51
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Apicella I, Cicatiello V, Acampora D, Tarallo V, De Falco S. Full Functional Knockout of Placental Growth Factor by Knockin with an Inactive Variant Able to Heterodimerize with VEGF-A. Cell Rep 2018; 23:3635-3646. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.05.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
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52
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Wong SA, Rivera KO, Miclau T, Alsberg E, Marcucio RS, Bahney CS. Microenvironmental Regulation of Chondrocyte Plasticity in Endochondral Repair-A New Frontier for Developmental Engineering. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2018; 6:58. [PMID: 29868574 PMCID: PMC5962790 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2018.00058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of fractures heal through the process of endochondral ossification, in which a cartilage intermediate forms between the fractured bone ends and is gradually replaced with bone. Recent studies have provided genetic evidence demonstrating that a significant portion of callus chondrocytes transform into osteoblasts that derive the new bone. This evidence has opened a new field of research aimed at identifying the regulatory mechanisms that govern chondrocyte transformation in the hope of developing improved fracture therapies. In this article, we review known and candidate molecular pathways that may stimulate chondrocyte-to-osteoblast transformation during endochondral fracture repair. We also examine additional extrinsic factors that may play a role in modulating chondrocyte and osteoblast fate during fracture healing such as angiogenesis and mineralization of the extracellular matrix. Taken together the mechanisms reviewed here demonstrate the promising potential of using developmental engineering to design therapeutic approaches that activate endogenous healing pathways to stimulate fracture repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Wong
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,School of Dentistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Kevin O Rivera
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,School of Dentistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Theodore Miclau
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Eben Alsberg
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Ralph S Marcucio
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,School of Dentistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Chelsea S Bahney
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
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53
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Brook N, Brook E, Dharmarajan A, Dass CR, Chan A. Breast cancer bone metastases: pathogenesis and therapeutic targets. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2018; 96:63-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 12/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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54
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Wang C, Abu-Amer Y, O'Keefe RJ, Shen J. Loss of Dnmt3b in Chondrocytes Leads to Delayed Endochondral Ossification and Fracture Repair. J Bone Miner Res 2018; 33:283-297. [PMID: 29024060 PMCID: PMC5809267 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.3305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Despite advanced understanding of signaling mediated by local and systemic factors, the role of epigenetic factors in the regulation of bone regeneration remains vague. The DNA methyltransferases (Dnmts) Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b have tissue specific expression patterns and create unique methylation signatures to regulate gene expression. Using a stabilized murine tibia fracture model we find that Dnmt3b is induced early in fracture healing, peaks at 10 days post fracture (dpf), and declines to nearly undetectable levels by 28 dpf. Dnmt3b expression was cell-specific and stage-specific. High levels were observed in chondrogenic lineage cells within the fracture callus. To determine the role of Dnmt3b in fracture healing, Agc1CreERT2 ;Dnmt3bf/f (Dnmt3bAgc1ER ) mice were generated to delete Dnmt3b in chondrogenic cells. Dnmt3bAgc1ER fracture displayed chondrogenesis and chondrocyte maturation defect, and a delay in the later events of angiogenesis, ossification, and bone remodeling. Biomechanical studies demonstrated markedly reduced strength in Dnmt3bAgc1ER fractures and confirmed the delay in repair. The angiogenic response was reduced in both vessel number and volume at 10 and 14 dpf in Dnmt3bAgc1ER mice. Immunohistochemistry showed decreased CD31 expression, consistent with the reduced angiogenesis. Finally, in vitro angiogenesis assays with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) revealed that loss of Dnmt3b in chondrocytes significantly reduced tube formation and endothelial migration. To identify specific angiogenic factors involved in the decreased callus vascularization, a protein array was performed using conditioned media isolated from control and Dnmt3b loss-of-function chondrocytes. Several angiogenic factors, including CXCL12 and osteopontin (OPN) were reduced in chondrocytes following loss of Dnmt3b. DNA methylation analysis further identified hypomethylation in Cxcl12 promoter region. Importantly, the defects in tube formation and cell migration could be rescued by administration of CXCL12 and/or OPN. Altogether, our findings establish that Dnmt3b positively regulates chondrocyte maturation process, and its genetic ablation leads to delayed angiogenesis and fracture repair. © 2017 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuicui Wang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yousef Abu-Amer
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Regis J O'Keefe
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jie Shen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
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55
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Wang M, Yang N. A review of bioregulatory and coupled mechanobioregulatory mathematical models for secondary fracture healing. Med Eng Phys 2017; 48:90-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2017.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 06/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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56
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Abstract
In addition to their conventional role as a conduit system for gases, nutrients, waste products or cells, blood vessels in the skeletal system play active roles in controlling multiple aspects of bone formation and provide niches for hematopoietic stem cells that reside within the bone marrow. In addition, recent studies have highlighted roles for blood vessels during bone healing. Here, we provide an overview of the architecture of the bone vasculature and discuss how blood vessels form within bone, how their formation is modulated, and how they function during development and fracture repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kishor K Sivaraj
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Department of Tissue Morphogenesis and University of Münster, Faculty of Medicine, Münster D-48149, Germany
| | - Ralf H Adams
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Department of Tissue Morphogenesis and University of Münster, Faculty of Medicine, Münster D-48149, Germany
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57
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Nejabati HR, Latifi Z, Ghasemnejad T, Fattahi A, Nouri M. Placental growth factor (PlGF) as an angiogenic/inflammatory switcher: lesson from early pregnancy losses. Gynecol Endocrinol 2017; 33:668-674. [PMID: 28447504 DOI: 10.1080/09513590.2017.1318375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Placental growth factor (PlGF) is an angiogenic factor which belongs to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family. In addition to the angiogenic function of PlGF, in some conditions such as preeclampsia and early pregnancy losses, it can induce inflammatory reactions which could be accompanied with reduced angiogenesis. Hence, it is crucial to investigate inflammatory and angiogenic switching states and understand underlying mechanisms. PlGF is expressed in endometrium, placenta and trophoblast cells and is involved in maturation of uterine NK cells. Up-regulation of PlGF directs VEGF to VEGFR-2 and reinforces angiogenesis. However, when VEGF/VEGFR-2 signaling pathway is impaired, PlGF may shift to severe inflammation and cause tissue damages which could lead to early pregnancy losses. Downregulation of PlGF has also been reported in pregnancy complications. In this review, we discussed the role of PlGF in embryo implantation failure and early pregnancy loss and also possible mechanisms regarding the role of PlGF in angiogenic/inflammatory switching in early pregnancy losses. Furthermore, we summarized the effects of various compounds on PlGF expression and briefly talked about its therapeutic potential that may be an opportunity for prevention of pregnancy loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Reza Nejabati
- a Women's Reproductive Health Research Center
- b Department of Clinical Biochemistry , Faculty of Medicine , and
| | - Zeinab Latifi
- b Department of Clinical Biochemistry , Faculty of Medicine , and
| | | | - Amir Fattahi
- a Women's Reproductive Health Research Center
- c Department of Reproductive Biology , Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences , Tabriz , Iran
| | - Mohammad Nouri
- c Department of Reproductive Biology , Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences , Tabriz , Iran
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58
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A review of computational models of bone fracture healing. Med Biol Eng Comput 2017; 55:1895-1914. [DOI: 10.1007/s11517-017-1701-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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59
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Martin V, Bettencourt A. Bone regeneration: Biomaterials as local delivery systems with improved osteoinductive properties. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2017; 82:363-371. [PMID: 29025670 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2017.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2017] [Revised: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bone is a mineralized conjunctive tissue, with a unique trauma healing capability. However, the replacement or regeneration of lost bone is not always successful and becomes more difficult the wider the bone defect. A significant growth in the demand for orthopedic and maxillofacial surgical procedures as a result of population aging and increase in chronic diseases as diabetes is a fact and successful approaches for bone regeneration are still needed. Until today, autogenous bone graft continues to be the best solution even with important limitations, as quantity and the requirement of a donator area. Alternatively, local delivery systems combining an osteoconductive biomaterial with osteoinductive compounds as hormones, growth factors or drugs is a popular approach aiming to replace the need for autogenous bone grafts. Nevertheless, in spite of the intense research in the area, presently there is no system that can mimic all the biological functions of the autogenous bone grafts. In this context, the present work provides an overview of the most recent advances in the field of synthetic bone grafts. The opportunities and limitations are detailed along with the remaining gaps in the research that are still preventing the successful translation of more products into the market able to be a valuable option in comparison to the autogenous bone grafts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Martin
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Bettencourt
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal.
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60
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Laurent MR, Jardí F, Dubois V, Schollaert D, Khalil R, Gielen E, Carmeliet G, Claessens F, Vanderschueren D. Androgens have antiresorptive effects on trabecular disuse osteopenia independent from muscle atrophy. Bone 2016; 93:33-42. [PMID: 27622887 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2016.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Aging hypogonadal men are at increased risk of osteoporosis and sarcopenia. Testosterone is a potentially appealing strategy to prevent simultaneous bone and muscle loss. The androgen receptor (AR) mediates antiresorptive effects on trabecular bone via osteoblast-lineage cells, as well as muscle-anabolic actions. Sex steroids also modify the skeletal response to mechanical loading. However, it is unclear whether the effects of androgens on bone remain effective independent of mechanical stimulation or rather require indirect androgen effects via muscle. This study aims to characterize the effects and underlying mechanisms of androgens on disuse osteosarcopenia. Adult male mice received a unilateral botulinum toxin (BTx) injection, and underwent sham surgery or orchidectomy (ORX) without or with testosterone (ORX+T) or dihydrotestosterone (ORX+DHT) replacement. Compared to the contralateral internal control hindlimb, acute trabecular number and bone volume loss was increased by ORX and partially prevented DHT. T was more efficient and increased BV/TV in both hindlimbs over sham values, although it did not reduce the detrimental effect of BTx. Both androgens and BTx regulated trabecular osteoclast surface as well as tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase expression. Androgens also prevented BTx-induced body weight loss but did not significantly influence paralysis or muscle atrophy. BTx and ORX both reduced cortical thickness via endosteal expansion, which was prevented by T but not DHT. In long-term follow-up, the residual trabecular bone volume deficit in sham-BTx hindlimbs was prevented by DHT but T restored it more efficiently to pre-treatment levels. Conditional AR deletion in late osteoblasts and osteocytes or in the satellite cell lineage increased age-related trabecular bone loss in both hindlimbs without influencing the effect of BTx on trabecular osteopenia. We conclude that androgens have antiresorptive effects on trabecular disuse osteopenia which do not require AR actions on bone via muscle or via osteocytes.
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MESH Headings
- Acute Disease
- Androgens/pharmacology
- Androgens/therapeutic use
- Animals
- Body Weight
- Bone Diseases, Metabolic/complications
- Bone Diseases, Metabolic/drug therapy
- Bone Diseases, Metabolic/pathology
- Bone Diseases, Metabolic/physiopathology
- Bone Remodeling/drug effects
- Bone Resorption/complications
- Bone Resorption/drug therapy
- Bone Resorption/pathology
- Bone Resorption/physiopathology
- Calcification, Physiologic
- Cancellous Bone/diagnostic imaging
- Cancellous Bone/drug effects
- Cancellous Bone/pathology
- Cancellous Bone/physiopathology
- Cortical Bone/diagnostic imaging
- Cortical Bone/drug effects
- Cortical Bone/pathology
- Cortical Bone/physiopathology
- Extracellular Matrix Proteins/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Deletion
- Integrases/metabolism
- Male
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Muscular Atrophy/complications
- Muscular Atrophy/drug therapy
- Muscular Atrophy/pathology
- Muscular Atrophy/physiopathology
- Muscular Disorders, Atrophic/complications
- Muscular Disorders, Atrophic/drug therapy
- Muscular Disorders, Atrophic/pathology
- Muscular Disorders, Atrophic/physiopathology
- MyoD Protein/metabolism
- Organ Size
- Receptors, Androgen/metabolism
- X-Ray Microtomography
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaël R Laurent
- Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 901, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Gerontology and Geriatrics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 7003, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Center for Metabolic Bone Diseases, University Hospitals Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Ferran Jardí
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 902, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Vanessa Dubois
- Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 901, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Dieter Schollaert
- Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 901, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Rougin Khalil
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 902, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Evelien Gielen
- Gerontology and Geriatrics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 7003, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Center for Metabolic Bone Diseases, University Hospitals Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 902, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Frank Claessens
- Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 901, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Dirk Vanderschueren
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, PO box 902, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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61
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Stiers PJ, van Gastel N, Carmeliet G. Targeting the hypoxic response in bone tissue engineering: A balance between supply and consumption to improve bone regeneration. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2016; 432:96-105. [PMID: 26768117 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2015.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Bone tissue engineering is a promising therapeutic alternative for bone grafting of large skeletal defects. It generally comprises an ex vivo engineered combination of a carrier structure, stem/progenitor cells and growth factors. However, the success of these regenerative implants largely depends on how well implanted cells will adapt to the hostile and hypoxic host environment they encounter after implantation. In this review, we will discuss how hypoxia signalling may be used to improve bone regeneration in a tissue-engineered construct. First, hypoxia signalling induces angiogenesis which increases the survival of the implanted cells as well as stimulates bone formation. Second, hypoxia signalling has also angiogenesis-independent effects on mesenchymal cells in vitro, offering exciting new possibilities to improve tissue-engineered bone regeneration in vivo. In addition, studies in other fields have shown that benefits of modulating hypoxia signalling include enhanced cell survival, proliferation and differentiation, culminating in a more potent regenerative implant. Finally, the stimulation of endochondral bone formation as a physiological pathway to circumvent the harmful effects of hypoxia will be briefly touched upon. Thus, angiogenic dependent and independent processes may counteract the deleterious hypoxic effects and we will discuss several therapeutic strategies that may be combined to withstand the hypoxia upon implantation and improve bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter-Jan Stiers
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nick van Gastel
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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62
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Furuta T, Miyaki S, Ishitobi H, Ogura T, Kato Y, Kamei N, Miyado K, Higashi Y, Ochi M. Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Promote Fracture Healing in a Mouse Model. Stem Cells Transl Med 2016; 5:1620-1630. [PMID: 27460850 DOI: 10.5966/sctm.2015-0285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
: Paracrine signaling by bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) plays a major role in tissue repair. Although the production of regulatory cytokines by MSC transplantation is a critical modulator of tissue regeneration, we focused on exosomes, which are extracellular vesicles that contain proteins and nucleic acids, as a novel additional modulator of cell-to-cell communication and tissue regeneration. To address this, we used radiologic imaging, histological examination, and immunohistochemical analysis to evaluate the role of exosomes isolated from MSC-conditioned medium (CM) in the healing process in a femur fracture model of CD9-/- mice, a strain that is known to produce reduced levels of exosomes. We found that the bone union rate in CD9-/- mice was significantly lower than wild-type mice because of the retardation of callus formation. The retardation of fracture healing in CD9-/- mice was rescued by the injection of exosomes, but this was not the case after the injection of exosomes-free conditioned medium (CM-Exo). The levels of the bone repair-related cytokines, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), MCP-3, and stromal cell-derived factor-1 in exosomes were low compared with levels in CM and CM-Exo, suggesting that bone repair may be in part mediated by other exosome components, such as microRNAs. These results suggest that exosomes in CM facilitate the acceleration of fracture healing, and we conclude that exosomes are a novel factor of MSC paracrine signaling with an important role in the tissue repair process. SIGNIFICANCE This work focuses on exosomes, which are extracellular vesicles, as a novel additional modulator of cell-to-cell communication. This study evaluated the role of exosomes isolated from mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-conditioned medium (MSC-CM) in the fracture-healing process of CD9-/- mice, a strain that is known to produce reduced levels of exosomes. Retardation of fracture healing in CD9-/- mice was rescued by the injection of MSC exosomes, but this was not the case after the injection of exosome-free CM. This study finds that MSC exosomes are a novel factor of MSC paracrine signaling, with an important role in the tissue repair process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taisuke Furuta
- Department of Orthopaedics Surgery, Integrated Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical and Health Science, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Shigeru Miyaki
- Department of Orthopaedics Surgery, Integrated Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical and Health Science, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ishitobi
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Ogura
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yoshio Kato
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Naosuke Kamei
- Department of Orthopaedics Surgery, Integrated Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical and Health Science, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Kenji Miyado
- Department of Reproductive Biology, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukihito Higashi
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Mitsuo Ochi
- Department of Orthopaedics Surgery, Integrated Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical and Health Science, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
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63
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Liu Y, Deng LZ, Sun HP, Xu JY, Li YM, Xie X, Zhang LM, Deng FL. Sustained dual release of placental growth factor-2 and bone morphogenic protein-2 from heparin-based nanocomplexes for direct osteogenesis. Int J Nanomedicine 2016; 11:1147-58. [PMID: 27042064 PMCID: PMC4809329 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s100156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the direct osteogenic effect between placental growth factor-2 (PlGF-2) and bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP-2). METHODS Three groups of PlGF-2/BMP-2-loaded heparin-N-(2-hydroxyl) propyl-3-trimethyl ammonium chitosan chloride (HTCC) nanocomplexes were prepared: those with 0.5 μg PlGF-2; with 1.0 μg BMP-2; and with 0.5 μg PlGF-2 combined with 1.0 μg BMP-2. The loading efficiencies and release profiles of these growth factors (GFs) in this nanocomplex system were quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, their biological activities were evaluated using cell counting kit-8, cell morphology, and cell number counting assays, and their osteogenic activities were quantified using alkaline phosphatase and Alizarin Red S staining assays. RESULTS The loading efficiencies were more than 99% for the nanocomplexes loaded with just PlGF-2 and for those loaded with both PlGF-2 and BMP-2. For the nanocomplex loaded with just BMP-2, the loading efficiency was more than 97%. About 83%-84% of PlGF-2 and 89%-91% of BMP-2 were stably retained on the nanocomplexes for at least 21 days. In in vitro biological assays, PlGF-2 exhibited osteogenic effects comparable to those of BMP-2 despite its dose in the experiments being lower than that of BMP-2. Moreover, the results implied that heparin-based nanocomplexes encapsulating two GFs have enhanced potential in the enhancement of osteoblast function. CONCLUSION PlGF-2-loaded heparin-HTCC nanocomplexes may constitute a promising system for bone regeneration. Moreover, the dual delivery of PlGF-2 and BMP-2 appears to have greater potential in bone tissue regeneration than the delivery of either GFs alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Liu
- Department of Oral Implantology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-Zhi Deng
- PCFM Lab, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China; GDHPPC Lab, Institute of Polymer Science, Department of Polymer and Materials Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Hai-Peng Sun
- Department of Oral Implantology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Yun Xu
- Department of Oral Implantology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi-Ming Li
- Department of Oral Implantology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Xie
- Department of Oral Implantology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-Ming Zhang
- PCFM Lab, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China; GDHPPC Lab, Institute of Polymer Science, Department of Polymer and Materials Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei-Long Deng
- Department of Oral Implantology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
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64
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Akrami H, Mahmoodi F, Havasi S, Sharifi A. PlGF knockdown inhibited tumor survival and migration in gastric cancer cell via PI3K/Akt and p38MAPK pathways. Cell Biochem Funct 2016; 34:173-80. [PMID: 26968576 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.3176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Revised: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The molecular signalling of placental growth factor (PlGF), a member of the vascular endothelial growth factor family, was not uncovered in human adenocarcinoma gastric cell line (AGS). The purpose of this study was to examine the inhibitory effects of PlGF knockdown on cell proliferation, apoptosis and migration through p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) and PI3K pathways in human adenocarcinoma gastric cell line (AGS). To study PlGF knockdown effect, AGS cells were treated with 40 pmol of small interfering RNA (siRNA) related to PlGF gene and also a scrambled siRNA as control. Trypan Blue and Anexin V staining of AGS cells treated with PlGF-specific siRNA showed induction of apoptosis. Wound healing assay and zymography indicated that cellular migration and matrix metalloproteinases activities were reduced in response to PlGF knockdown. Phosphorylation of Akt and p38MAPK was reduced in AGS cells treated with PlGF-specific siRNA. PlGF knockdown decreased transcripts of PI3K, Akt, p38MAPK, PCNA, Caspase-3, OCT3/OCT4 and CD44, but elevated p53 and SOX2 transcripts. Our results indicated that PlGF knockdown decreased migration and induced apoptosis through PI3K/Akt1 and p38MAPK signal transduction in AGS cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan Akrami
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Mahmoodi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Somaye Havasi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Amene Sharifi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
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Almubarak S, Nethercott H, Freeberg M, Beaudon C, Jha A, Jackson W, Marcucio R, Miclau T, Healy K, Bahney C. Tissue engineering strategies for promoting vascularized bone regeneration. Bone 2016; 83:197-209. [PMID: 26608518 PMCID: PMC4911893 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2015.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on current tissue engineering strategies for promoting vascularized bone regeneration. We review the role of angiogenic growth factors in promoting vascularized bone regeneration and discuss the different therapeutic strategies for controlled/sustained growth factor delivery. Next, we address the therapeutic uses of stem cells in vascularized bone regeneration. Specifically, this review addresses the concept of co-culture using osteogenic and vasculogenic stem cells, and how adipose derived stem cells compare to bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells in the promotion of angiogenesis. We conclude this review with a discussion of a novel approach to bone regeneration through a cartilage intermediate, and discuss why it has the potential to be more effective than traditional bone grafting methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Almubarak
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; UCSF-UCB Masters of Translational Medicine Program, Berkeley and San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Hubert Nethercott
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; UCSF-UCB Masters of Translational Medicine Program, Berkeley and San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Marie Freeberg
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; UCSF-UCB Masters of Translational Medicine Program, Berkeley and San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Caroline Beaudon
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; UCSF-UCB Masters of Translational Medicine Program, Berkeley and San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Amit Jha
- Departments of Bioengineering, and Material Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley (UCB), Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Wesley Jackson
- Departments of Bioengineering, and Material Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley (UCB), Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Ralph Marcucio
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Theodore Miclau
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Kevin Healy
- Departments of Bioengineering, and Material Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley (UCB), Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Chelsea Bahney
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; Departments of Bioengineering, and Material Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley (UCB), Berkeley, CA, United States.
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66
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Faienza MF, Ventura A, Colucci S, Cavallo L, Grano M, Brunetti G. Bone Fragility in Turner Syndrome: Mechanisms and Prevention Strategies. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2016; 7:34. [PMID: 27199891 PMCID: PMC4844601 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2016.00034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone fragility is recognized as one of the major comorbidities in Turner syndrome (TS). The mechanisms underlying bone impairment in affected patients are not clearly elucidated, but estrogen deficiency and X-chromosomal abnormalities represent important factors. Moreover, although many girls with TS undergo recombinant growth hormone therapy to treat short stature, the efficacy of this treatment on bone mineral density is controversial. The present review will focus on bone fragility in subjects with TS, providing an overview on the pathogenic mechanisms and some prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Felicia Faienza
- Pediatrics Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, University of Bari “A. Moro”, Bari, Italy
| | - Annamaria Ventura
- Pediatrics Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, University of Bari “A. Moro”, Bari, Italy
| | - Silvia Colucci
- Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Bari “A. Moro”, Bari, Italy
| | - Luciano Cavallo
- Pediatrics Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, University of Bari “A. Moro”, Bari, Italy
| | - Maria Grano
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (DETO), University of Bari “A. Moro”, Bari, Italy
| | - Giacomina Brunetti
- Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Bari “A. Moro”, Bari, Italy
- *Correspondence: Giacomina Brunetti,
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Martino MM, Briquez PS, Maruyama K, Hubbell JA. Extracellular matrix-inspired growth factor delivery systems for bone regeneration. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2015; 94:41-52. [PMID: 25895621 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Growth factors are very promising molecules to enhance bone regeneration. However, their translation to clinical use has been seriously limited, facing issues related to safety and cost-effectiveness. These problems derive from the vastly supra-physiological doses of growth factor used without optimized delivery systems. Therefore, these issues have motivated the development of new delivery systems allowing better control of the spatiotemporal release and signaling of growth factors. Because the extracellular matrix (ECM) naturally plays a fundamental role in coordinating growth factor activity in vivo, a number of novel delivery systems have been inspired by the growth factor regulatory function of the ECM. After introducing the role of growth factors during the bone regeneration process, this review exposes different issues that growth factor-based therapies have encountered in the clinic and highlights recent delivery approaches based on the natural interaction between growth factor and the ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikaël M Martino
- Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Priscilla S Briquez
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences and School of Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kenta Maruyama
- Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Jeffrey A Hubbell
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences and School of Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA.
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Raymaekers K, Stegen S, van Gastel N, Carmeliet G. The vasculature: a vessel for bone metastasis. BONEKEY REPORTS 2015; 4:742. [PMID: 27217954 DOI: 10.1038/bonekey.2015.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 07/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that the interactions between tumor cells and the bone microenvironment have a crucial role in the pathogenesis of bone metastasis and that they can influence tumor cell dissemination, quiescence and tumor growth in the bone. The vasculature is known to be critical for primary tumor growth, and anti-angiogenesis drugs are approved for the treatment of certain tumor types. The role of the vasculature in bone metastasis is less well known, but recent evidence shows that blood vessels in the bone are a key component of the local microenvironment for the tumor cells and contribute to the different consecutive phases of bone metastasis. A better insight in the importance of the vasculature for bone metastasis may help develop novel treatment modalities that either slow down tumor growth or, preferably, prevent or cure bone metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koen Raymaekers
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
| | - Steve Stegen
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nick van Gastel
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
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69
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Myeloma cell-derived Runx2 promotes myeloma progression in bone. Blood 2015; 125:3598-608. [PMID: 25862559 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2014-12-613968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The progression of multiple myeloma (MM) is governed by a network of molecular signals, the majority of which remain to be identified. Recent studies suggest that Runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2), a well-known bone-specific transcription factor, is also expressed in solid tumors, where expression promotes both bone metastasis and osteolysis. However, the function of Runx2 in MM remains unknown. The current study demonstrated that (1) Runx2 expression in primary human MM cells is significantly greater than in plasma cells from healthy donors and patients with monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance; (2) high levels of Runx2 expression in MM cells are associated with a high-risk population of MM patients; and (3) overexpression of Runx2 in MM cells enhanced tumor growth and disease progression in vivo. Additional studies demonstrated that MM cell-derived Runx2 promotes tumor progression through a mechanism involving the upregulation of Akt/β-catenin/Survivin signaling and enhanced expression of multiple metastatic genes/proteins, as well as the induction of a bone-resident cell-like phenotype in MM cells. Thus, Runx2 expression supports the aggressive phenotype of MM and is correlated with poor prognosis. These data implicate Runx2 expression as a major regulator of MM progression in bone and myeloma bone disease.
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70
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Yu H, Zhu L, Li C, Sha D, Pan H, Wang N, Ma S. ERK1/2 and AKT are vital factors in regulation of the migration of rat Schwann cells. J Vet Med Sci 2015; 77:427-32. [PMID: 25648460 PMCID: PMC4427743 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.14-0555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
After peripheral nerve injury, Wallerian degeneration (WD) occurs in the distal nerve
segment. During the process of degeneration, Schwann cells (SCs) dedifferentiate,
proliferate and migrate to align in “bands of Büngner”, providing structural guidance and
growth-promoting substrates to regenerating axons. The molecular signals that trigger SCs
migration remain unclear. Here, we explored the molecular characteristics of the migration
of cultured SCs prepared from rat sciatic nerves that had degenerated. The results
revealed that elevated p-ERK1/2 was coupled with the migration of SCs, activated either by
nerve degeneration or the addition of placenta growth factor. However, the inhibition of
ERK1/2 activity, which activated the PI3K pathway, did not show a significant negative
effect on SC migratory potential. Combined inhibition of ERK1/2 and AKT activity resulted
in a significant decrease in SCs motility. These molecular characteristics suggest that
both the ERK1/2 and AKT signals are involved in the migratory potential of SCs. It may be
helpful to understand the process of nerve regeneration and perspective on promoting
peripheral nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Yu
- Department of Hand Surgery, Central Hospital affiliated to Shenyang Medical College, Shenyang City, Liaoning Province, 110015, P.R. China
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71
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Bahney CS, Hu DP, Miclau T, Marcucio RS. The multifaceted role of the vasculature in endochondral fracture repair. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2015; 6:4. [PMID: 25699016 PMCID: PMC4318416 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2015.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Fracture healing is critically dependent upon an adequate vascular supply. The normal rate for fracture delayed or non-union is estimated to be between 10 and 15%, and annual fracture numbers are approximately 15 million cases per year. However, when there is decreased vascular perfusion to the fracture, incidence of impaired healing rises dramatically to 46%. Reduction in the blood supply to the fracture can be the result of traumatic injuries that physically disrupt the vasculature and damage supportive soft tissue, the result of anatomical location (i.e., distal tibia), or attributed to physiological conditions such as age, diabetes, or smoking. The role of the vasculature during repair is multifaceted and changes during the course of healing. In this article, we review recent insights into the role of the vasculature during fracture repair. Taken together these data highlight the need for an updated model for endochondral repair to facilitate improved therapeutic approaches to promote bone healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea S. Bahney
- Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering and Material Science, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- *Correspondence: Chelsea S. Bahney, 2550 23rd Street, Building 9, 3rd Floor, San Francisco, CA, USA e-mail:
| | - Diane P. Hu
- Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Theodore Miclau
- Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ralph S. Marcucio
- Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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72
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Stegen S, van Gastel N, Carmeliet G. Bringing new life to damaged bone: the importance of angiogenesis in bone repair and regeneration. Bone 2015; 70:19-27. [PMID: 25263520 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2014.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 09/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Bone has the unique capacity to heal without the formation of a fibrous scar, likely because several of the cellular and molecular processes governing bone healing recapitulate the events during skeletal development. A critical component in bone healing is the timely appearance of blood vessels in the fracture callus. Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones, is stimulated after fracture by the local production of numerous angiogenic growth factors. The fracture vasculature not only supplies oxygen and nutrients, but also stem cells able to differentiate into osteoblasts and in a later phase also the ions necessary for mineralization. This review provides a concise report of the regulation of angiogenesis by bone cells, its importance during bone healing and its possible therapeutic applications in bone tissue engineering. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Stem Cells and Bone".
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Stegen
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nick van Gastel
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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73
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Xia L, Lin K, Jiang X, Fang B, Xu Y, Liu J, Zeng D, Zhang M, Zhang X, Chang J, Zhang Z. Effect of nano-structured bioceramic surface on osteogenic differentiation of adipose derived stem cells. Biomaterials 2014; 35:8514-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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74
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McCoy RJ, Widaa A, Watters KM, Wuerstle M, Stallings RL, Duffy GP, O'Brien FJ. Orchestrating osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells--identification of placental growth factor as a mechanosensitive gene with a pro-osteogenic role. Stem Cells 2014; 31:2420-31. [PMID: 23897668 DOI: 10.1002/stem.1482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Revised: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Skeletogenesis is initiated during fetal development and persists through adult life as either a remodeling process in response to homeostatic regulation or as a regenerative process in response to physical injury. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) play a crucial role providing progenitor cells from which osteoblasts, bone matrix forming cells are differentiated. The mechanical environment plays an important role in regulating stem cell differentiation into osteoblasts, however, the mechanisms by which MSCs respond to mechanical stimuli are yet to be fully elucidated. To increase understanding of MSC mechanotransuction and osteogenic differentiation, this study aimed to identify novel, mechanically augmented genes and pathways with pro-osteogenic functionality. Using collagen glycoaminoglycan scaffolds as mimics of native extracellular matrix, to create a 3D environment more representative of that found in bone, MSC-seeded constructs were mechanically stimulated in a flow-perfusion bioreactor. Global gene expression profiling techniques were used to identify potential candidates warranting further investigation. Of these, placental growth factor (PGF) was selected and expression levels were shown to strongly correlate to both the magnitude and duration of mechanical stimulation. We demonstrated that PGF gene expression was modulated through an actin polymerization-mediated mechanism. The functional role of PGF in modulating MSC osteogenic differentiation was interrogated, and we showed a concentration-dependent response whereby low concentrations exhibited the strongest pro-osteogenic effect. Furthermore, pre-osteoclast migration and differentiation, as well as endothelial cell tubule formation also maintained concentration-dependent responses to PGF, suggesting a potential role for PGF in bone resorption and angiogenesis, processes key to bone remodeling and fracture repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J McCoy
- Tissue Engineering Research Group, Dept. of Anatomy, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI), Dublin, Ireland; Trinity Centre for Bioengineering, Trinity College Dublin (TCD), Dublin 2, Ireland; Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research (AMBER) Centre, RCSI & TCD, Ireland
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75
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Mizoguchi T, Pinho S, Ahmed J, Kunisaki Y, Hanoun M, Mendelson A, Ono N, Kronenberg HM, Frenette PS. Osterix marks distinct waves of primitive and definitive stromal progenitors during bone marrow development. Dev Cell 2014; 29:340-9. [PMID: 24823377 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2014.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 314] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem and progenitor cells (MSPCs) contribute to bone marrow (BM) homeostasis by generating multiple types of stromal cells. MSPCs can be labeled in the adult BM by Nestin-GFP, whereas committed osteoblast progenitors are marked by Osterix expression. However, the developmental origin and hierarchical relationship of stromal cells remain largely unknown. Here, by using a lineage-tracing system, we describe three distinct waves of contributions of Osterix(+) cells in the BM. First, Osterix(+) progenitors in the fetal BM contribute to nascent bone tissues and transient stromal cells that are replaced in the adult marrow. Second, Osterix-expressing cells perinatally contribute to osteolineages and long-lived BM stroma, which have characteristics of Nestin-GFP(+) MSPCs. Third, Osterix labeling in the adult marrow is osteolineage-restricted, devoid of stromal contribution. These results uncover a broad expression profile of Osterix and raise the intriguing possibility that distinct waves of stromal cells, primitive and definitive, may organize the developing BM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshihide Mizoguchi
- Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Institute for Oral Science, Matsumoto Dental University, Shiojiri, Nagano 399-0781, Japan
| | - Sandra Pinho
- Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Jalal Ahmed
- Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Yuya Kunisaki
- Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Maher Hanoun
- Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Avital Mendelson
- Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Noriaki Ono
- Endocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Henry M Kronenberg
- Endocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Paul S Frenette
- Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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76
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Abou-Khalil R, Colnot C. Cellular and molecular bases of skeletal regeneration: what can we learn from genetic mouse models? Bone 2014; 64:211-21. [PMID: 24709685 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2014.03.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Although bone repairs through a very efficient regenerative process in 90% of the patients, many factors can cause delayed or impaired healing. To date, there are no reliable biological parameters to predict or diagnose bone repair defects. Orthopedic surgeons mostly base their diagnoses on radiographic analyses. With the recent progress in our understanding of the bone repair process, new methods may be envisioned. Animal models have allowed us to define the key steps of bone regeneration and the biological and mechanical factors that may influence bone healing in positive or negative ways. Most importantly, small animal models such as mice have provided powerful tools to apprehend the genetic bases of normal and impaired bone healing. The current review presents a state of the art of the genetically modified mouse models that have advanced our understanding of the cellular and molecular components of bone regeneration and repair. The review illustrates the use of these models to define the role of inflammation, skeletal cell lineages, signaling pathways, the extracellular matrix, osteoclasts and angiogenesis. These genetic mouse models promise to change the field of orthopedic surgery to help establish genetic predispositions for delayed repair, develop models of non-union that mimic the human conditions and elaborate new therapeutic approaches to enhance bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana Abou-Khalil
- INSERM UMR1163, Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris, France
| | - Céline Colnot
- INSERM UMR1163, Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris, France.
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77
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Rajpathak SN, Vellarikkal SK, Patowary A, Scaria V, Sivasubbu S, Deobagkar DD. Human 45,X fibroblast transcriptome reveals distinct differentially expressed genes including long noncoding RNAs potentially associated with the pathophysiology of Turner syndrome. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100076. [PMID: 24932682 PMCID: PMC4059722 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Turner syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality characterized by the absence of whole or part of the X chromosome in females. This X aneuploidy condition is associated with a diverse set of clinical phenotypes such as gonadal dysfunction, short stature, osteoporosis and Type II diabetes mellitus, among others. These phenotypes differ in their severity and penetrance among the affected individuals. Haploinsufficiency for a few X linked genes has been associated with some of these disease phenotypes. RNA sequencing can provide valuable insights to understand molecular mechanism of disease process. In the current study, we have analysed the transcriptome profiles of human untransformed 45,X and 46,XX fibroblast cells and identified differential expression of genes in these two karyotypes. Functional analysis revealed that these differentially expressing genes are associated with bone differentiation, glucose metabolism and gonadal development pathways. We also report differential expression of lincRNAs in X monosomic cells. Our observations provide a basis for evaluation of cellular and molecular mechanism(s) in the establishment of Turner syndrome phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shriram N Rajpathak
- Centre of Advanced Studies, Department of Zoology, University of Pune, Pune, India
| | - Shamsudheen Karuthedath Vellarikkal
- Genomics and Molecular medicine, CSIR Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Delhi, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, 2 Rafi Marg, New Delhi, India
| | - Ashok Patowary
- GN Ramachandran Knowledge Centre for Genome Informatics, CSIR Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Delhi, India
| | - Vinod Scaria
- GN Ramachandran Knowledge Centre for Genome Informatics, CSIR Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Delhi, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, 2 Rafi Marg, New Delhi, India
| | - Sridhar Sivasubbu
- Genomics and Molecular medicine, CSIR Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Delhi, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, 2 Rafi Marg, New Delhi, India
| | - Deepti D Deobagkar
- Centre of Advanced Studies, Department of Zoology, University of Pune, Pune, India
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78
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Abou-Khalil R, Yang F, Mortreux M, Lieu S, Yu YY, Wurmser M, Pereira C, Relaix F, Miclau T, Marcucio RS, Colnot C. Delayed bone regeneration is linked to chronic inflammation in murine muscular dystrophy. J Bone Miner Res 2014; 29:304-15. [PMID: 23857747 PMCID: PMC3893315 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.2038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) patients exhibit skeletal muscle weakness with continuous cycles of muscle fiber degeneration/regeneration, chronic inflammation, low bone mineral density, and increased risks of fracture. Fragility fractures and associated complications are considered as a consequence of the osteoporotic condition in these patients. Here, we aimed to establish the relationship between muscular dystrophy and fracture healing by assessing bone regeneration in mdx mice, a model of DMD with absence of osteoporosis. Our results illustrate that muscle defects in mdx mice impact the process of bone regeneration at various levels. In mdx fracture calluses, both cartilage and bone deposition were delayed followed by a delay in cartilage and bone remodeling. Vascularization of mdx fracture calluses was also decreased during the early stages of repair. Dystrophic muscles are known to contain elevated numbers of macrophages contributing to muscle degeneration. Accordingly, we observed increased macrophage recruitment in the mdx fracture calluses and abnormal macrophage accumulation throughout the process of bone regeneration. These changes in the inflammatory environment subsequently had an impact on the recruitment of osteoclasts and the remodeling phase of repair. Further damage to the mdx muscles, using a novel model of muscle trauma, amplified both the chronic inflammatory response and the delay in bone regeneration. In addition, PLX3397 treatment of mdx mice, a cFMS (colony stimulating factor receptor 1) inhibitor in monocytes, partially rescued the bone repair defect through increasing cartilage deposition and decreasing the number of macrophages. In conclusion, chronic inflammation in mdx mice contributes to the fracture healing delay and is associated with a decrease in angiogenesis and a transient delay in osteoclast recruitment. By revealing the role of dystrophic muscle in regulating the inflammatory response during bone repair, our results emphasize the implication of muscle in the normal bone repair process and may lead to improved treatment of fragility fractures in DMD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana Abou-Khalil
- INSERM U781, Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Hôpital Necker Enfants Malades, Paris, France
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79
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Nicolay NH, Sommer E, Lopez R, Wirkner U, Trinh T, Sisombath S, Debus J, Ho AD, Saffrich R, Huber PE. Mesenchymal Stem Cells Retain Their Defining Stem Cell Characteristics After Exposure to Ionizing Radiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2013; 87:1171-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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80
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Dirckx N, Van Hul M, Maes C. Osteoblast recruitment to sites of bone formation in skeletal development, homeostasis, and regeneration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 99:170-91. [DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.21047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Dirckx
- are from the Laboratory of Skeletal Cell Biology and Physiology (SCEBP), Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center (SBE); Department of Development and Regeneration; KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Matthias Van Hul
- are from the Laboratory of Skeletal Cell Biology and Physiology (SCEBP), Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center (SBE); Department of Development and Regeneration; KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Christa Maes
- are from the Laboratory of Skeletal Cell Biology and Physiology (SCEBP), Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center (SBE); Department of Development and Regeneration; KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
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81
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Iba K, Abe Y, Chikenji T, Kanaya K, Chiba H, Sasaki K, Dohke T, Wada T, Yamashita T. Delayed fracture healing in tetranectin-deficient mice. J Bone Miner Metab 2013; 31:399-408. [PMID: 23588617 DOI: 10.1007/s00774-013-0436-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Tetranectin is a plasminogen-binding protein that enhances plasminogen activation, which has been suggested to play a role in tissue remodeling. Recently, we showed that tetranectin has a role in the wound-healing process. In this study, we investigated whether tetranectin plays a role in fracture healing. The fracture-healing process was studied using a femoral osteotomy model in tetranectin-null mice, previously generated by the authors. Radiographic imaging, micro-computed tomography (μCT), and histological analysis were used to evaluate osteotomy healing. In wild-type mice, a callus was apparent from 7 days, and most samples showed marked callus formation and rebridging of the cortices at the osteotomy site at 21 days. In contrast, in the tetranectin-null mice there was no callus formation at 7 days and much less callus formation and no bridging of cortices were observed at 21 days. At 35 days, all osteotomy sites showed clear rebridging, and secondary bone formation was achieved in wild-type mice by 42 days. In contrast, no clear rebridging or secondary bone formation was observed at 42 days in the tetranectin-null mice. Analysis using μCT at 21 days after osteotomy revealed that the callus area in tetranectin-null mice was smaller than that in wild-type mice. Histological analysis also showed that soft tissue and callus formation were smaller in the tetranectin-null mice at the early stage of the healing process after drill-hole injury. These results suggested that tetranectin could have a role in the positive regulation at the early stage of the fracture-healing process, which was reflected in the delayed fracture healing in tetranectin-deficient mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kousuke Iba
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, South-1, West-16, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, 060-8543, Japan.
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82
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Kim JM, Shin HI, Cha SS, Lee CS, Hong BS, Lim S, Jang HJ, Kim J, Yang YR, Kim YH, Yun S, Rijal G, Lee-Kwon W, Seo JK, Gho YS, Ryu SH, Hur EM, Suh PG. DJ-1 promotes angiogenesis and osteogenesis by activating FGF receptor-1 signaling. Nat Commun 2013; 3:1296. [PMID: 23250426 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms2313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Communication between osteoblasts and endothelial cells is essential for bone fracture repair, but the molecular identities of such communicating factors are not well defined. Here we identify DJ-1 as a novel mediator of the cross-talk between osteoblasts and endothelial cells through an unbiased screening of molecules secreted from human mesenchymal stem cells during osteogenesis. We show that DJ-1 stimulates the differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells to osteoblasts and that DJ-1 induces angiogenesis in endothelial cells through activation of fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 signalling. In a rodent model of bone fracture repair, extracellular application of DJ-1 enhances bone regeneration in vivo by stimulating the formation of blood vessels and new bones. Both these effects are blocked by antagonizing fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 signalling. These findings uncover previously undefined extracellular roles of DJ-1 to promote angiogenesis and osteogenesis, suggesting DJ-1 may have therapeutic potential to stimulate bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Min Kim
- School of Nano-Bioscience & Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, UNIST-gil 50, Ulsan 689-798, Republic of Korea
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83
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Immunological characteristics of human mesenchymal stem cells and multipotent adult progenitor cells. Immunol Cell Biol 2013; 91:32-9. [PMID: 23295415 PMCID: PMC3540326 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2012.64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Somatic, also termed adult, stem cells are highly attractive biomedical cell candidates because of their extensive replication potential and functional multilineage differentiation capacity. They can be used for drug and toxicity screenings in preclinical studies, as in vitro model to study differentiation or for regenerative medicine to aid in the repair of tissues or replace tissues that are lost upon disease, injury or ageing. Multipotent adult progenitor cells (MAPCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are two types of adult stem cells derived from bone marrow that are currently being used clinically for tissue regeneration and for their immunomodulatory and trophic effects. This review will give an overview of the phenotypic and functional differences between human MAPCs and MSCs, with a strong emphasis on their immunological characteristics. Finally, we will discuss the clinical studies in which MSCs and MAPCs are already used.
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84
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Hoffmann DC, Willenborg S, Koch M, Zwolanek D, Müller S, Becker AKA, Metzger S, Ehrbar M, Kurschat P, Hellmich M, Hubbell JA, Eming SA. Proteolytic processing regulates placental growth factor activities. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:17976-89. [PMID: 23645683 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.451831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Placental growth factor (PlGF) is a critical mediator of blood vessel formation, yet mechanisms of its action and regulation are incompletely understood. Here we demonstrate that proteolytic processing regulates the biological activity of PlGF. Specifically, we show that plasmin processing of PlGF-2 yields a protease-resistant core fragment comprising the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 binding site but lacking the carboxyl-terminal domain encoding the heparin-binding domain and an 8-amino acid peptide encoded by exon 7. We have identified plasmin cleavage sites, generated a truncated PlGF118 isoform mimicking plasmin-processed PlGF, and explored its biological function in comparison with that of PlGF-1 and -2. The angiogenic responses induced by the diverse PlGF forms were distinct. Whereas PlGF-2 increased endothelial cell chemotaxis, vascular sprouting, and granulation tissue formation upon skin injury, these activities were abrogated following plasmin digestion. Investigation of PlGF/Neuropilin-1 binding and function suggests a critical role for heparin-binding domain/Neuropilin-1 interaction and its regulation by plasmin processing. Collectively, here we provide new mechanistic insights into the regulation of PlGF-2/Neuropilin-1-mediated tissue vascularization and growth.
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85
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Richter GHS, Fasan A, Hauer K, Grunewald TGP, Berns C, Rössler S, Naumann I, Staege MS, Fulda S, Esposito I, Burdach S. G-Protein coupled receptor 64 promotes invasiveness and metastasis in Ewing sarcomas through PGF and MMP1. J Pathol 2013; 230:70-81. [DOI: 10.1002/path.4170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Günther HS Richter
- Children's Cancer Research Center and Department of Paediatrics, Roman Herzog Comprehensive Cancer Research Center and Klinikum rechts der Isar; Technische Universität München; 81664 Munich Germany
| | - Annette Fasan
- Children's Cancer Research Center and Department of Paediatrics, Roman Herzog Comprehensive Cancer Research Center and Klinikum rechts der Isar; Technische Universität München; 81664 Munich Germany
| | - Kristina Hauer
- Children's Cancer Research Center and Department of Paediatrics, Roman Herzog Comprehensive Cancer Research Center and Klinikum rechts der Isar; Technische Universität München; 81664 Munich Germany
| | - Thomas GP Grunewald
- Children's Cancer Research Center and Department of Paediatrics, Roman Herzog Comprehensive Cancer Research Center and Klinikum rechts der Isar; Technische Universität München; 81664 Munich Germany
| | - Colette Berns
- Children's Cancer Research Center and Department of Paediatrics, Roman Herzog Comprehensive Cancer Research Center and Klinikum rechts der Isar; Technische Universität München; 81664 Munich Germany
| | - Sabine Rössler
- Children's Cancer Research Center and Department of Paediatrics, Roman Herzog Comprehensive Cancer Research Center and Klinikum rechts der Isar; Technische Universität München; 81664 Munich Germany
| | - Ivonne Naumann
- Institute for Experimental Cancer Research in Paediatrics; Goethe-University Frankfurt; 60528 Frankfurt/Main Germany
| | - Martin S. Staege
- Department of Paediatrics; Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg; 06097 Halle Germany
| | - Simone Fulda
- Institute for Experimental Cancer Research in Paediatrics; Goethe-University Frankfurt; 60528 Frankfurt/Main Germany
| | - Irene Esposito
- Institute of Pathology; Helmholtz Center Munich - German Research Center for Environmental Health; 85764 Neuherberg Germany
- Institute of Pathology; Technische Universität München; Ismaningerstr. 22 81675 Munich Germany
| | - Stefan Burdach
- Children's Cancer Research Center and Department of Paediatrics, Roman Herzog Comprehensive Cancer Research Center and Klinikum rechts der Isar; Technische Universität München; 81664 Munich Germany
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86
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Carlier A, Geris L, Bentley K, Carmeliet G, Carmeliet P, Van Oosterwyck H. MOSAIC: a multiscale model of osteogenesis and sprouting angiogenesis with lateral inhibition of endothelial cells. PLoS Comput Biol 2012; 8:e1002724. [PMID: 23071433 PMCID: PMC3469420 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 08/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The healing of a fracture depends largely on the development of a new blood vessel network (angiogenesis) in the callus. During angiogenesis tip cells lead the developing sprout in response to extracellular signals, amongst which vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is critical. In order to ensure a correct development of the vasculature, the balance between stalk and tip cell phenotypes must be tightly controlled, which is primarily achieved by the Dll4-Notch1 signaling pathway. This study presents a novel multiscale model of osteogenesis and sprouting angiogenesis, incorporating lateral inhibition of endothelial cells (further denoted MOSAIC model) through Dll4-Notch1 signaling, and applies it to fracture healing. The MOSAIC model correctly predicted the bone regeneration process and recapitulated many experimentally observed aspects of tip cell selection: the salt and pepper pattern seen for cell fates, an increased tip cell density due to the loss of Dll4 and an excessive number of tip cells in high VEGF environments. When VEGF concentration was even further increased, the MOSAIC model predicted the absence of a vascular network and fracture healing, thereby leading to a non-union, which is a direct consequence of the mutual inhibition of neighboring cells through Dll4-Notch1 signaling. This result was not retrieved for a more phenomenological model that only considers extracellular signals for tip cell migration, which illustrates the importance of implementing the actual signaling pathway rather than phenomenological rules. Finally, the MOSAIC model demonstrated the importance of a proper criterion for tip cell selection and the need for experimental data to further explore this. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the MOSAIC model creates enhanced capabilities for investigating the influence of molecular mechanisms on angiogenesis and its relation to bone formation in a more mechanistic way and across different time and spatial scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Carlier
- Biomechanics Section, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, O&N 1, Leuven, Belgium
- Biomechanics Research Unit, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Liesbet Geris
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, O&N 1, Leuven, Belgium
- Biomechanics Research Unit, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Katie Bentley
- Vascular Biology Lab, Cancer Research UK, London, United Kingdom
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, KU Leuven, O&N 1, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Peter Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Hans Van Oosterwyck
- Biomechanics Section, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, O&N 1, Leuven, Belgium
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87
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Taylor RM, Kashima TG, Knowles HJ, Athanasou NA. VEGF, FLT3 ligand, PlGF and HGF can substitute for M-CSF to induce human osteoclast formation: implications for giant cell tumour pathobiology. J Transl Med 2012; 92:1398-406. [PMID: 22906984 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2012.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Giant cell tumour of bone (GCTB) is a primary bone tumour that contains numerous very large, hyper-nucleated osteoclastic giant cells. Osteoclasts form from CD14+ monocytes and macrophages in the presence of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL) and macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF). GCTB contains numerous growth factors, some of which have been reported to influence osteoclastogenesis and resorption. We investigated whether these growth factors are capable of substituting for M-CSF to support osteoclast formation from cultured human monocytes and whether they influence osteoclast cytomorphology and resorption. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), VEGF-D, FLT3 ligand (FL), placental growth factor (PlGF) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) supported RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis in the absence of M-CSF, resulting in the formation of numerous TRAP+ multinucleated cells capable of lacunar resorption. Monocytes cultured in the presence of M-CSF, HGF, VEGF-A and RANKL together resulted in the formation of very large, hyper-nucleated (GCTB-like) osteoclasts that were hyper-resorptive. M-CSF and M-CSF substitute growth factors were identified immunohistochemically in GCTB tissue sections and these factors stimulated the resorption of osteoclasts derived from a subset of GCTBs. Our findings indicate that there are growth factors that are capable of substituting for M-CSF to induce human osteoclast formation and that these factors are present in GCTB where they influence osteoclast cytomorphology and have a role in osteoclast formation and resorption activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Taylor
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Science, University of Oxford, Nuffield Orthopaedic Centre, Oxford, UK
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88
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Dewerchin M, Carmeliet P. PlGF: a multitasking cytokine with disease-restricted activity. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2012; 2:cshperspect.a011056. [PMID: 22908198 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a011056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Placental growth factor (PlGF) is a member of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family that also comprises VEGF-A (VEGF), VEGF-B, VEGF-C, and VEGF-D. Unlike VEGF, PlGF is dispensable for development and health but has diverse nonredundant roles in tissue ischemia, malignancy, inflammation, and multiple other diseases. Genetic and pharmacological gain-of-function and loss-of-function studies have identified molecular mechanisms of this multitasking cytokine and characterized the therapeutic potential of delivering or blocking PlGF for various disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mieke Dewerchin
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular Link, VIB Vesalius Research Center, K.U. Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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89
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Matsubara H, Hogan DE, Morgan EF, Mortlock DP, Einhorn TA, Gerstenfeld LC. Vascular tissues are a primary source of BMP2 expression during bone formation induced by distraction osteogenesis. Bone 2012; 51:168-80. [PMID: 22391215 PMCID: PMC3719967 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2012.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 02/08/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Prior studies showed that bone regeneration during distraction osteogenesis (DO) was dependent on vascular tissue development and that inhibition of VEGFR signaling diminished the expression of BMP2. A combination of micro-computed tomography (μCT) analysis of vascular and skeletal tissues, immunohistological and histological analysis of transgenic mice containing a BAC transgene in which β-galactosidase had been inserted into the coding region of BMP2 and qRT-PCR analysis, was used to examine how the spatial temporal expression of the morphogenetic signals that drive skeletal and vascular tissue development is coordinated during DO. These results showed that BMP2 expression was induced in smooth muscle and vascular endothelial cells of arteries and veins, capillary endothelial cells, hypertrophic chondrocytes and osteocytes. BMP2 was not expressed by lymphatic vessels or macrophages. Separate peaks of BMP2 mRNA expression were induced in the surrounding muscular tissues and the distraction gap and corresponded first with large vessel collateralization and arteriole remodeling followed by periods of angiogenesis in the gap region. Immunohistological and qRT-PCR analysis of VEGF receptors and ligands showed that mesenchymal cells, lining cells and chondrocytes, expressed VEGFA, although PlGF expression was only seen in mesenchymal cells within the gap region. On the other hand VEGFR2 appeared to be predominantly expressed by vascular endothelial and hematopoietic cells. These results suggest that bone and vascular tissue formation is coordinated via a mutually supporting set of paracrine loops in which blood vessels primarily synthesize the morphogens that promote bone formation while mesenchymal cells primarily synthesize the morphogens that promote vascular tissue formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidenori Matsubara
- Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Boston University School of Medicine, MA, USA.
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90
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De Falco S. The discovery of placenta growth factor and its biological activity. Exp Mol Med 2012; 44:1-9. [PMID: 22228176 DOI: 10.3858/emm.2012.44.1.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is a complex biological phenomenon crucial for a correct embryonic development and for post-natal growth. In adult life, it is a tightly regulated process confined to the uterus and ovary during the different phases of the menstrual cycle and to the heart and skeletal muscles after prolonged and sustained physical exercise. Conversly, angiogenesis is one of the major pathological changes associated with several complex diseases like cancer, atherosclerosis, arthritis, diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. Among the several molecular players involved in angiogenesis, some members of VEGF family, VEGF-A, VEGF-B and placenta growth factor (PlGF), and the related receptors VEGF receptor 1 (VEGFR-1, also known as Flt-1) and VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR-2, also known as Flk-1 in mice and KDR in human) have a decisive role. In this review, we describe the discovery and molecular characteristics of PlGF, and discuss the biological role of this growth factor in physiological and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandro De Falco
- Angiogenesis Laboratory and Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics 'Adriano Buzzati-Traverso', Napoli, Italy.
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91
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Abstract
Adaptation to hypoxia is a critical cellular event both in pathological settings, such as cancer and ischaemia, and in normal development and differentiation. Oxygen is thought to be not only an indispensable metabolic substrate for a variety of in vivo enzymatic reactions, including mitochondrial respiration, but also a key regulatory signal in tissue development and homeostasis by controlling a specific genetic program. Hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIFs) HIF-1 and HIF-2 are central mediators of the homeostatic response that enables cells to survive and differentiate in low-oxygen conditions. Genetically altered mice have been used to identify important roles for HIF-1 and HIF-2 as well as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-a potent angiogenic factor and a downstream target of the HIF pathway-in the regulation of skeletal development, bone homeostasis and haematopoiesis. In this Review, we summarize the current knowledge of HIF signalling in cartilage, bone and blood, and pay particular attention to the complex relationship between HIF and VEGF in these tissues revealed by data from research using animal models. The study of these models expands our understanding of the cell autonomous, paracrine and autocrine effects that mediate the homeostatic responses downstream of HIFs and VEGF.
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92
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Xu Y, Luo J, Yue Z, Wu L, Zhang X, Zhou C, Zhao F, Wang X, Chen G. Increased expression of placental growth factor in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and a rat model. Brain Res 2012; 1429:124-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Revised: 08/25/2011] [Accepted: 10/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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93
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Chen C, Uludag H, Wang Z, Rezansoff A, Jiang H. Macrophages Inhibit Migration, Metabolic Activity and Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells in vitro. Cells Tissues Organs 2012; 195:473-83. [DOI: 10.1159/000330686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/22/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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94
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Xu Y, Zhang Y, Guo Z, Yin H, Zeng K, Wang L, Luo J, Zhu Q, Wu L, Zhang X, Chen D. Increased Placental Growth Factor in Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with Epilepsy. Neurochem Res 2011; 37:665-70. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0646-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Revised: 10/24/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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95
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Roobrouck VD, Vanuytsel K, Verfaillie CM. Concise review: culture mediated changes in fate and/or potency of stem cells. Stem Cells 2011; 29:583-9. [PMID: 21305670 DOI: 10.1002/stem.603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Although Gurdon demonstrated already in 1958 that the nucleus of intestinal epithelial cells could be reprogrammed to give rise to adult frogs, the field of cellular reprogramming has only recently come of age with the description by Takahashi and Yamanaka in 2006, which defined transcription factors can reprogram fibroblasts to an embryonic stem cell-like fate. With the mounting interest in the use of human pluripotent stem cells and culture-expanded somatic stem/progenitor cells, such as mesenchymal stem cells, increasing attention has been given to the effect of changes in the in vitro microenvironment on the fate of stem cells. These studies have demonstrated that changes in culture conditions may change the potency of pluripotent stem cells or reprogram adult stem/progenitor cells to endow them with a broader differentiation potential. The mechanisms underlying these fate and potency changes by ex vivo culture should be further investigated and considered when designing clinical therapies with stem/progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie D Roobrouck
- Interdepartmental Stem Cell Institute Leuven, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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96
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Laperre K, Depypere M, van Gastel N, Torrekens S, Moermans K, Bogaerts R, Maes F, Carmeliet G. Development of micro-CT protocols for in vivo follow-up of mouse bone architecture without major radiation side effects. Bone 2011; 49:613-22. [PMID: 21763477 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2011.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2010] [Revised: 05/26/2011] [Accepted: 06/24/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In vivo micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) will offer unique information on the time-related changes in bone mass and structure of living mice, provided that radiation-induced side effects are prevented. Lowering the radiation dose, however, inevitably decreases the image quality. In this study we developed and validated a protocol for in vivo micro-CT imaging of mouse bone architecture that retains high quality images but avoids radiation-induced side effects on bone structure and hematological parameters. The left hindlimb of male C57Bl/6 mice was scanned in vivo at 3 consecutive time points, separated each time by a 2-week interval. Two protocols for in vivo micro-CT imaging were evaluated, with pixel sizes of 9 and 18 μm and administered radiation doses of 434 mGy and 166 mGy per scan, respectively. These radiation doses were found not to influence trabecular or cortical bone architecture in pre-pubertal or adult mice. In addition, there was no evidence for hematological side effects as peripheral blood cell counts and the colony-forming capacity of hematopoietic progenitor cells from bone marrow and spleen were not altered. Although the images obtained with these in vivo micro-CT protocols were more blurred than those obtained with high resolution (5 μm) ex vivo CT imaging, longitudinal follow-up of trabecular bone architecture in an orchidectomy model proved to be feasible using the 9 μm pixel size protocol in combination with a suitable bone segmentation technique (i.e. local thresholding). The image quality of the 18 μm pixel size protocol was too degraded for accurate bone segmentation and the use of this protocol is therefore restricted to monitor marked changes in bone structure such as bone metastatic lesions or fracture healing. In conclusion, we developed two micro-CT protocols which are appropriate for detailed as well as global longitudinal studies of mouse bone architecture and lack noticeable radiation-induced side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Laperre
- Laboratory of Experimental Medicine and Endocrinology, K.U.Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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97
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Zakiyanov O, Kalousová M, Zima T, Tesař V. Placental growth factor in patients with decreased renal function. Ren Fail 2011; 33:291-7. [PMID: 21401353 DOI: 10.3109/0886022x.2011.560402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with decreased renal function are characterized by high cardiovascular morbidity and mortality due to complications of premature atherosclerosis. Placental growth factor (PlGF) is a proatherogenic cytokine and new biomarker of cardiovascular events. The aim of this study was to determine PlGF levels and describe their relationship to renal function and risk factors of atherogenesis in patients with decreased renal function. METHODS The study group consisted of 114 subjects: 45 patients with various degrees of decreased renal function (CHRI), 31 long-term hemodialysis (HD) patients, and 38 age-matched healthy control subjects. PlGF was assessed immunochemically (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) and routine biochemical parameters were measured using standard laboratory methods. RESULTS PlGF levels were significantly increased in CHRI and HD patients compared to controls (10.5 ± 3.3 pg/mL in CHRI patients and 11.5 ± 3.4 pg/mL HD patients vs. 8.1 ± 1.8 pg/mL in controls, both p < 0.0001). In CHRI patients, PlGF was detectable in the urine, and its urine concentration correlated with its serum levels. In HD patients, PlGF correlated with low-density lipoproteins (r = 0.36, p < 0.05), but was not related to C-reactive protein levels. Higher levels of PlGF were found in CHRI patients with cardiovascular disease, compared with those free of such complication. CONCLUSIONS PlGF levels are increased in patients with decreased kidney function. PlGF is detectable in the urine, and serum and urine levels of PlGF are significantly interrelated. It is higher in CHRI patients with cardiovascular disease. Further studies are required to demonstrate the usefulness and significance of PlGF in patients with chronic kidney disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oskar Zakiyanov
- Department of Nephrology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
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98
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Synergistic effects of the dual release of stromal cell-derived factor-1 and bone morphogenetic protein-2 from hydrogels on bone regeneration. Biomaterials 2011; 32:2797-811. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.12.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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99
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Ribatti D. The controversial role of placental growth factor in tumor growth. Cancer Lett 2011; 307:1-5. [PMID: 21429661 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2011.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Revised: 02/25/2011] [Accepted: 02/28/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The significance of placental growth factor (PlGF) in tumor growth is still a matter of debate. Depending on the model, PlGF overexpression has been shown to result in tumor growth promotion or inhibition. This review article summarizes the most relevant literature data concerning this still unsolved important question.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Ribatti
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy.
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100
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Kawakatsu M, Kanno S, Gui T, Gai Z, Itoh S, Tanishima H, Oikawa K, Muragaki Y. Loss of Smad3 gives rise to poor soft callus formation and accelerates early fracture healing. Exp Mol Pathol 2011; 90:107-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2010] [Revised: 10/14/2010] [Accepted: 10/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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