Drug delivery nanoparticles in skin cancers

Therapeutic strategies and potential implications of silver nanoparticles in the management of skin cancer

Skin cancer (SC) is the most common carcinoma affecting 3 million people annually in the United States and millions of people worldwide. It is classified as melanoma SC (MSC) and non-melanoma SC (NMSC). NMSC represents approximately 80% of SC and includes squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma. MSC, however, has a higher mortality rate than SC because of its ability to metastasize. SC is a major health problem in the United States with significant morbidity and mortality in the Caucasian population. Treatment options for SC include cryotherapy, excisional surgery, Mohs surgery, curettage and electrodessication, radiation therapy, photodynamic therapy, immunotherapy, and chemotherapy. Treatment is chosen based on the type of SC and the potential for side effects. Novel targeted therapies are being used with increased frequency for large tumors and for metastatic disease. A scoping literature search on PubMed, Google Scholar, and Cancer Registry websites revealed that traditional chemotherapeutic drugs have little effect against SC after the cancer has metastasized. Following an overview of SC biology, epidemiology, and treatment options, this review focuses on the mechanisms of advanced technologies that use silver nanoparticles in SC treatment regimens.

pH-Responsive Nanostructures Based on Surface Active Fatty Acid-Protic Ionic Liquids for Imiquimod Delivery in Skin Cancer Topical Therapy

For topical treatment of skin cancer, the design of pH-responsive nanocarriers able to selectively release the drug in the tumor acidic microenvironment represents a reliable option for targeted delivery. In this context, a series of newly synthesized surface-active fatty acid-protic ionic liquids (FA-PILs), based on tetramethylguanidinium cation and different natural hydrophobic fatty acid carboxylates, have been investigated with the aim of developing a pH-sensitive nanostructured drug delivery system for cutaneous administration in the skin cancer therapy. The capability of FA-PILs to arrange in micelles when combined with each other and with the non-ionic surfactant d-α-Tocopherol polyethylene glycol succinate (vitamin E TPGS) as well as their ability to solubilize imiquimod, an immuno-stimulant drug used for the treatment of skin cancerous lesions, have been demonstrated. The FA-PILs-TPGS mixed micelles showed pH-sensitivity, suggesting that the acidic environment of cancer cells can trigger nanostructures’ swelling and collapse with consequent rapid release of imiquimod and drug cytotoxic potential enhancement. The in vitro permeation/penetration study showed that the micellar formulation produced effective imiquimod concentrations into the skin exposed to acid environment, representing a potential efficacious and selective drug delivery system able to trigger the drug release in the tumor tissues, at lower and less irritating drug concentrations.

Stimuli-responsive and cellular targeted nanoplatforms for multimodal therapy of skin cancer

Interdisciplinary applications of nanopharmaceutical sciences have tremendous potential for enhancing pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety of cancer therapy. The limitations of conventional therapeutic platforms used for skin cancer therapy have been largely overcome by the use of nanoplatforms. This review discusses various nanotechnological approaches experimented for the treatment of skin cancer. The review describes various polymeric, lipidic and inorganic nanoplatforms for efficient therapy of skin cancer. The stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms such as pH-responsive as well as temperature-responsive platforms have also been reviewed. Different strategies for potentiating the nanoparticles application for cancer therapy such as surface engineering, conjugation with drugs, stimulus-responsive and multimodal effect have also been discussed and compared with the available conventional treatments. Although, nanopharmaceuticals face challenges such as toxicity, cost and scale-up, efforts put-in to improve these drawbacks with continuous research would deliver exciting and promising results in coming days.

Topical formulations containing aptamer-functionalized nanocapsules loaded with 5-fluorouracil - An innovative concept for the skin cancer therapy

New topical gel formulations based on sodium alginate and hyaluronic acid containing AS1411 aptamer-functionalized polymeric nanocapsules loaded with an antitumoral drug (5-Fluorouracil) were designed as an innovative approach for the skin cancer treatment. Several important analyses were used to characterize these obtained topical gel formulations, namely: rheological tests, permeation assays across Strat-M® artificial membrane, ex-vivo permeation assays across chicken skin membrane, haemolysis tests, skin irritation tests, in vitro cytotoxicity assay on human basal carcinoma cells and in vivo tests. Rheological tests revealed that apparent viscosity decreases with the increase of the shear rate, for analyzed samples, which demonstrates a shear thinning behavior. Low levels of hemolysis values which ranged between 0.03 and 0.55% suggested that the tested formulations did not induce red blood cell lysis.. The gel formulations containing nanocapsules loaded with 5-FU proved to be non-irritant. Furthermore, by study the ex-vivo diffusion properties across the chicken skin membrane, it was proved that nanoencapsulation enhance the permeability properties of 5-FU. In vitro cytotoxicity assay on TE 354.T (ATCC® CRL-7762™) human basal carcinoma cell line showed that the obtained formulations loaded with 5-Fluorouracil manifest an important cytotoxic effect. Finally, the presence of Langerhans CD68 cells-positive in the epidermis and epithelial sheath of dermal hair follicles suggests a specific activation, migration and retrieval of nanoparticles by these cells. Following the results obtained in this study we can appreciate that the obtained topical gel formulations have a favourable biosafety and good antitumor effects which makes them attractive for skin cancer treatment.

Trends in Nanomedicines for Cancer Treatment

Background:

Cancer is characterized by abnormal cell growth and considered one of the leading causes of death around the world. Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology has been extensively studied for the optimization of cancer treatment.

Objective:

Comprehend the panorama of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology in cancer treatment, through a survey about nanomedicines applied in clinical studies, approved for use and patented.

Methods:

Acknowledged products under clinical study and nanomedicines commercialized found in scientific articles through research on the following databases: Pubmed, Science Direct, Scielo and Lilacs. Derwent tool was used for patent research.

Results:

Nanomedicines based on nanoparticles, polymer micelles, liposomes, dendrimers and nanoemulsions were studied, along with cancer therapies such as Photodynamic Therapy, Infrared Phototherapy Hyperthermia, Magnetic Hyperthermia, Radiotherapy, Gene Therapy and Nanoimmunotherapy. Great advancement has been observed over nanotechnology applied to cancer treatment, mainly for nanoparticles and liposomes.

Conclusion:

The combination of drugs in nanosystems helps to increase efficacy and decrease toxicity. Based on the results encountered, nanoparticles and liposomes were the most commonly used nanocarriers for drug encapsulation. In addition, although few nanomedicines are commercially available, this specific research field is continuously growing.

Steering Efficacy of Nano Molybdenum Towards Cancer: Mechanism of Action

Conventional cancer therapies possess a plethora of limitations which led to the awakening of nanotechnology and nanomedicine. However, technological success is widely dependent on complete understanding of the complexity and heterogeneity of tumor biology on one hand and nanobiointeractions associated with challenges of synthesis, translation, and commercialization on the other. The present study therefore deals with one such targeted approach aiming at synthesizing, characterizing, and understanding the efficacy of molybdenum oxide nanoparticles. The phase structure, morphology, and elemental composition of the synthesized nanoparticles were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The cytotoxicity studies revealed that the IC50 vales of molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) particles against skin cancer cells (melanoma and non-melanoma) were around 200-300 μg. The nanoparticles were found to induce mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis driven by the apoptotic genes such as BAX and Bcl2. Molybdenum being a cofactor for the majority of metabolic enzymes could have triggered the selective internalization of the nanoparticles which in turn could have modified the granularity of the cytoplasm and subsequently lead to mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis. Further, the anti-angiogenic property of MoO3 nanoparticles was corroborated using Chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay and aortic ring assay. Taken together , unraveling the role of MoO3 nanoparticles in cancer and angiogenesis opens up venues for nano biological intervention of selective cancer cell targeting with minimal damage to the normal cells using natural trace elements that are generally known to influence various metabolic enzymes.

Nanoparticles for topical drug delivery: Potential for skin cancer treatment

Nanoparticles offer new opportunities for the treatment of skin diseases. The barrier function of the skin poses a significant challenge for nanoparticles to permeate into the tissue, although the barrier is partially compromised in case of injury or inflammation, as in the case of skin cancer. This may facilitate the penetration of nanoparticles. Extensive research has gone into developing nanoparticles for topical delivery; however, relatively little progress has been made in translating them to the clinic for treating skin cancers. We summarize the types of skin cancers and practices in current clinical management. The review provides a comprehensive outlook of the various nanoparticle technologies tested for topical therapy of skin cancers and summarizes the obstacles that impede its progress from the bench-to-bedside. The review also aims to provide an understanding of the pathways that govern nanoparticle penetration into the skin and a critical analysis of the approaches used to study nanoparticle interactions within the tissue.

Design, Synthesis, and Targeted Delivery of Fluorescent 1,2,4-Triazole-Peptide Conjugates to Pediatric Brain Tumor Cells

Most of the chemotherapeutics and drug-delivery models pose serious health problems and several undesirable side effects due to nonspecificity, lack of proper targeting system, and their large sizes. The rational design and synthesis of target-specific chemotherapeutics are highly important. This research work is focused on the rational design, synthesis, and anticancer studies of fluorescent 1,2,4-triazole-peptide conjugates for the development of target-specific anticancer drugs. Three novel 1,2,4-triazole derivatives: 4-(4-fluorobenzylidenamino)-3-hydrazino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazole (4FBAHMT, 2a), 4-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylidenamino)-3-hydrazino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazole (TMOBAHMT, 2b), and 4-(4-benzyloxy-2-methyloxbenzylidenamino)-3-hydrazino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazole (4BO2MOBAHMT, 2c) were synthesized after screening through molecular docking procedures. The docking studies were performed between ligand molecules and αvβ6 integrin protein. Fluorescent carbon nanoparticles (CNPs, 3) were conjugated with 1,2,4-triazole derivatives (2a-c) and l-carnosine (LC) dipeptide to get their corresponding conjugates (4a-c). The title double conjugates were characterized by spectroscopic (UV/vis spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and FTIR spectroscopy) and microscopic (scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy) techniques. In vitro efficacy of fluorescent 1,2,4-triazole-peptide conjugates was investigated against two pediatric brain tumor cell lines (CHLA-200 & SJGBM2) and human embryonic kidney cell line (HEK293 as a control) by employing cell proliferation assay/MTS assay and fluorescence microscopy. 1,2,4-Triazole derivatives and their conjugates showed potent and selective anticancer activity against CHLA-200 and SJGBM2 cell lines. Cell proliferation assay and fluorescence microscopy results revealed that conjugates were more highly selective and cytotoxic than control drug temozolomide (TM) against both cell lines. CNPs are highly biocompatible and the quantum-sized conjugates were nontoxic for normal embryonic kidney cell line (HEK 293). The experimental results of MTS bioactivity assay and fluorescence microscopy were in close agreement with the theoretical results of molecular docking studies.

Development of Topical Nanocarriers for Skin Cancer Treatment Using Quality by Design Approach

BACKGROUND

One of the most compelling medical challenges of this century is the treatment of cancer and among them, skin cancer is the most common type. Thus, current treatments need to be renewed continuously to handle this challenge.

OBJECTIVE

This review presents considerations which can be employed during the development of nanosized formulations dedicated to the topical treatment of skin cancer. We aimed to collect and organize literature data on the treatment options for skin cancer in order to determine the required quality attributes of an effective dermal anticancer formulation.

METHOD

With the consideration of the Quality by Design (QbD) approach related to the development of new pharmaceutical formulations, a cost-saving process ensuring a high-quality product taking into account patient expectations, industrial and regulatory aspects can be achieved. Furthermore, this concept is highly recommended by regulatory agencies.

RESULTS

Our work discusses the current therapies, active agents, drug carrier systems, and evaluation methods in connection with the treatment of skin cancer and outlines Critical Quality Attributes which need to be considered during the development of a nanosized dermal anticancer formulation.

CONCLUSION

The first part of this review summarizes the most important topical treatment therapies for skin cancer and highlights the future therapeutic perspectives, focusing on the benefits of nanotechnology and dermal administration. The second part outlines the critical points of nanosized dermal anticancer formulation development in the view of QbD approach. Our research emphasizes the application of QbD method for a rationalized and more effective anticancer formulation development process.

Functionalization of Nanomaterials and Their Application in Melanoma Cancer Theranostics

Treatment and cure for melanoma, the most aggressive subcategory of skin cancer, still remains a daunting challenge to be circumvented. When metastasized, it requires radiotherapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, etc. as its treatment, although it can be removed by surgical intervention if detected in its early stage. Development of upgraded therapeutic modalities for melanoma facilitating early diagnosis with subsequent excision before metastasis is, therefore, an urgent need. As we witnessed, nanotechnology has become instrumental with its far-reaching ramifications both in diagnosis and treatment of melanoma. In this review we are going to summarize the encouraging developments made in recent times for functionalization of nanoparticles (including liposomes, polymeric, metal, viral, protein nanoparticles) to create numerous theranostics (therapy plus diagnostics) for melanoma. We will also reflect on the melanoma statistics, molecular biology, conventional therapies, ongoing clinical trials, and future outlook.

Quantification of Trans-Resveratrol-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles by a Validated Reverse-Phase HPLC Photodiode Array

A new method based on reverse-phase HPLC combined with photodiode array (PDA) was developed to quantify the release of trans-resveratrol (tRES) from solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN). The mobile phase was composed of 75:0:25 (V/V) water/methanol/acetonitrile at 0–3.5 min, 32.5:30.0:37.5 (V/V) water/methanol/acetonitrile at 3.6–5.8 min, and 75:0:25 (V/V) water/methanol/acetonitrile at 5.9–10 min. The flow rate was set at 1.0 mL/min, and tRES was detected at the wavelength of 306.6 nm. A concentration range of 1–100 µg/mL was used to obtain the linear calibration curve. SLN were produced by ultrasound technique to load 0.1% (wt/wt) of tRES, and the in vitro release of the drug was run in modified Franz diffusion cells. The mean recovery of tRES was found to be 96.84 ± 0.32%. The intra-assay and inter-assay coefficients of variation were less than 5%. The proposed method was applied to in vitro permeability studies, and the Weibull model was found to be the one that best fits the tRES release, which is characterized by a simultaneous lipid chain relaxation and erosion during drug release.

Aptamer-Functionalized Liposomes as a Potential Treatment for Basal Cell Carcinoma

More than one out of every three new cancers is a skin cancer, and the large majority are basal cell carcinomas (BCC). Targeted therapy targets the cancer's specific genes, proteins, or tissue environment that contributes to cancer growth and survival and blocks the growth as well as the spread of cancer cells while limiting damage to healthy cells. Therefore, in the present study AS1411 aptamer-functionalized liposomes for the treatment of BCC were obtained and characterized. Aptamer conjugation increased liposome size, suggesting that the presence of an additional hydrophilic molecule on the liposomal surface increased the hydrodynamic diameter. As expected, the negatively charged DNA aptamer reduced the surface potential of the liposomes. Vertical Franz diffusion cells with artificial membranes were used to evaluate the in vitro release of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The aptamer moieties increase the stability of the liposomes and act as a supplementary steric barrier leading to a lower cumulative amount of the released 5-FU. The in vitro cell viability, targeting capability and apoptotic effects of liposomes on the human dermal fibroblasts and on the basal cell carcinoma TE 354.T cell lines were also evaluated. The results indicate that the functionalized liposomes are more efficient as nanocarriers than the non-functionalized ones.

Nanomaterials multifunctional behavior for enlightened cancer therapeutics

Cancer is an outrageous disease with uncontrolled differentiation, growth, and migration to the other parts of the body. It is the second-most common cause of death both in the U.S. and worldwide. Current conventional therapies, though much improved and with better prognosis, have several limitations. Chemotherapeutic agents, for instance, are cytotoxic to both tumor and healthy cells, and the non-specific distribution of drugs at tumor sites limits the dose administered. Nanotechnology, which evolved from the coalescence and union of varied scientific disciplines, is a novel science that has been the focus of much research. This technology is generating more effective cancer therapies to overcome biomedical and biophysical barriers against standard interventions in the body; its unique magnetic, electrical, and structural properties make it a promising tool. This article reviews endogenous- and exogenous-based stimulus-responsive drug delivery systems designed to overcome the limitations of conventional therapies. The article also summarizes the study of nanomaterials, including polymeric, gold, silver, magnetic, and quantum dot nanoparticles. Though an array of drug delivery systems has so far been proposed, there remain many challenges and concerns that should be addressed in order to fill the gaps in the field. Prominence is given to drug delivery systems that employ external- and internal-based stimuli and that are emerging as promising tools for cancer therapeutics in clinical settings.

Unraveling the ECM-Immune Cell Crosstalk in Skin Diseases

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network of proteins and proteoglycans secreted by keratinocytes, fibroblasts and immune cells. The function of the skin ECM has expanded from being a scaffold that provides structural integrity, to a more dynamic entity that is constantly remodeled to maintain tissue homeostasis. The ECM functions as ligands for cell surface receptors such as integrins, dystroglycans, and toll-like receptors (TLRs) and regulate cellular signaling and immune cell dynamics. The ECM also acts as a sink for growth factors and cytokines, providing critical cues during epithelial morphogenesis. Dysregulation in the organization and deposition of ECMs lead to a plethora of pathophysiological conditions that are exacerbated by aberrant ECM-immune cell interactions. In this review, we focus on the interplay between ECM and immune cells in the context of skin diseases and also discuss state of the art therapies that target the key molecular players involved.

Nanoparticles in dermatologic surgery

Nanotechnology is an emerging branch of science that involves the engineering of functional systems on the nanoscale (1-100 nm). Nanotechnology has been used in biomedical and therapeutic agents with the aim of providing novel treatment solutions where small molecule size may be beneficial for modulation of biologic function. Recent investigation in nanomedicine has become increasingly important to cutaneous pathophysiology, such as functional designs directed towards skin cancers and wound healing. This review outlines the application of nanoparticles relevant to dermatologic surgery.

Nano-engineered delivery systems for cancer imaging and therapy: Recent advances, future direction and patent evaluation

Cancer is the second highest cause of death worldwide. Several therapeutic approaches, such as conventional chemotherapy, antibodies and small molecule inhibitors and nanotherapeutics have been employed in battling cancer. Amongst them, nanotheranostics is an example of successful personalized medicine bearing dual role of early diagnosis and therapy to cancer patients. In this review, we have focused on various types of theranostic polymer and metal nanoparticles for their role in cancer therapy and imaging concerning their limitation, future application such as dendritic cell cancer vaccination, gene delivery, T-cell activation and immune modulation. Also, some of the recorded patent applications and clinical trials have been illustrated. The impact of the biological microenvironment on the biodistribution and accumulation of nanoparticles have been discussed.

Exploiting PLGA-Based Biocompatible Nanoparticles for Next-Generation Tolerogenic Vaccines against Autoimmune Disease

Tolerogenic vaccines are aimed at inhibiting antigen-specific immune responses. Antigen-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) have been recently emerged as ideal tools for tolerogenic vaccination because their composition, size, and capability of loading immunomodulatory molecules can be readily exploited to induce peripheral tolerance. Among polymeric NPs, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs have the advantage of currently holding approval for several applications in drug delivery, diagnostics, and other clinical uses by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). PLGA-NPs are non-toxic and display excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability properties. Moreover, surface functionalization may improve their interaction with biological materials, thereby optimizing targeting and performance. PLGA-NPs are the most extensively studied in pre-clinical model in the field of tolerogenic vaccination. Thus, this review describes their potential applications in the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Nanoparticles as Carriers of Proteins, Peptides and Other Therapeutic Molecules

Nanoparticles have many applications both in industry and medicine. Depending upon their physical and chemical properties, they can be used as carriers of therapeutic molecules or as therapeutics. Nanoparticles are made of synthetic or natural polymers, lipids or metals. Their use allows for faster transport to the place of action, thus prolonging its presence in the body and limiting side effects. In addition, the use of such a drug delivery system protects the drug from rapid disintegration and elimination from the body. In recent years, the use of proteins and peptides as therapeutic molecules has grown significantly. Unfortunately, proteins are subject to enzymatic digestion and can cause unwanted immune response beyond therapeutic action. The use of drug carriers can minimize undesirable side effects and reduce the dose of medication needed to achieve the therapeutic effect. The current study presents the use of several selected drug delivery systems for the delivery of proteins, peptides and other therapeutic molecules.

Gamma irradiation of ocular melanoma and lymphoma cells in the presence of gold nanoparticles: in vitro study

The aim of this work was to determine whether conjugation of cultivated choroidal melanoma and Burkitt's lymphoma cells with gold nanoparticles (GNPs) is beneficial for these series of ocular cancer patients. GNPs are radiosensitizers and can sensitize tumors to radiotherapy.This application has been examined in several tumor types, but not in choroidal melanoma. This study shows the results of in vitro study on the choroidal melanoma and also Burkitt's lymphoma cells in the presence of GNPs during continuous gamma irradiation. Cytotoxicity of GNPs were assessed for five different concentrations then cultured melanoma and Burkitt's lymphoma cells were irradiated with a Gamma source in the presence and absence of NPs. Incubation of melanoma cells with GNP concentrations below 100 μg/ml, accompanied by gamma irradiation, increased cell death (P value = 0.016) . In the absence of irradiation, GNPs at these concentrations did not affect cultured melanoma cell metabolism. Reduced cell viability resulted from a significant increase in absorbed energy by the tumor. Moreover, GNP concentrations higher than 200 μg/ml induced cytotoxicity in melanoma cells. Cytotoxicity assay in GNPs-loaded Burkitt's lymphoma cells showed a slight decrease in cell viability at 50 μg/ml and clear cytotoxicity at concentrations higher than 100 μg/ml (P value = 0.035). Concentration and proper injection doses of GNPs in sensitive tissues such as the human eye are important variables yet to be determined.This is the first report of choroidal melanoma dosimetry performed in the presence of GNPs and provides valuable insights into future therapeutic approaches. Further in vitro study with more different sizes and concentrations is needed to determine the optimum size and concentration before any clinical research in this regard.

Photodynamic Therapy for Metastatic Melanoma Treatment: A Review

This review article is based on specifically targeted nanoparticles that have been used in the treatment of melanoma. According to the Skin Cancer Foundation, within 2017 an estimated 9730 people will die due to invasive melanoma. Conventional treatments for nonmalignant melanoma include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. For the treatment of metastatic melanoma, 3 therapeutic agents have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration: dacarbazine, recombinant interferon α-2b, and high-dose interleukin 2. Photodynamic therapy is an alternative therapy that activates a photosensitizer at a specific wavelength forming reactive oxygen species which in turn induces cell death; it is noninvasive with far less side effects when compared to conventional treatments. Nanoparticles are generally conjugated to photosynthetic drugs, since they are biocompatible, stabile, and durable, as well as have a high loading capacity, which improve either passive or active photosensitizer drug delivery to targeted cells. Therefore, various photosynthetic drugs and nanoparticle drug delivery systems specifically targeted for melanoma were analyzed in this review article in relation to either their passive or their active cellular uptake mechanisms in order to deduce the efficacy of photodynamic therapy treatment for metastatic melanoma which currently remains ongoing. The overall findings from this review concluded that no current photodynamic therapy studies have been performed in relation to active nanoparticle platform photosensitizer drug carrier systems for the treatment of metastatic melanoma, and so this type of research requires further investigation into developing a more efficient active nano-photosensitizer carrier smart drug that can be conjugated to specific cell surface receptors and combinative monoclonal antibodies so that a further enhanced and more efficient form of targeted photodynamic therapy for the treatment of metastatic melanoma can be established.

Functionalized diterpene parvifloron D-loaded hybrid nanoparticles for targeted delivery in melanoma therapy

AIM

Parvifloron D is a natural diterpene with a broad and not selective cytotoxicity toward human tumor cells. In order to develop a targeted antimelanoma drug delivery platform for Parvifloron D, hybrid nanoparticles were prepared with biopolymers and functionalized with α-melanocyte stimulating hormone. Results/methodology: Nanoparticles were produced according to a solvent displacement method and the physicochemical properties were assessed. It was shown that Parvifloron D is cytotoxic and can induce, both as free and as encapsulated drug, cell death in melanoma cells (human A375 and mouse B16V5). Parvifloron D-loaded nanoparticles showed a high encapsulation efficiency (87%) and a sustained release profile. In vitro experiments showed the nanoparticles' uptake and cell internalization.

CONCLUSION

Hybrid nanoparticles appear to be a promising platform for long-term drug release, presenting the desired structure and a robust performance for targeted anticancer therapy.

Synergistic photodynamic therapeutic effect of indole-3-acetic acid using a pH sensitive nano-carrier based on poly(aspartic acid-graft-imidazole)-poly(ethylene glycol)

Poly(aspartic acid-graft-imidazole)-poly(ethylene glycol) (P(Asp-g-Im)-PEG) was utilized as a pH-sensitive nanocarrier of the photosensitizer indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) for the treatment of skin cancer. IAA loaded micelles (ILMs) exhibited the formation of ca. 140 nm spherical particles at pH 7.4. The micelles disintegrated at acidic pHs, resulting in pH-dependent IAA release and cytotoxicity. Treatment of ILMs with visible light at a wavelength of 480 nm caused pH dependent synergistic cell damage in both in vitro and in vivo models using the B16F10 melanoma cell line. Interestingly, ILMs synergistically produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) at an acidic pH of 6.5 with visible light irradiation by proton coupled electron transfer (PCET). The pH sensitive ILMs could be considered a potent nanomedicine used to exert synergistic photodynamic therapeutic effects to treat cancers.

Toxicity of nanomaterials found in human environment

The US National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) defines nanotechnology as “the understanding and control of matter at dimensions between approximately 1 and 100 nm, where unique phenomena enable novel applications.” Recent scientific reports available in the literature clearly demonstrate the potential benefits of nanotechnology in consumer and industrial products. More and more nanomaterials are expected to be used in consumer products. This is expected to lead to increased human exposure to nanomaterials in their daily lives. Therefore, the effect of nanomaterials present in human environment is an area of increasing scientific interest. The information presented in this review is obtained from the current literature. It indicates that nanomaterials found in human environment may have potential for toxicological effects. However, the current literature on toxicological effects of nanomaterials is diverse. The current data are presented from studies without harmonization. These studies have used different in vitro and in vivo test models, different sources of test nanomaterials, different methods for nanomaterial characterization, and different experimental conditions. Therefore, these data are hard to interpret. More research on nanomaterial characterization, biological interaction, toxicity, and health effects is needed. The test methods need to be validated. Positive and negative controls for nanotoxicity need to be identified. Toxicity data harmonization needs to be done. Therefore, general information is not currently available for risk evaluation of certain nanomaterials that might be present in consumer products or that may enter into the market in future. Standardized and validated methods are necessary for toxicity assessment of nanomaterials. Therefore, in the absence of standardized validated methods any specific regulatory testing requirements for nanomaterials are currently premature. We conclude that the benefits of nanomaterials found currently in human environment are many, but their overall adverse effects on human health are limited.

Skin cancer: symptoms, mechanistic pathways and treatment rationale for therapeutic delivery

Cancer is a group of diseases categorized by abandoning escalation and multiplication of abnormal cells. Current topical treatments for skin cancer are mainly in the semisolid dosage forms of 5-fluorouracil, imiquimod, etc. Many surgical treatments are also available these days for the treatment of skin cancer, for example, photodynamic therapy, which is approved by the US FDA. The stratum corneum is the main barrier against permeation of topical formulations developed for skin cancer treatment. Liposomes, thermosensitive stealth liposomes, nanoemulsions and polymeric lipid nanoparticles have been used by several researchers to increase skin permeability. In the present paper, major aspects of formulations developed for skin cancer, various types of skin cancer, its etiology and pathogenesis have been emphasized.

A biocompatible and magnetic nanocarrier with a safe UV-initiated docetaxel release and cancer secretion removal properties increases therapeutic potential for skin cancer

Cancer is a leading fatal disease worldwide. To increase its therapeutic efficiency, more effective with less side effect and patient acceptable administration approach is expected. Moreover, modification of tumor microenvironment is proved to be operative recently. In this paper, a nanocarrier named LDEDDS was developed for intelligent tropical administration of skin cancer, along with removal of hydrophobic cancerous secretion to change tumor microenvironment. It was made by coating of amphipathic polymer P(BA-co-HBA) on docetaxel (TXT, a model hydrophobic anticancer drug) loaded Fe₃O₄@ZnO. Results showed that an optimal loading rate of TXT in Fe₃O₄@ZnO was 89.75±0.15%, corresponding to loading capacity of 17.95±2.97% when the mass ratio of Fe₃O₄@ZnO to TXT was 1:20. The LDEDDS had a narrow distribution size of 115.8nm in average and was superparamagnetic. Without UV radiation, it had low TXT release (<7% in 48h) and cytotoxicity (<14% in 96h) to both the normal and carcinoma skin cells. While under a UV with a dose much lower than physiological dose of normal sunlight, LDEDDS released around 60% and 90% of TXT in 1 and 48h. 1h UV treated LDEDDS removed up to 62% of cancer secreted epidermal growth factor (EGF), a model hydrophobic secretion in 96h. Consequently, 1h UV treated LDEDDS inhibited up to 60% of the growth of skin cancer cells in 96h, overriding those effects of the same concentration of TXT in in vitro cellular experiments. This is the first study to change tumor microenvironment by removal of cancerous secretion and is proved to be effective. Along with the superparamagnetic property, which provides potential for concentrating, increasing penetration and internalization into cancerated cells as well as removing from body under an external magnetic field, we predict LDEDDS will have potential applications in clinic skin cancer therapy.

Small molecule additive enhances cell uptake of 5-aminolevulinic acid and conversion to protoporphyrin IX

Administration of exogenous 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) to cancerous tissue leads to intracellular production of photoactive protoporphyrin IX, a biosynthetic process that enables photodynamic therapy and fluorescence-guided surgery of cancer. Cell uptake of 5-ALA is limited by its polar structure and there is a need for non-toxic chemical additives that can enhance its cell permeation. Two zinc-bis(dipicolylamine) (ZnBDPA) compounds were evaluated for their ability to promote uptake of 5-ALA into Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO-K1) cells and produce protoporphyrin IX. One of the ZnBDPA compounds was found to be quite effective, and a systematic comparison of cells incubated with 5-ALA (100 μM) for 6 hours showed that the presence of this ZnBDPA compound (10 μM) produced 3-fold more protoporphyrin IX than cells treated with 5-ALA alone. The results of mechanistic studies suggest that the ZnBDPA compound does not interact strongly with the 5-ALA. Rather, the additive is membrane active and transiently disrupts the cell membrane, permitting 5-ALA permeation. The membrane disruption is not severe enough to induce cell toxicity or allow passage of larger macromolecules like plasmid DNA.

Nanoparticles and nanofibers for topical drug delivery

This review provides the first comprehensive overview of the use of both nanoparticles and nanofibers for topical drug delivery. Researchers have explored the use of nanotechnology, specifically nanoparticles and nanofibers, as drug delivery systems for topical and transdermal applications. This approach employs increased drug concentration in the carrier, in order to increase drug flux into and through the skin. Both nanoparticles and nanofibers can be used to deliver hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs and are capable of controlled release for a prolonged period of time. The examples presented provide significant evidence that this area of research has - and will continue to have - a profound impact on both clinical outcomes and the development of new products.

Biofilm Impeding AgNPs Target Skin Carcinoma by Inducing Mitochondrial Membrane Depolarization Mediated through ROS Production

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a double-edged sword that possesses both beneficial and harmful effects. Although basic research on skin cancer prevention has undergone a huge transformation, cases of recurrence with higher rates of drug resistance are some of its drawbacks. Therefore, targeting mitochondria by ROS overproduction provides an alternate approach for anticancer therapy. In the present study, green-synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were explored for triggering the ROS production in A431 skin carcinoma cells. The synthesized AgNPs were characterized for size, charge, morphology, and phase through high-throughput DLS, Fe-SEM, XRD, and ATR-FTIR techniques. Their physiochemical properties with hemoglobin and blood plasma were screened through hemolysis, hemagglutination assay, and circular dichroism spectroscopy confirmed their nontoxic nature. The AgNPs also exhibited additional efficacy in inhibiting biofilm produced by V. cholerae and B. subtilis, thereby facilitating better applicability in wound-healing biomaterials. The depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential ΔΨm through excess ROS production was deduced to be the triggering force behind the apoptotic cell death mechanism of the skin carcinoma. Subsequent experimentation through DNA fragmentation, comet tail formation, cell membrane blebbing, and reduced invasiveness potentials through scratch assay confirmed the physiological hallmarks of apoptosis. Thus, depolarizing mitochondrial membrane potential through green-synthesized AgNPs provides an economic, nontoxic, specific approach for targeting skin carcinoma with additional benefits of antibacterial activities.

Fungal vincristine from Eutypella spp - CrP14 isolated from Catharanthus roseus induces apoptosis in human squamous carcinoma cell line -A431

BACKGROUND

Catharanthus roseus, a medicinal plant, is known to produce secondary metabolites, vincristine and vinblastine, which are terpenoid indole alkaloids. Previously we have reported that Eutypella spp - CrP14 isolated from stem cutting of this plant had shown significant antiproliferative activity when tested in vitro against HeLa cell line. The present study was conducted to identify the anticancer compound responsible for the anti-proliferative activity of the fungal extract and to evaluate its in vitro anticancer and apoptotic effects.

METHODS

The anti-proliferative activity of the fungal anticancer compound, vincristine was analyzed by MTT assay against different cancer cell lines. We examined its efficacy of apoptotic induction on A431 cells. The parameters examined included cell cycle distribution, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), DNA fragmentation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation.

RESULTS

The presence of vincristine in fungal culture filtrate was confirmed through chromatographic and spectroscopic analyses, and the amount was estimated to be 53 ± 5.0 μg/l. The partially purified fungal vincristine had strong cytotoxic activity towards human squamous carcinoma cells - A431 in the MTT assay. Furthermore, we showed that the fungal vincristine was capable of inducing apoptosis in A431 cells through generation of reactive oxygen species and activation of the intrinsic pathway leading to loss of MMP.

CONCLUSIONS

We have demonstrated for the first time that the vincristine from Eutypella spp - CrP14 is an efficient inducer of apoptosis in A431 cells, meriting its further evaluation in vivo.

Layer-by-Layer 3D Constructs of Fibroblasts in Hydrogel for Examining Transdermal Penetration Capability of Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles are emerging transdermal delivery systems. Their size and surface properties determine their efficacy and efficiency to penetrate through the skin layers. This work utilizes three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology to generate a simplified artificial skin model to rapidly screen nanoparticles for their transdermal penetration ability. Specifically, this model is built through layer-by-layer alternate printing of blank collagen hydrogel and fibroblasts. Through controlling valve on-time, the spacing between printing lines could be accurately tuned, which could enable modulation of cell infiltration in the future. To confirm the effectiveness of this platform, a 3D construct with one layer of fibroblasts sandwiched between two layers of collagen hydrogel is used to screen silica nanoparticles with different surface charges for their penetration ability, with positively charged nanoparticles demonstrating deeper penetration, consistent with the observation from an existing study involving living skin tissue.

Quality by design case study 1: Design of 5-fluorouracil loaded lipid nanoparticles by the W/O/W double emulsion - Solvent evaporation method

With Quality by Design (QbD), a systematic approach involving design and development of all production processes to achieve the final product with a predetermined quality, you work within a design space that determines the critical formulation and process parameters. Verification of the quality of the final product is no longer necessary. In the current study, the QbD approach was used in the preparation of lipid nanoparticle formulations to improve skin penetration of 5-Fluorouracil, a widely-used compound for treating non-melanoma skin cancer. 5-Fluorouracil-loaded lipid nanoparticles were prepared by the W/O/W double emulsion - solvent evaporation method. Artificial neural network software was used to evaluate the data obtained from the lipid nanoparticle formulations, to establish the design space, and to optimize the formulations. Two different artificial neural network models were developed. The limit values of the design space of the inputs and outputs obtained by both models were found to be within the knowledge space. The optimal formulations recommended by the models were prepared and the critical quality attributes belonging to those formulations were assigned. The experimental results remained within the design space limit values. Consequently, optimal formulations with the critical quality attributes determined to achieve the Quality Target Product Profile were successfully obtained within the design space by following the QbD steps.

Surface modification of MPEG-b-PCL-based nanoparticles via oxidative self-polymerization of dopamine for malignant melanoma therapy

To enhance the therapeutic effects of chemotherapy on malignant melanoma, paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) nanoparticles (MPEG-b-PCL NPs) that had their surfaces modified with polydopamine (PTX-loaded MPEG-b-PCL NPs@PDA) were prepared as drug vehicles. The block copolymer MPEG-b-PCL was synthesized by ring-opening polymerization and characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and gel permeation chromatography. The PTX-loaded NPs were prepared by a modified nanoprecipitation technique. The PTX-loaded NPs and PTX-loaded NPs@PDA were characterized in terms of size and size distribution, zeta potential, surface morphology, drug encapsulation efficiency, and drug release. Confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that coumarin-6-loaded NPs@PDA could be internalized by human melanoma cell line A875 cells. The cellular uptake efficiency of NPs was greatly enhanced after PDA modification. The antitumor efficacy of the PTX-loaded NPs@PDA was investigated in vitro by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and in vivo by a xenograft tumor model. The PTX-loaded NPs@PDA could significantly inhibit tumor growth compared to Taxol(®) and precursor PTX-loaded NPs. All the results suggested that the PTX-loaded MPEG-b-PCL NPs that had their surfaces modified with PDA are promising nanocarriers for malignant melanoma therapy.

Multifunctional nanoparticles: recent progress in cancer therapeutics

In recent times, several biocompatible nanomaterials with different morphologies and compositions, such as metals, metal oxides, and polymers, have been employed as multi-functional biomaterials to target cancer cells.