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queen's Road, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK [3] Present address: School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Bjarte Hannisdal
- Centre for Geobiology, Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Allegaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Michael J Benton
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queen's Road, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK
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58
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Lazarus D, Barron J, Renaudie J, Diver P, Türke A. Cenozoic planktonic marine diatom diversity and correlation to climate change. PLoS One 2014; 9:e84857. [PMID: 24465441 PMCID: PMC3898954 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine planktonic diatoms export carbon to the deep ocean, playing a key role in the global carbon cycle. Although commonly thought to have diversified over the Cenozoic as global oceans cooled, only two conflicting quantitative reconstructions exist, both from the Neptune deep-sea microfossil occurrences database. Total diversity shows Cenozoic increase but is sample size biased; conventional subsampling shows little net change. We calculate diversity from a separately compiled new diatom species range catalog, and recalculate Neptune subsampled-in-bin diversity using new methods to correct for increasing Cenozoic geographic endemism and decreasing Cenozoic evenness. We find coherent, substantial Cenozoic diversification in both datasets. Many living cold water species, including species important for export productivity, originate only in the latest Miocene or younger. We make a first quantitative comparison of diatom diversity to the global Cenozoic benthic ∂18O (climate) and carbon cycle records (∂13C, and 20-0 Ma pCO2). Warmer climates are strongly correlated with lower diatom diversity (raw: rho = .92, p<.001; detrended, r = .6, p = .01). Diatoms were 20% less diverse in the early late Miocene, when temperatures and pCO2 were only moderately higher than today. Diversity is strongly correlated to both ∂13C and pCO2 over the last 15 my (for both: r>.9, detrended r>.6, all p<.001), but only weakly over the earlier Cenozoic, suggesting increasingly strong linkage of diatom and climate evolution in the Neogene. Our results suggest that many living marine planktonic diatom species may be at risk of extinction in future warm oceans, with an unknown but potentially substantial negative impact on the ocean biologic pump and oceanic carbon sequestration. We cannot however extrapolate our my-scale correlations with generic climate proxies to anthropogenic time-scales of warming without additional species-specific information on proximate ecologic controls.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John Barron
- United States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, United States of America
| | | | - Patrick Diver
- Divdat Consulting, Wesley, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Andreas Türke
- Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Geosciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
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59
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Abstract
To be habitable, a world (planet or moon) does not need to be located in the stellar habitable zone (HZ), and worlds in the HZ are not necessarily habitable. Here, we illustrate how tidal heating can render terrestrial or icy worlds habitable beyond the stellar HZ. Scientists have developed a language that neglects the possible existence of worlds that offer more benign environments to life than Earth does. We call these objects "superhabitable" and discuss in which contexts this term could be used, that is to say, which worlds tend to be more habitable than Earth. In an appendix, we show why the principle of mediocracy cannot be used to logically explain why Earth should be a particularly habitable planet or why other inhabited worlds should be Earth-like. Superhabitable worlds must be considered for future follow-up observations of signs of extraterrestrial life. Considering a range of physical effects, we conclude that they will tend to be slightly older and more massive than Earth and that their host stars will likely be K dwarfs. This makes Alpha Centauri B, which is a member of the closest stellar system to the Sun and is supposed to host an Earth-mass planet, an ideal target for searches for a superhabitable world.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Heller
- 1 Department of Physics and Astronomy, McMaster University , Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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60
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Mannion PD, Upchurch P, Benson RBJ, Goswami A. The latitudinal biodiversity gradient through deep time. Trends Ecol Evol 2013; 29:42-50. [PMID: 24139126 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2013.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2013] [Revised: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Today, biodiversity decreases from equatorial to polar regions. This is a fundamental pattern governing the distribution of extant organisms, the understanding of which is critical to predicting climatically driven biodiversity loss. However, its causes remain unresolved. The fossil record offers a unique perspective on the evolution of this latitudinal biodiversity gradient (LBG), providing a dynamic system in which to explore spatiotemporal diversity fluctuations. Deep-time studies indicate that a tropical peak and poleward decline in species diversity has not been a persistent pattern throughout the Phanerozoic, but is restricted to intervals of the Palaeozoic and the past 30 million years. A tropical peak might characterise cold icehouse climatic regimes, whereas warmer greenhouse regimes display temperate diversity peaks or flattened gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip D Mannion
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Paul Upchurch
- Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Roger B J Benson
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3AN, UK
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK; Research Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Wolfson House, 4 Stephenson Way, London, NW1 2HE, UK
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61
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Hughes M, Gerber S, Wills MA. Clades reach highest morphological disparity early in their evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:13875-9. [PMID: 23884651 PMCID: PMC3752257 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1302642110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
There are few putative macroevolutionary trends or rules that withstand scrutiny. Here, we test and verify the purported tendency for animal clades to reach their maximum morphological variety relatively early in their evolutionary histories (early high disparity). We present a meta-analysis of 98 metazoan clades radiating throughout the Phanerozoic. The disparity profiles of groups through time are summarized in terms of their center of gravity (CG), with values above and below 0.50 indicating top- and bottom-heaviness, respectively. Clades that terminate at one of the "big five" mass extinction events tend to have truncated trajectories, with a significantly top-heavy CG distribution overall. The remaining 63 clades show the opposite tendency, with a significantly bottom-heavy mean CG (relatively early high disparity). Resampling tests are used to identify groups with a CG significantly above or below 0.50; clades not terminating at a mass extinction are three times more likely to be significantly bottom-heavy than top-heavy. Overall, there is no clear temporal trend in disparity profile shapes from the Cambrian to the Recent, and early high disparity is the predominant pattern throughout the Phanerozoic. Our results do not allow us to distinguish between ecological and developmental explanations for this phenomenon. To the extent that ecology has a role, however, the paucity of bottom-heavy clades radiating in the immediate wake of mass extinctions suggests that early high disparity more probably results from the evolution of key apomorphies at the base of clades rather than from physical drivers or catastrophic ecospace clearing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Hughes
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Sylvain Gerber
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Albion Wills
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
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62
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Buerki S, Forest F, Stadler T, Alvarez N. The abrupt climate change at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary and the emergence of South-East Asia triggered the spread of sapindaceous lineages. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2013; 112:151-60. [PMID: 23723259 PMCID: PMC3690995 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mct106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Paleoclimatic data indicate that an abrupt climate change occurred at the Eocene-Oligocene (E-O) boundary affecting the distribution of tropical forests on Earth. The same period has seen the emergence of South-East (SE) Asia, caused by the collision of the Eurasian and Australian plates. How the combination of these climatic and geomorphological factors affected the spatio-temporal history of angiosperms is little known. This topic is investigated by using the worldwide sapindaceous clade as a case study. METHODS Analyses of divergence time inference, diversification and biogeography (constrained by paleogeography) are applied to a combined plastid and nuclear DNA sequence data set. Biogeographical and diversification analyses are performed over a set of trees to take phylogenetic and dating uncertainty into account. Results are analysed in the context of past climatic fluctuations. KEY RESULTS An increase in the number of dispersal events at the E-O boundary is recorded, which intensified during the Miocene. This pattern is associated with a higher rate in the emergence of new genera. These results are discussed in light of the geomorphological importance of SE Asia, which acted as a tropical bridge allowing multiple contacts between areas and additional speciation across landmasses derived from Laurasia and Gondwana. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates the importance of the combined effect of geomorphological (the emergence of most islands in SE Asia approx. 30 million years ago) and climatic (the dramatic E-O climate change that shifted the tropical belt and reduced sea levels) factors in shaping species distribution within the sapindaceous clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Buerki
- Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3DS, UK.
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63
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Royer DL, Chernoff B. Diversity in neotropical wet forests during the Cenozoic is linked more to atmospheric CO2 than temperature. Proc Biol Sci 2013; 280:20131024. [PMID: 23760866 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.1024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Models generally predict a response in species richness to climate, but strong climate-diversity associations are seldom observed in long-term (more than 10(6) years) fossil records. Moreover, fossil studies rarely distinguish between the effects of atmospheric CO2 and temperature, which limits their ability to identify the causal controls on biodiversity. Plants are excellent organisms for testing climate-diversity hypotheses owing to their strong sensitivity to CO2, temperature and moisture. We find that pollen morphospecies richness in an angiosperm-dominated record from the Palaeogene and early Neogene (65-20 Ma) of Colombia and Venezuela correlates positively to CO2 much more strongly than to temperature (both tropical sea surface temperatures and estimates of global mean surface temperature). The weaker sensitivity to temperature may be due to reduced variance in long-term climate relative to in higher latitudes, or to the occurrence of lethal or sub-lethal temperatures during the warmest times of the Eocene. Physiological models predict that productivity should be the most sensitive to CO2 within the angiosperms, a prediction supported by our analyses if productivity is linked to species richness; however, evaluations of non-angiosperm assemblages are needed to more completely test this idea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana L Royer
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT 06459, USA.
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64
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Lovett R. Species multiply as Earth heats up. Nature 2012. [DOI: 10.1038/nature.2012.11350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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