101
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Tavakoli S, Vashist A, Sadeghi MM. Molecular imaging of plaque vulnerability. J Nucl Cardiol 2014; 21:1112-28; quiz 1129. [PMID: 25124827 PMCID: PMC4229449 DOI: 10.1007/s12350-014-9959-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decade, significant progress has been made in the development of novel imaging strategies focusing on the biology of the vessel wall for identification of vulnerable plaques. While the majority of these studies are still in the pre-clinical stage, few techniques (e.g., (18)F-FDG and (18)F-NaF PET imaging) have already been evaluated in clinical studies with promising results. Here, we will briefly review the pathobiology of atherosclerosis and discuss molecular imaging strategies that have been developed to target these events, with an emphasis on mechanisms that are associated with atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Tavakoli
- Department of Radiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Aseem Vashist
- Section of Cardiology, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, United States
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States
| | - Mehran M. Sadeghi
- Section of Cardiovascular Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States
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102
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[Statins and antiplatelet agents: complementary mechanisms of action at the coronary artery level]. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 2014; 7 Spec No 1:5-8. [PMID: 19839181 DOI: 10.1007/bf03262466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Atherothrombotic lesions associate atherosclerosis with a thrombotic reaction; they result from a complex inflammatory response to multifactorial stress. Endothelial dysfunction, lipid accumulation in the arterial intima, the recruitment of circulating monocytes and differentiation into macrophages and then foam cells, and an inflammatory reaction, all participate in the genesis of atheromatous plaque. The lipid core and fibrous parts of the plaque then contribute to its progression towards stenosis as a result of lipid infiltration, an accumulation of foam cells and the proliferation of smooth muscle cells with the synthesis of extracellular matrix. Atheromatous plaque is likely to rupture. The inflammatory components and an accumulation of cholesterol are two important characteristics found in the event of plaque rupture. The importance of the incorporation of thrombotic material formed during a silent rupture should also be emphasised. Among the factors favouring plaque rupture, a distinction can be made between extrinsic factors such as hypertension, and intrinsic factors which reflect the vulnerability of the plaque in terms of its quantitative aspects (relative composition in lipids and fibrous tissues) and qualitative characteristics (solidity of the fibrous cap and proteins in the extracellular matrix, the degradation of which is controlled by metalloproteinases). In the prevention of atherothrombosis-related complications, statins and platelet inhibitors have complementary mechanisms of action. Statins reduce inflammation, modify the composition of atheromatous plaque and promote stabilisation, while acetylsalicylic acid reduces the formation of thrombin, exerts an anti-thrombotic action, reduces endothelial dysfunction and the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells, and, like statins, has an anti-inflammatory effect. As a result, in the context of the B.A.S.I.C. strategy recommended by 2002-2003 ESC guidelines, the fixed statin-acetylsalicylic acid combination appears to constitute a logical combination in coronary patients in order to prevent the clinical complications linked to atherothrombosis.
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103
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Peled M, Fisher EA. Dynamic Aspects of Macrophage Polarization during Atherosclerosis Progression and Regression. Front Immunol 2014; 5:579. [PMID: 25429291 PMCID: PMC4228913 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well recognized that macrophages in many contexts in vitro and in vivo display a spectrum of inflammatory features and functional properties. A convenient system to group together different subsets of macrophages has been the M1 (inflammatory)/M2 (anti-inflammatory) classification. In addition to other sites of inflammation, it is now established that atherosclerotic plaques contain both M1 and M2 macrophages. We review results made possible by a number of recent mouse models of atherosclerotic regression that, taken with other literature, have shown the M1/M2 balance in plaques to be dynamic, with M1 predominating in disease progression and M2 in regression. The regulation of the macrophage phenotype in plaques and the functional consequences of the M1 and M2 states in atherosclerosis will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Peled
- The Marc and Ruti Bell Program in Vascular Biology, Department of Medicine, Leon H. Charney Division of Cardiology, New York University School of Medicine , New York, NY , USA
| | - Edward A Fisher
- The Marc and Ruti Bell Program in Vascular Biology, Department of Medicine, Leon H. Charney Division of Cardiology, New York University School of Medicine , New York, NY , USA
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104
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Virmani R, Otsuka F, Prati F, Narula J, Joner M. Matching human pathology is essential for validating OCT imaging to detect high-risk plaques. Nat Rev Cardiol 2014; 11:638. [PMID: 25245830 DOI: 10.1038/nrcardio.2014.62-c2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Renu Virmani
- Cardiovascular Pathology Inc., 19 Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
| | - Fumiyuki Otsuka
- Cardiovascular Pathology Inc., 19 Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
| | - Francesco Prati
- San Giovanni Addolorata Hospital and CLI Foundation, Via Amba Aradam, 8, Rome 00184, Italy
| | - Jagat Narula
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Michael Joner
- Cardiovascular Pathology Inc., 19 Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
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105
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Zhu GF, Yang LX, Guo RW, Liu H, Shi YK, Wang H, Ye JS, Yang ZH, Liang X. miR-155 inhibits oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced apoptosis of RAW264.7 cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2014; 382:253-61. [PMID: 23797321 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-013-1741-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Macrophage apoptosis is a prominent feature of advanced atherosclerotic plaques. Here, we examined the hypothesis that the apoptotic machinery is regulated by microRNA-155 (miR-155). Constitutive expression of miR-155 was detected in RAW264.7 cells, which was increased following stimulation with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL) in a dose- and time-dependent manner. OxLDL-treated RAW264.7 cells showed a marked time- and dose-dependent increase in apoptosis, which was suppressed in the presence of mimics and increased with antagonists of miR-155. Bioinformatics analysis revealed Fas-associated death domain-containing protein (FADD) as a putative target of miR-155. Luciferase reporter assay and Western blot further disclosed that miR-155 inhibits FADD expression by directly targeting the 3'-UTR region. We propose that miR-155 attenuates the macrophage apoptosis, at least in part, through FADD regulation, since forced expression of FADD blocked the ability of miR-155 to inhibit apoptosis. Our results collectively suggest that miR-155 attenuates apoptosis of OxLDL-mediated RAW264.7 cells by targeting FADD, supporting a possible therapeutic role in atherosclerosis.
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106
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Hong D, Gao HC, Wang X, Li LF, Li CC, Luo Y, Wang KK, Bai YP, Zhang GG. Asymmetric dimethylarginine triggers macrophage apoptosis via the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway. Mol Cell Biochem 2014; 398:31-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s11010-014-2202-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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107
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Musumeci G, Coleman R, Imbesi R, Magro G, Parenti R, Szychlinska MA, Scuderi R, Cinà CS, Castorina S, Castrogiovanni P. ADAM-10 could mediate cleavage of N-cadherin promoting apoptosis in human atherosclerotic lesions leading to vulnerable plaque: a morphological and immunohistochemical study. Acta Histochem 2014; 116:1148-58. [PMID: 24985126 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Revised: 06/01/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis remains a major cause of mortality. Whereas the histopathological progression of atherosclerotic lesions is well documented, much less is known about the development of unstable or vulnerable plaque, which can rupture leading to thrombus, luminal occlusion and infarct. Apoptosis in the fibrous cap, which is rich in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and macrophages, and its subsequent weakening or erosion seems to be an important regulator of plaque stability. The aim of our study was to improve our knowledge on the biological mechanisms that cause plaque instability in order to develop new therapies to maintain atherosclerotic plaque stability and avoid its rupture. In our study, we collected surgical specimens from atherosclerotic plaques in the right or left internal carotid artery of 62 patients with evident clinical symptoms. Histopathology and histochemistry were performed on wax-embedded sections. Immunohistochemical localization of caspase-3, N-cadherin and ADAM-10 was undertaken in order to highlight links between apoptosis, as expressed by caspase-3 immunostaining, and possible roles of N-cadherin, a cell-cell junction protein in VSMCs and macrophages that provides a pro-survival signal reducing apoptosis, and ADAM-10, a "disintegrin and metalloproteases" that is able to cleave N-cadherin in glioblastomas. Our results showed that when apoptosis, expressed by caspase-3 immunostaining, increased in the fibrous cap, rich in VSMCs and macrophages, the expression of N-cadherin decreased. The decreased N-cadherin expression, in turn, was linked to increased ADAM-10 expression. This study shows that apoptotic events are probably involved in the vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaque.
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108
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Albright J, Quizon PM, Lusis AJ, Bennett BJ. Genetic network identifies novel pathways contributing to atherosclerosis susceptibility in the innominate artery. BMC Med Genomics 2014; 7:51. [PMID: 25115202 PMCID: PMC4142055 DOI: 10.1186/1755-8794-7-51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Atherosclerosis, the underlying cause of cardiovascular disease, results from both genetic and environmental factors. Methods In the current study we take a systems-based approach using weighted gene co-expression analysis to identify a candidate pathway of genes related to atherosclerosis. Bioinformatic analyses are performed to identify candidate genes and interactions and several novel genes are characterized using in-vitro studies. Results We identify 1 coexpression module associated with innominate artery atherosclerosis that is also enriched for inflammatory and macrophage gene signatures. Using a series of bioinformatics analysis, we further prioritize the genes in this pathway and identify Cd44 as a critical mediator of the atherosclerosis. We validate our predictions generated by the network analysis using Cd44 knockout mice. Conclusion These results indicate that alterations in Cd44 expression mediate inflammation through a complex transcriptional network involving a number of previously uncharacterized genes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Brian J Bennett
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 500 Laureate Way, Suite 2303, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA.
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109
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Jia X, Li W, Miao Z, Feng C, Liu Z, He Y, Lv J, Du Y, Hou M, He W, Li D, Chen L. Identification of modules related to programmed cell death in CHD based on EHEN. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:475379. [PMID: 25133163 PMCID: PMC4123579 DOI: 10.1155/2014/475379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The formation and death of macrophages and foam cells are one of the major factors that cause coronary heart disease (CHD). In our study, based on the Edinburgh Human Metabolic Network (EHMN) metabolic network, we built an enzyme network which was constructed by enzymes (nodes) and reactions (edges) called the Edinburgh Human Enzyme Network (EHEN). By integrating the subcellular location information for the reactions and refining the protein-reaction relationships based on the location information, we proposed a computational approach to select modules related to programmed cell death. The identified module was in the EHEN-mitochondria (EHEN-M) and was confirmed to be related to programmed cell death, CHD pathogenesis, and lipid metabolism in the literature. We expected this method could analyze CHD better and more comprehensively from the point of programmed cell death in subnetworks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Jia
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Wan Li
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Zhengqiang Miao
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Chenchen Feng
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Zhe Liu
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Yuehan He
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Junjie Lv
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Youwen Du
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Min Hou
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Weiming He
- Institute of Opto-Electronics, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Danbin Li
- Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
| | - Lina Chen
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150000, China
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110
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Narula J, Roberts WC. Jagat Narula, MD, PhD: A conversation with the editor. Am J Cardiol 2014; 113:2070-85. [PMID: 24878131 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2014.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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111
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Li X, Deroide N, Mallat Z. The role of the inflammasome in cardiovascular diseases. J Mol Med (Berl) 2014; 92:307-19. [PMID: 24638861 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-014-1144-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Revised: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Inflammasome is a very important signaling platform sensing a variety of triggers of the innate immune system. Inflammasome promotes the production of important pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-18. Tight control of inflammasome activity is, therefore, essential and occurs at multiple levels. The activation of inflammasome pathways is linked to the pathogenesis of various prevalent disorders including cardiovascular disease such as atherosclerosis, ischemic injury, cardiomyopathy, and Kawasaki disease. The study of the inflammasome in the cardiovascular system has led to the identification of important triggers and endogenous modulators, and to the exploration of new treatment strategies based on the inhibition of inflammasome activation or its end products, i.e., IL-1β and IL-18. In summary, the discovery of the inflammasome has greatly advanced our understanding of how the innate immune system interferes with cardiovascular disease development and progression, and targeting inflammasome provides new avenues for the treatment and management of cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Li
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, CB2 2QQ, UK
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112
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Otsuka F, Sakakura K, Yahagi K, Joner M, Virmani R. Has our understanding of calcification in human coronary atherosclerosis progressed? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2014; 34:724-36. [PMID: 24558104 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.113.302642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Coronary artery calcification is a well-established predictor of future cardiac events; however, it is not a predictor of unstable plaque. The intimal calcification of the atherosclerotic plaques may begin with smooth muscle cell apoptosis and release of matrix vesicles and is almost always seen microscopically in pathological intimal thickening, which appears as microcalcification (≥0.5 μm, typically <15 μm in diameter). Calcification increases with macrophage infiltration into the lipid pool in early fibroatheroma where they undergo apoptosis and release matrix vesicles. The confluence of calcified areas involves extracellular matrix and the necrotic core, which can be identified by radiography as speckled (≤2 mm) or fragmented (>2, <5 mm) calcification. The calcification in thin-cap fibroatheromas and plaque rupture is generally less than what is observed in stable plaques and is usually speckled or fragmented. Fragmented calcification spreads into the surrounding collagen-rich matrix forming calcified sheets, the hallmarks of fibrocalcific plaques. The calcified sheets may break into nodules with fibrin deposition, and when accompanied by luminal protrusion, it is associated with thrombosis. Calcification is highest in fibrocalcific plaques followed by healed plaque rupture and is the least in erosion and pathological intimal thickening. The extent of calcification is greater in men than in women especially in the premenopausal period and is also greater in whites compared with blacks. The mechanisms of intimal calcification remain poorly understood in humans. Calcification often occurs in the presence of apoptosis of smooth muscle cells and macrophages with matrix vesicles accompanied by expression of osteogenic markers within the vessel wall.
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113
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Willems BAG, Vermeer C, Reutelingsperger CPM, Schurgers LJ. The realm of vitamin K dependent proteins: shifting from coagulation toward calcification. Mol Nutr Food Res 2014; 58:1620-35. [PMID: 24668744 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201300743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 12/27/2013] [Accepted: 01/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In the past few decades vitamin K has emerged from a single-function "haemostasis vitamin" to a "multi-function vitamin." The use of vitamin K antagonists (VKA) inevitably showed that the inhibition was not restricted to vitamin K dependent coagulation factors but also synthesis of functional extrahepatic vitamin K dependent proteins (VKDPs), thereby eliciting undesired side effects. Vascular calcification is one of the recently revealed detrimental effects of VKA. The discovery that VKDPs are involved in vascular calcification has propelled our mechanistic understanding of this process and has opened novel avenues for diagnosis and treatment. This review addresses mechanisms of VKDPs and their significance for physiological and pathological calcification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brecht A G Willems
- Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands; VitaK BV, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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114
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Wang J, Han L, Wang ZH, Ding WY, Shang YY, Tang MX, Li WB, Zhang Y, Zhang W, Zhong M. Overexpression of STAMP2 suppresses atherosclerosis and stabilizes plaques in diabetic mice. J Cell Mol Med 2014; 18:735-48. [PMID: 24467451 PMCID: PMC4000123 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Our research aims to evaluate the function of the STAMP2 gene, an important trigger in insulin resistance (IR), and explore its role in macrophage apoptosis in diabetic atherosclerotic vulnerable plaques. The characteristics of diabetic mice were measured by serial metabolite and pathology tests. The level of STAMP2 was measured by RT-PCR and Western blot. The plaque area, lipid and collagen content of brachiocephalic artery plaques were measured by histopathological analyses, and the macrophage apoptosis was measured by TUNEL. Correlation of STAMP2/Akt signaling pathway and macrophage apoptosis was validated by Ad-STAMP2 transfection and STAMP2 siRNA inhibition. The diabetic mice showed typical features of IR, hyperglycaemia. Overexpression of STAMP2 ameliorated IR and decreased serum glucose level. In brachiocephalic lesions, lipid content, macrophage quantity and the vulnerability index were significantly decreased by overexpression of STAMP2. Moreover, the numbers of apoptotic cells and macrophages in lesions were both significantly decreased. In vitro, both mRNA and protein expressions of STAMP2 were increased under high glucose treatment. P-Akt was highly expressed and caspase-3 was decreased after overexpression of STAMP2. However, expression of p-Akt protein was decreased and caspase-3 was increased when STAMP2 was inhibited by siRNA. STAMP2 overexpression could exert a protective effect on diabetic atherosclerosis by reducing IR and diminishing macrophage apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Wang
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Public Health, Department of Cardiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Ji'nan, China
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115
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Abstract
Understanding the pathophysiology of atherogenesis and the progression of atherosclerosis have been major goals of cardiovascular research during the previous decades. However, the complex molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying plaque destabilization remain largely obscure. Here, we review how lesional cells undergo cell death and how failed clearance exacerbates necrotic core formation. Advanced atherosclerotic lesions are further weakened by the pronounced local activity of matrix-degrading proteases as well as immature neovessels sprouting into the lesion. To stimulate translation of the current knowledge of molecular mechanisms of plaque destabilization into clinical studies, we further summarize available animal models of plaque destabilization. Based on the molecular mechanisms leading to plaque instability, we outline the current status of clinical and preclinical trials to induce plaque stability with a focus on induction of dead cell clearance, inhibition of protease activity, and dampening of inflammatory cell recruitment.
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116
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Uemura S, Soeda T, Sugawara Y, Ueda T, Watanabe M, Saito Y. Assessment of Coronary Plaque Vulnerability with Optical Coherence Tomography. ACTA CARDIOLOGICA SINICA 2014; 30:1-9. [PMID: 27122761 PMCID: PMC4804814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Several catheter-based imaging modalities have been developed over the past 2 decades for visualizing the morphological features of coronary atherosclerotic plaques that are susceptible to future development of serious cardiovascular events. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a new high-resolution intracoronary imaging modality based on near-infrared interferometry, and it has been shown to be able to identify various components of atheromatous plaques. In this review, we examine the histopathology of vulnerable plaques as a target for imaging technology, and discuss the evidence of OCT in identifying vulnerable atherosclerotic lesions in patients with coronary artery disease. KEY WORDS Coronary artery disease; Optical coherence tomography; Vulnerable plaque.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiro Uemura
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Tsunenari Soeda
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Yu Sugawara
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Tomoya Ueda
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Makoto Watanabe
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Saito
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
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117
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Pedersen SF, Hag AMF, Klausen TL, Ripa RS, Bodholdt RP, Kjaer A. Positron emission tomography of the vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque in man--a contemporary review. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2013; 34:413-25. [PMID: 24289282 PMCID: PMC4237171 DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is the primary underlying cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western world today and is set to become the prevailing disease and major cause of death worldwide by 2020. In the 1950s surgical intervention was introduced to treat symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid artery stenosis due to atherosclerosis – a procedure known as carotid endarterectomy (CEA). By removing the atherosclerotic plaque from the affected carotid artery of these patients, CEA is beneficial by preventing subsequent ipsilateral ischemic stroke. However, it is known that patients with low to intermediate artery stenosis may still experience ischemic events, leading clinicians to consider plaque composition as an important feature of atherosclerosis. Today molecular imaging can be used for characterization, visualization and quantification of cellular and subcellular physiological processes as they take place in vivo; using this technology we can obtain valuable information on atherosclerostic plaque composition. Applying molecular imaging clinically to atherosclerotic disease therefore has the potential to identify atherosclerotic plaques vulnerable to rupture. This could prove to be an important tool for the selection of patients for CEA surgery in a health system increasingly focused on individualized treatment. This review focuses on current advances and future developments of in vivo atherosclerosis PET imaging in man.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sune F Pedersen
- Cluster for Molecular Imaging, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine & PET, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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118
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Eersels K, van Grinsven B, Ethirajan A, Timmermans S, Jiménez Monroy KL, Bogie JFJ, Punniyakoti S, Vandenryt T, Hendriks JJA, Cleij TJ, Daemen MJAP, Somers V, De Ceuninck W, Wagner P. Selective identification of macrophages and cancer cells based on thermal transport through surface-imprinted polymer layers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2013; 5:7258-7267. [PMID: 23820628 DOI: 10.1021/am401605d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In this article, we describe a novel straightforward method for the specific identification of viable cells (macrophages and cancer cell lines MCF-7 and Jurkat) in a buffer solution. The detection of the various cell types is based on changes of the heat transfer resistance at the solid-liquid interface of a thermal sensor device induced by binding of the cells to a surface-imprinted polymer layer covering an aluminum chip. We observed that the binding of cells to the polymer layer results in a measurable increase of heat transfer resistance, meaning that the cells act as a thermally insulating layer. The detection limit was found to be on the order of 10(4) cells/mL, and mutual cross-selectivity effects between the cells and different types of imprints were carefully characterized. Finally, a rinsing method was applied, allowing for the specific detection of cancer cells with their respective imprints while the cross-selectivity toward peripheral blood mononuclear cells was negligible. The concept of the sensor platform is fast and low-cost while allowing also for repetitive measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasper Eersels
- Hasselt University, Institute for Materials Research IMO, Wetenschapspark 1, B-3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium
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119
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Chang W, Lin J, Dong J, Li D. Pyroptosis: an inflammatory cell death implicates in atherosclerosis. Med Hypotheses 2013; 81:484-6. [PMID: 23831306 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2013.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Cell death and inflammation are the fundamental biological processes in both normal physiology and pathology. Apoptosis is the most well-studied process of cell death, but there are also many other forms of cell death such as necrosis, autophagy and pyroptosis. Cell death could be observed throughout atherosclerosis and plays an important role in determining the fate of atherosclerotic lesion. Inflammation, the primary response of innate immunity, is considered essential in initiating and driving atherosclerosis. Apoptosis and autophagy had been reported in atherosclerosis, however, the mechanism of cell death involved in atherosclerosis still remain largely unknown. Cell death and inflammation are inextricably linked with their effectors modulating the process of atherosclerosis. Therefore, we proposed hypothesis that pyroptosis, an inflammatory form of cell death, may be implicated in atherosclerosis and play an important role in lesion instability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Chang
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan, China
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120
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Son SJ, Rhee KJ, Lim J, Kim TU, Kim TJ, Kim YS. Triglyceride-induced macrophage cell death is triggered by caspase-1. Biol Pharm Bull 2013; 36:108-13. [PMID: 23302643 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b12-00571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Triglyceride (TG) induces macrophage cell death which contributes to the development of atherosclerosis. We confirmed that exogenous TG accumulates in human THP-1 macrophages and causes cell death. TG treated THP-1 macrophages exhibited no change in tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-18, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, and IL-1R1 receptor mRNA expression. However, there was a marked decrease in IL-1β mRNA expression but an increase in IL-1β protein secretion. Decreased expression of IL-1β mRNA and increased secretion of IL-1β protein was not the direct cause of cell death. Until now, TG was assumed to induce necrotic cell death in macrophages. Since caspase-1 is known to be involved in activation and secretion of IL-1β protein and pyroptotic cell death, next we determined whether caspase-1 is associated with TG-induced macrophage cell death. We found an increase in caspase-1 activity in TG-treated THP-1 macrophages and inhibition of caspase-1 activity using a specific inhibitor partially rescued cell death. These results suggest activation of the pyroptotic pathway by TG. This is the first report implicating the activation of caspase-1 and the triggering of the pyroptosis pathway in TG-induced macrophage cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sin Jee Son
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, College of Health Sciences, Yonsei University, Wonju 220–710, Republic of Korea
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121
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Seneviratne A, Hulsmans M, Holvoet P, Monaco C. Biomechanical factors and macrophages in plaque stability. Cardiovasc Res 2013; 99:284-93. [DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvt097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
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Dixon AJ, Hossack JA. Intravascular near-infrared fluorescence catheter with ultrasound guidance and blood attenuation correction. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2013; 18:56009. [PMID: 23698320 PMCID: PMC3650865 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.18.5.056009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Intravascular near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging offers a new approach for characterizing atherosclerotic plaque, but random catheter positioning within the vessel lumen results in variable light attenuation and can yield inaccurate measurements. We hypothesized that NIRF measurements could be corrected for variable light attenuation through blood by tracking the location of the NIRF catheter with intravascular ultrasound (IVUS). In this study, a combined NIRF-IVUS catheter was designed to acquire coregistered NIRF and IVUS data, an automated image processing algorithm was developed to measure catheter-to-vessel wall distances, and depth-dependent attenuation of the fluorescent signal was corrected by an analytical light propagation model. Performance of the catheter sensing distance correction method was evaluated in coronary artery phantoms and ex vivo arteries. The correction method produced NIRF estimates of fluorophore concentrations, in coronary artery phantoms, with an average root mean square error of 17.5%. In addition, the correction method resulted in a statistically significant improvement in correlation between spatially resolved NIRF measurements and known fluorophore spatial distributions in ex vivo arteries (from r = 0.24 to 0.69, p < 0.01, n = 6). This work demonstrates that catheter-to-vessel wall distances, measured from IVUS images, can be employed to compensate for inaccuracies caused by variable intravascular NIRF sensing distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Dixon
- University of Virginia, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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123
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Lin J, Shou X, Mao X, Dong J, Mohabeer N, Kushwaha KK, Wang L, Su Y, Fang H, Li D. Oxidized low density lipoprotein induced caspase-1 mediated pyroptotic cell death in macrophages: implication in lesion instability? PLoS One 2013; 8:e62148. [PMID: 23637985 PMCID: PMC3636212 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Macrophage death in advanced lesion has been confirmed to play an important role in plaque instability. However, the mechanism underlying lesion macrophage death still remains largely unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS Immunohistochemistry showed that caspase-1 activated in advanced lesion and co-located with macrophages and TUNEL positive reaction. In in-vitro experiments showed that ox-LDL induced caspase-1 activation and this activation was required for ox-LDL induced macrophages lysis, IL-1β and IL-18 production as well as DNA fragmentation. Mechanism experiments showed that CD36 and NLRP3/caspase-1/pathway involved in ox-LDL induced macrophage pyroptosis. CONCLUSION Our study here identified a novel cell death, pyroptosis in ox-LDL induced human macrophage, which may be implicated in lesion macrophages death and play an important role in lesion instability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Lin
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiling Shou
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiaobo Mao
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiangchuan Dong
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Nilesh Mohabeer
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Kishan kumar Kushwaha
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Shenzhen Sixth People's Hospital (Nanshan Hospital), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Union Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yousu Su
- Department of Cardiology, Shenzhen Sixth People's Hospital (Nanshan Hospital), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Union Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hongcheng Fang
- Department of Cardiology, Shenzhen Sixth People's Hospital (Nanshan Hospital), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Union Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dazhu Li
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Abstract
Caspases are a family of endoproteases that provide critical links in cell regulatory networks controlling inflammation and cell death. The activation of these enzymes is tightly controlled by their production as inactive zymogens that gain catalytic activity following signaling events promoting their aggregation into dimers or macromolecular complexes. Activation of apoptotic caspases results in inactivation or activation of substrates, and the generation of a cascade of signaling events permitting the controlled demolition of cellular components. Activation of inflammatory caspases results in the production of active proinflammatory cytokines and the promotion of innate immune responses to various internal and external insults. Dysregulation of caspases underlies human diseases including cancer and inflammatory disorders, and major efforts to design better therapies for these diseases seek to understand how these enzymes work and how they can be controlled.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R McIlwain
- The Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer Research and Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2C1, Canada
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Sakakura K, Nakano M, Otsuka F, Ladich E, Kolodgie FD, Virmani R. Pathophysiology of atherosclerosis plaque progression. Heart Lung Circ 2013; 22:399-411. [PMID: 23541627 DOI: 10.1016/j.hlc.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerotic plaque rupture with luminal thrombosis is the most common mechanism responsible for the majority of acute coronary syndromes and sudden coronary death. The precursor lesion of plaque rupture is thought to be a thin cap fibroatheroma (TCFA) or "vulnerable plaque". TCFA is characterised by a necrotic core with an overlying thin fibrous cap (≤65 μm) that is infiltrated by macrophages and T-lymphocytes. Intraplaque haemorrhage is a major contributor to the enlargement of the necrotic core. Haemorrhage is thought to occur from leaky vasa vasorum that invades the intima from the adventitia as the intima enlarges. The early atherosclerotic plaque progression from pathologic intimal thickening (PIT) to a fibroatheroma is thought to be the result of macrophage infiltration. PIT is characterised by the presence of lipid pools which consist of proteoglycan with lipid insudation. The conversion of the lipid pool to a necrotic core is poorly understood but is thought to occur as a result of macrophage infiltration which releases matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) along with macrophage apoptosis that leads to the formation of a acellular necrotic core. The fibroatheroma has a thick fibrous cap that begins to thin over time through macrophage MMP release and apoptotic death of smooth muscle cells converting the fibroatheroma into a TCFA. Other causes of thrombosis include plaque erosion which is less frequent than plaque rupture but is a common cause of thrombosis in young individuals especially women <50 years of age. The underlying lesion morphology in plaque erosion consists of PIT or a thick cap fibroatheroma. Calcified nodule is the least frequent cause of thrombosis, which occurs in older individuals with heavily calcified and tortious arteries.
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126
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Li CJ, Liu Y, Chen Y, Yu D, Williams KJ, Liu ML. Novel proteolytic microvesicles released from human macrophages after exposure to tobacco smoke. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2013; 182:1552-62. [PMID: 23499464 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.01.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cigarette smoking damages the extracellular matrix in a variety of locations, leading to atherosclerotic plaque instability and emphysematous lung destruction, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we sought to determine whether exposure of human macrophages, a key participant in extracellular matrix damage, to tobacco smoke extract (TSE) induces the release of microvesicles (MVs; or microparticles) with proteolytic activity; the major proteases involved; and the cellular mechanisms that might mediate their generation. We found that MVs released from TSE-exposed macrophages carry substantial gelatinolytic and collagenolytic activities that surprisingly can be predominantly attributed to a single transmembrane protease of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) superfamily (namely, MMP14). Flow cytometric counts revealed that exposure of human macrophages to TSE for 20 hours more than quadrupled their production of MMP14-positive MVs (control, 1112 ± 231; TSE-induced, 5823 ± 2192 MMP14-positive MVs/μL of conditioned medium; means ± SEM; n = 6; P < 0.01). Our results indicate that the production of these MVs by human macrophages relies on a series of regulated steps that include activation of two mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs, i.e., the Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 MAPK), and then MAPK-dependent induction and maturation of cellular MMP14, a remarkable accumulation of MMP14 into nascent plasma membrane blebs, and finally caspase- and MAPK-dependent apoptosis and apoptotic microvesicle generation. Proteolytically active MVs induced by tobacco smoke may be novel mediators of clinical important matrix destruction in smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Jun Li
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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Yin Y, Pastrana JL, Li X, Huang X, Mallilankaraman K, Choi ET, Madesh M, Wang H, Yang XF. Inflammasomes: sensors of metabolic stresses for vascular inflammation. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed) 2013; 18:638-49. [PMID: 23276949 DOI: 10.2741/4127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome is a major health issue in the western world. An elevated pro-inflammatory state is often found in patients with metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and obesity. Atherosclerosis is one such clinical manifestation of pro-inflammatory state associated with the vasculature. The exact mechanism by which metabolic stress induces this pro-inflammatory status and promotes atherogenesis remained elusive until the discovery of the inflammasome protein complex. This complex is composed of pro-caspase-1 and pathogen sensors. Activation of inflammasome requires the transcriptional upregulation of inflammasome components and the post-translational assembly. Three models of inflammasome assembly have been proposed: 1) the ion channel model; 2) the reactive oxygen species (ROS) model; and 3) the lysosome model. In either case, inflammasome activation triggers the auto-activation of pro-caspase-1 into its mature form. Caspase-1, which was first discovered as the IL-1β converting enzyme, is known to be a major player in inflammatory and cell death pathways. Many endogenous metabolic ligands have been experimentally shown to activate inflammasome, and thus initiate the subsequent inflammation process. Further understanding of the distinct molecular mechanism by which metabolic ligands activates inflammasome could lead to developing novel therapeutic interventions for atherosclerosis and other clinical problems related to metabolic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Yin
- Department of Pharmacology and Cardiovascular Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, 3500 North Broad Street, MERB 1059, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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Kosuge H, Sherlock SP, Kitagawa T, Dash R, Robinson JT, Dai H, McConnell MV. Near infrared imaging and photothermal ablation of vascular inflammation using single-walled carbon nanotubes. J Am Heart Assoc 2012; 1:e002568. [PMID: 23316318 PMCID: PMC3540665 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.112.002568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 10/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Background Macrophages are critical contributors to atherosclerosis. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) show promising properties for cellular imaging and thermal therapy, which may have application to vascular macrophages. Methods and Results In vitro uptake and photothermal destruction of mouse macrophage cells (RAW264.7) were performed with SWNTs (14.7 nmol/L) exposed to an 808-nm light source. SWNTs were taken up by 94±6% of macrophages, and light exposure induced 93±3% cell death. In vivo vascular macrophage uptake and ablation were then investigated in carotid-ligated FVB mice (n=33) after induction of hyperlipidemia and diabetes. Two weeks postligation, near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) carotid imaging (n=12) was performed with SWNT-Cy5.5 (8 nmol of Cy5.5) given via the tail vein. Photothermal heating and macrophage apoptosis were evaluated on freshly excised carotid arteries (n=21). NIRF of SWNTs showed higher signal intensity in ligated carotids compared with sham, confirmed by both in situ and ex vivo NIRF imaging (P<0.05, ligation versus sham). Immunofluorescence staining showed colocalization of SWNT-Cy5.5 and macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions. Light (808 nm) exposure of freshly excised carotids showed heating and induction of macrophage apoptosis in ligated left carotid arteries with SWNTs, but not in control groups without SWNTs or without light exposure. Conclusions Carbon nanotubes accumulate in atherosclerotic macrophages in vivo and provide a multifunctional platform for imaging and photothermal therapy of vascular inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisanori Kosuge
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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Falk E, Nakano M, Bentzon JF, Finn AV, Virmani R. Update on acute coronary syndromes: the pathologists' view. Eur Heart J 2012; 34:719-28. [PMID: 23242196 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 699] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although mortality rates from coronary heart disease in the western countries have declined in the last few decades, morbidity caused by this disease is increasing and a substantial number of patients still suffer acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and sudden cardiac death. Acute coronary syndrome occurs as a result of myocardial ischaemia and its manifestations include acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina. Culprit plaque morphology in these patients varies from thrombosis with or without coronary occlusion to sudden narrowing of the lumen from intraplaque haemorrhage. The coronary artery plaque morphologies primarily responsible for thrombosis are plaque rupture, and plaque erosion, with plaque rupture being the most common cause of acute myocardial infarction, especially in men. Autopsy data demonstrate that women <50 years of age more frequently have erosion, whereas in older women, the frequency of rupture increases with each decade. Ruptured plaques are associated with positive (expansive) remodelling and characterized by a large necrotic core and a thin fibrous cap that is disrupted and infiltrated by foamy macrophages. Plaque erosion lesions are often negatively remodelled with the plaque itself being rich in smooth muscle cells and proteoglycans with minimal to absence of inflammation. Plaque haemorrhage may expand the plaque rapidly, leading to the development of unstable angina. Plaque haemorrhage may occur from plaque rupture (fissure) or from neovascularization (angiogenesis). Atherosclerosis is now recognized as an inflammatory disease with macrophages and T-lymphocytes playing a dominant role. Recently at least two subtypes of macrophages have been identified. M1 is a pro-inflammatory macrophage while M2 seems to play a role in dampening inflammation and promoting tissue repair. A third type of macrophage, termed by us as haemoglobin associated macrophage or M(Hb) which is observed at site of haemorrhage also can be demonstrated in human atherosclerosis. In order to further our understanding of the specific biological events which trigger plaque instability and as well as to monitor the effects of novel anti-atherosclerotic therapies newer imaging modalities in vivo are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erling Falk
- Aarhus University Hospital Skejby, Aarhus, Denmark
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130
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van Dijk RA, Kolodgie F, Ravandi A, Leibundgut G, Hu PP, Prasad A, Mahmud E, Dennis E, Curtiss LK, Witztum JL, Wasserman BA, Otsuka F, Virmani R, Tsimikas S. Differential expression of oxidation-specific epitopes and apolipoprotein(a) in progressing and ruptured human coronary and carotid atherosclerotic lesions. J Lipid Res 2012; 53:2773-90. [PMID: 22969153 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.p030890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationships between oxidation-specific epitopes (OSE) and lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] and progressive atherosclerosis and plaque rupture have not been determined. Coronary artery sections from sudden death victims and carotid endarterectomy specimens were immunostained for apoB-100, oxidized phospholipids (OxPL), apo(a), malondialdehyde-lysine (MDA), and MDA-related epitopes detected by antibody IK17 and macrophage markers. The presence of OxPL captured in carotid and saphenous vein graft distal protection devices was determined with LC-MS/MS. In coronary arteries, OSE and apo(a) were absent in normal coronary arteries and minimally present in early lesions. As lesions progressed, apoB and MDA epitopes did not increase, whereas macrophage, apo(a), OxPL, and IK17 epitopes increased proportionally, but they differed according to plaque type and plaque components. Apo(a) epitopes were present throughout early and late lesions, especially in macrophages and the necrotic core. IK17 and OxPL epitopes were strongest in late lesions in macrophage-rich areas, lipid pools, and the necrotic core, and they were most specifically associated with unstable and ruptured plaques. Specific OxPL were present in distal protection devices. Human atherosclerotic lesions manifest a differential expression of OSEs and apo(a) as they progress, rupture, and become clinically symptomatic. These findings provide a rationale for targeting OSE for biotheranostic applications in humans.
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131
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Stemmer U, Dunai ZA, Koller D, Pürstinger G, Zenzmaier E, Deigner HP, Aflaki E, Kratky D, Hermetter A. Toxicity of oxidized phospholipids in cultured macrophages. Lipids Health Dis 2012; 11:110. [PMID: 22958747 PMCID: PMC3533736 DOI: 10.1186/1476-511x-11-110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 08/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The interactions of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and macrophages are hallmarks in the development of atherosclerosis. The biological activities of the modified particle in these cells are due to the content of lipid oxidation products and apolipoprotein modification by oxidized phospholipids. Results It was the aim of this study to determine the role of short-chain oxidized phospholipids as components of modified LDL in cultured macrophages. For this purpose we investigated the effects of the following oxidized phospholipids on cell viability and apoptosis: 1-palmitoyl-2-glutaroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PGPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-(5-oxovaleroyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POVPC) and oxidized alkylacyl phospholipids including 1-O-hexadecyl-2-glutaroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (E-PGPC) and 1-O-hexadecyl-2-(5-oxovaleroyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (E-POVPC). We found that these compounds induced apoptosis in RAW264.7 and bone marrow-derived macrophages. The sn-2 carboxyacyl lipid PGPC was more toxic than POVPC which carries a reactive aldehyde function in position sn-2 of glycerol. The alkylacyl phospholipids (E-PGPC and E-POVPC) and the respective diacyl analogs show similar activities. Apoptosis induced by POVPC and its alkylether derivative could be causally linked to the fast activation of an acid sphingomyelinase, generating the apoptotic second messenger ceramide. In contrast, PGPC and its ether analog only negligibly affected this enzyme pointing to an entirely different mechanism of lipid toxicity. The higher toxicity of PGPC is underscored by more efficient membrane blebbing from apoptotic cells. In addition, the protein pattern of PGPC-induced microparticles is different from the vesicles generated by POPVC. Conclusions In summary, our data reveal that oxidized phospholipids induce apoptosis in cultured macrophages. The mechanism of lipid toxicity, however, largely depends on the structural features of the oxidized sn-2 chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Stemmer
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, A-8010, Graz, Austria
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Abstract
Atherosclerosis is the first cause of death in industrialized countries. Together with traditional risk factors (male gender, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, diabetes, smoking and age), non-traditional risk factors have also been described as predisposing to this disease. Among these, oxidized low density lipoproteins (OxLDL) have been described in correlation to many proatherogenic processes. Many of the effects of OxLDL are mediated by the lectin like oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor 1 (LOX-1), expressed on endothelial cells, macrophages, SMCs and platelets. LOX-1 is encoded by the lectin like oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor 1 (OLR1) gene, located in the p12.3-p13.2 region of human chromosome 12. Variations on this gene have been studied extensively both at the functional and epidemiological level. Despite the fact that functional roles for two variants have been demonstrated, the epidemiological studies have provided inconsistent and inconclusive results. Of particular interest, it has been demonstrated that a linkage disequilibirum block of SNPs located in the intronic sequence of the OLR1 gene modulates the alternative splicing of OLR1 mRNA, leading to different ratios of LOX-1 full receptor and LOXIN, an isoform lacking part of the functional domain. As demonstrated, LOXIN acts by blocking the negative effective of LOX-1 activation. Here we review the state of the art regarding LOX-1, LOXIN, and the functional effects that are associated with the interaction of these molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruggiero Mango
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Università di Roma Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
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133
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Van Vré EA, Ait-Oufella H, Tedgui A, Mallat Z. Apoptotic Cell Death and Efferocytosis in Atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 32:887-93. [DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.111.224873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Apoptotic cell death is an important feature of atherosclerotic plaques, and it seems to exert both beneficial and detrimental effects depending on the cell type and plaque stage. Because late apoptotic cells can launch proatherogenic inflammatory responses, adequate engulfment of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis) by macrophages is important to withstand atherosclerosis progression. Several efferocytosis systems, composed of different phagocytic receptors, apoptotic ligands, and bridging molecules, can be distinguished. Because phagocytes in atherosclerotic plaques are very much solicited, a fully operative efferocytosis system seems to be an absolute requisite. Indeed, recent studies demonstrate that deletion of just 1 of the efferocytosis pathways aggravates atherosclerosis. This review discusses the role of apoptosis in atherosclerosis and general mechanisms of efferocytosis, to end with indirect and direct indications of the significance of effective efferocytosis in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A. Van Vré
- From the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Paris, France (E.A.V.V., H.A.-O., A.T., Z.M.); Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom (Z.M.)
| | - Hafid Ait-Oufella
- From the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Paris, France (E.A.V.V., H.A.-O., A.T., Z.M.); Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom (Z.M.)
| | - Alain Tedgui
- From the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Paris, France (E.A.V.V., H.A.-O., A.T., Z.M.); Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom (Z.M.)
| | - Ziad Mallat
- From the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Paris, France (E.A.V.V., H.A.-O., A.T., Z.M.); Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom (Z.M.)
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Shearn AIU, Deswaerte V, Gautier EL, Saint-Charles F, Pirault J, Bouchareychas L, Rucker EB, Beliard S, Chapman J, Jessup W, Huby T, Lesnik P. Bcl-x inactivation in macrophages accelerates progression of advanced atherosclerotic lesions in Apoe(-/-) mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 32:1142-9. [PMID: 22383704 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.111.239111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Bcl-x is the most abundantly expressed member of the Bcl-2 gene family in macrophages, but its role in macrophage apoptosis during atherogenesis is unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS We previously reported dual pro- and antiatherogenic effects of macrophage survival in early versus advanced atherosclerotic lesions, respectively, potentially reflecting growing impairment of efferocytosis during plaque progression. Here, we specifically inactivated Bcl-x in macrophages and evaluated its impact on atherosclerotic lesion formation in Apoe(-/-) mice at various stages of the disease. Bcl-x deficiency in macrophages increased their susceptibility to apoptosis, resulting in the depletion of tissue macrophages in vivo, including its major pool, Küppfer cells in the liver. We also observed increased cholesterol levels that were, however, not associated with any acceleration of early atherosclerotic plaque progression. This observation suggests that the atheroprotective effect of macrophage apoptosis at that stage of disease was counterbalanced by enhanced cholesterol levels. Bcl-x KO(mac)/Apoe(-/-) mice exhibited significantly larger advanced lesions than control mice. These lesions showed vulnerable traits. Such enhanced lesion size may occur as a result not only of apoptotic cell accumulation but also of elevated cholesterol levels. CONCLUSIONS Modulation of macrophage resistance to apoptosis through targeted deletion of Bcl-x has a major impact on the entire macrophage cell population in the body, including Küpffer cells. Macrophage survival may, therefore, not only influence atherosclerotic plaque development and vulnerability but also cholesterol metabolism.
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SHANG YUANYUAN, FANG NINGNING, WANG FENG, WANG HUI, WANG ZHIHAO, TANG MENGXIONG, PENG JIE, ZHANG YUN, ZHANG WEI, ZHONG MING. MicroRNA-21, induced by high glucose, modulates macrophage apoptosis via programmed cell death 4. Mol Med Rep 2012; 12:463-9. [DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2015.3398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Martinet W, Schrijvers DM, De Meyer GRY. Pharmacological modulation of cell death in atherosclerosis: a promising approach towards plaque stabilization? Br J Pharmacol 2012; 164:1-13. [PMID: 21418184 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01342.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite tremendous advances over the last 15 years in identifying vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques, the incidence of death and disability caused by such lesions still remains the number one health threat in developed countries. Therefore, new systemic or focal therapies aimed at decreasing the overall burden of disease, and a change to a more benign phenotype, are needed. Because cell death is a prominent feature of advanced atherosclerotic plaques with a major impact on plaque destabilization, an increasing number of compounds targeting the apoptotic or autophagic machinery in atherosclerosis are being explored, predominantly at the preclinical level. This review will provide an overview of these compounds, with a focus on both inhibition and stimulation of cell death, to prevent acute coronary syndromes and sudden cardiac death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wim Martinet
- Division of Pharmacology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
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137
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Molecular Imaging of Macrophages in Atherosclerosis. CURRENT CARDIOVASCULAR IMAGING REPORTS 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s12410-011-9118-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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138
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Zheng Y, Gardner SE, Clarke MCH. Cell death, damage-associated molecular patterns, and sterile inflammation in cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 31:2781-6. [PMID: 22096097 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.111.224907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Cell death and inflammation are ancient processes of fundamental biological importance in both normal physiology and pathology. This is evidenced by the profound conservation of mediators, with ancestral homologues identified from plants to humans, and the number of diseases driven by aberrant control of either process. Apoptosis is the most well-studied cell death, but many forms exist, including autophagy, necrosis, pyroptosis, paraptosis, and the obscure dark cell death. Cell death occurs throughout the cardiovascular system, from initial shaping of the heart and vasculature during development to involvement in pathologies, including atherosclerosis, aneurysm, cardiomyopathy, restenosis, and vascular graft rejection. However, determining whether cell death primarily drives pathology or is a secondary bystander effect is difficult. Inflammation, the primary response of innate immunity, is considered essential in initiating and driving vascular diseases. Cell death and inflammation are inextricably linked with their effectors modulating the other process. Indeed, an evolutionary link between cell death and inflammation occurs at caspase-1 (which activates interleukin-1β), which can induce death by pyroptosis, and is a member of the caspase family vital for apoptosis. This review examines cell death in vascular disease, how it can induce inflammation, and finally the emergence of inflammasomes in vascular pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zheng
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Box 110, ACCI, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
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139
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Expression of the aging gene p66Shc is increased in peripheral blood monocytes of patients with acute coronary syndrome but not with stable coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis 2012; 220:282-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2011] [Revised: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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140
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Rautou PE, Vion AC, Amabile N, Chironi G, Simon A, Tedgui A, Boulanger CM. Microparticles, Vascular Function, and Atherothrombosis. Circ Res 2011; 109:593-606. [DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.110.233163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Membrane-shed submicron microparticles (MPs) are released after cell activation or apoptosis. High levels of MPs circulate in the blood of patients with atherothrombotic diseases, where they could serve as a useful biomarker of vascular injury and a potential predictor of cardiovascular mortality and major adverse cardiovascular events. Atherosclerotic lesions also accumulate large numbers of MPs of leukocyte, smooth muscle cell, endothelial, and erythrocyte origin. A large body of evidence supports the role of MPs at different steps of atherosclerosis development, progression, and complications. Circulating MPs impair the atheroprotective function of the vascular endothelium, at least partly, by decreased nitric oxide synthesis. Plaque MPs favor local inflammation by augmenting the expression of adhesion molecule, such as intercellular adhesion molecule -1 at the surface of endothelial cell, and monocyte recruitment within the lesion. In addition, plaque MPs stimulate angiogenesis, a key event in the transition from stable to unstable lesions. MPs also may promote local cell apoptosis, leading to the release and accumulation of new MPs, and thus creating a vicious circle. Furthermore, highly thrombogenic plaque MPs could increase thrombus formation at the time of rupture, together with circulating MPs released in this context by activated platelets and leukocytes. Finally, MPs also could participate in repairing the consequences of arterial occlusion and tissue ischemia by promoting postischemic neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Emmanuel Rautou
- From the INSERM (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center PARCC, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), UMR-S970, Paris, France; Service de Cardiologie (N.A.), Centre Chirurgical Marie Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France; Centre de Médecine Préventive Cardiovasculaire (G.C., A.S.), AP-HP, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Anne-Clémence Vion
- From the INSERM (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center PARCC, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), UMR-S970, Paris, France; Service de Cardiologie (N.A.), Centre Chirurgical Marie Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France; Centre de Médecine Préventive Cardiovasculaire (G.C., A.S.), AP-HP, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Amabile
- From the INSERM (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center PARCC, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), UMR-S970, Paris, France; Service de Cardiologie (N.A.), Centre Chirurgical Marie Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France; Centre de Médecine Préventive Cardiovasculaire (G.C., A.S.), AP-HP, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Gilles Chironi
- From the INSERM (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center PARCC, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), UMR-S970, Paris, France; Service de Cardiologie (N.A.), Centre Chirurgical Marie Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France; Centre de Médecine Préventive Cardiovasculaire (G.C., A.S.), AP-HP, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Alain Simon
- From the INSERM (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center PARCC, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), UMR-S970, Paris, France; Service de Cardiologie (N.A.), Centre Chirurgical Marie Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France; Centre de Médecine Préventive Cardiovasculaire (G.C., A.S.), AP-HP, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Alain Tedgui
- From the INSERM (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center PARCC, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), UMR-S970, Paris, France; Service de Cardiologie (N.A.), Centre Chirurgical Marie Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France; Centre de Médecine Préventive Cardiovasculaire (G.C., A.S.), AP-HP, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Chantal M. Boulanger
- From the INSERM (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center PARCC, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (P.E.R., A.C.V., N.A., G.C., A.S., A.T., C.M.B.), UMR-S970, Paris, France; Service de Cardiologie (N.A.), Centre Chirurgical Marie Lannelongue, Le Plessis-Robinson, France; Centre de Médecine Préventive Cardiovasculaire (G.C., A.S.), AP-HP, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
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141
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Lim SM, Koraka P, Osterhaus AD, Martina BE. West Nile virus: immunity and pathogenesis. Viruses 2011; 3:811-28. [PMID: 21994755 PMCID: PMC3185772 DOI: 10.3390/v3060811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2011] [Revised: 05/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic, arthropod-borne flavivirus that is maintained in an enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and birds, but can also infect and cause disease in horses and humans. WNV is endemic in parts of Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, and since 1999 has spread to North America, Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean. WNV infects the central nervous system (CNS) and can cause severe disease in a small minority of infected humans, mostly immunocompromised or the elderly. This review discusses some of the mechanisms by which the immune system can limit dissemination of WNV infection and elaborates on the mechanisms involved in pathogenesis. Reasons for susceptibility to WNV-associated neuroinvasive disease in less than 1% of cases remain unexplained, but one favored hypothesis is that the involvement of the CNS is associated with a weak immune response allowing robust WNV replication in the periphery and spread of the virus to the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M. Lim
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Penelope Koraka
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Byron E.E. Martina
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
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Abstract
Apoptosis is a biological hallmark of both acute and chronic vascular pathology. It contributes to erosion and rupturing of atherosclerotic plaques, causing stroke and myocardial infarction, and plays an important role in post-angioplastic remodeling. Therefore, apoptosis is intensively studied in both explanatory and interventional vascular studies. Real-time molecular imaging of vascular processes, such as apoptosis, promises to improve our understanding and control over vascular micropathology, and could accelerate the development of novel therapies. Annexin A5 binds to apoptotic cells and is a well-established molecular imaging tool for detecting cell death in vivo. Here we describe a relatively straightforward approach to visualizing cell death in a murine carotid artery injury model using fluorescently tagged annexin A5. Our methods allow investigators to monitor gross apoptotic burden in real-time, as well as to assess in detail the apoptotic cell population and localization.
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143
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Adiponectin and vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 57:761-70. [PMID: 21310310 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2010] [Revised: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 11/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
High-risk plaques that are vulnerable to rupture demonstrate distinct morphological characteristics. They are differentiated from the lesions responsible for stable coronary artery disease by their large necrotic cores, thin-inflamed fibrous caps, and positive remodeling. Adiponectin is an adipocytokine that is reduced in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Hypoadiponectinemia has been associated with an increased risk of coronary artery disease and acute coronary syndrome in several though not all studies. The involvement of adiponectin provides clues to the inflammatory and atherogenic mechanisms associated with pathological coronary disease progression.
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144
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van Tilborg GAF, Vucic E, Strijkers GJ, Cormode DP, Mani V, Skajaa T, Reutelingsperger CPM, Fayad ZA, Mulder WJM, Nicolay K. Annexin A5-functionalized bimodal nanoparticles for MRI and fluorescence imaging of atherosclerotic plaques. Bioconjug Chem 2011; 21:1794-803. [PMID: 20804153 DOI: 10.1021/bc100091q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Apoptosis and macrophage burden are believed to correlate with atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability and are therefore considered important diagnostic and therapeutic targets for atherosclerosis. These cell types are characterized by the exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) at their surface. In the present study, we developed and applied a small micellar fluorescent annexin A5-functionalized nanoparticle for noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of PS exposing cells in atherosclerotic lesions. Annexin A5-mediated target-specificity was confirmed with ellipsometry and in vitro binding to apoptotic Jurkat cells. In vivo T(1)-weighted MRI of the abdominal aorta in atherosclerotic ApoE(-/-) mice revealed enhanced uptake of the annexin A5-micelles as compared to control-micelles, which was corroborated with ex vivo near-infrared fluorescence images of excised whole aortas. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) demonstrated that the targeted agent was associated with macrophages and apoptotic cells, whereas the nonspecific control agent showed no clear uptake by such cells. In conclusion, the annexin A5-conjugated bimodal micelles displayed potential for noninvasive assessment of cell types that are considered to significantly contribute to plaque instability and therefore may be of great value in the assessment of atherosclerotic lesion phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geralda A F van Tilborg
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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Johnson JL, Devel L, Czarny B, George SJ, Jackson CL, Rogakos V, Beau F, Yiotakis A, Newby AC, Dive V. A selective matrix metalloproteinase-12 inhibitor retards atherosclerotic plaque development in apolipoprotein E-knockout mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2011; 31:528-35. [PMID: 21212406 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.110.219147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-12 has been implicated in plaque progression and instability and is also amenable to selective inhibition. In this study, we investigated the influence of a greater than 10-fold selective synthetic MMP-12 inhibitor on plaque progression in the apolipoprotein E knockout mouse model of atherosclerosis. METHODS AND RESULTS A phosphinic peptide (RXP470.1) that is a potent, selective murine MMP-12 inhibitor significantly reduced atherosclerotic plaque cross-sectional area by approximately 50% at 4 different vascular sites in male and female apolipoprotein E knockout mice fed a Western diet. Furthermore, RXP470.1 treatment resulted in less complex plaques with increased smooth muscle cell:macrophage ratio, less macrophage apoptosis, increased cap thickness, smaller necrotic cores, and decreased incidence of calcification. Additional in vitro and in vivo findings indicate that attenuated monocyte/macrophage invasion and reduced macrophage apoptosis probably underlie the beneficial effects observed on atherosclerotic plaque progression with MMP-12 inhibitor treatment. CONCLUSIONS Our data demonstrate that a selective MMP-12 inhibitor retards atherosclerosis development and results in a more fibrous plaque phenotype in mice. Our study provides proof of principle to motivate translational work on MMP-12 inhibitor therapy in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason L Johnson
- Bristol Heart Institute, School of Clinical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom.
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146
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Ait-Oufella H, Guidet B, Mallat Z. Implication de l’immunité innée au-delà de la réponse à l’infection — L’athérosclérose: une maladie inflammatoire. MEDECINE INTENSIVE REANIMATION 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s13546-010-0113-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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147
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Tekabe Y, Li Q, Luma J, Weisenberger D, Sedlar M, Harja E, Narula J, Johnson LL. Noninvasive monitoring the biology of atherosclerotic plaque development with radiolabeled annexin V and matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor in spontaneous atherosclerotic mice. J Nucl Cardiol 2010; 17:1073-81. [PMID: 20700679 DOI: 10.1007/s12350-010-9276-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2010] [Accepted: 07/18/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To compare the ability of (99m)Tc-labeled broad-based matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor (RP805) (MPI) and (99m)Tc-annexin V to identify more advanced atherosclerotic disease in apolipoprotein E-null (apoE(-/-)) mice. BACKGROUND Both MMP expression and apoptotic cell death occur in both early and in advanced atherosclerotic plaques. METHODS Eight 6-9-week-old apoE(-/-) mice, 10 apoE(-/-) mice at 20 weeks, and 12 apoE(-/-) at 40 weeks were injected with both tracers in alternating sequence separated by 48 h, underwent planar imaging and were killed. Radiotracer uptake was quantified from the scans as percent whole body and from tissue as percent injected dose per gram (%ID/g). Quantitative immunohistopathology of the aorta and carotids for macrophages, MMPs, and caspase was performed. RESULTS At 6 weeks, mice showed no tracer uptake in the chest or neck and had minimal lesion. At 20 weeks, uptake of annexin V as %ID was borderline higher than MPI (1.10 ± .48% vs .77 ± .31%, P = .09), between 20 and 40 weeks aortic lesion area increased from 37.4 ± 12.0% to 46.2 ± 7.4% and at 40 weeks MPI was significantly greater than annexin V uptake (1.11 ± .66% vs .70 ± .16%, P = .05). On histology there were greater increases in % MMP-2 and -9 than % caspase positive cells. Carotid uptake of MPI was greater than annexin V at both 20 and 40 weeks (1.25 ± .48% vs .78 ± .25%, P = .02 and 3.70 ± 1.45% vs 2.25 ± .66%, P = .005). The carotid lesion area at 40 weeks was 74 ± 9% with greater % cells positive for MMP's than caspase. %ID/g annexin V correlated significantly with % macrophages and with caspase-3 positive cells and %ID/g MPI correlated significantly with % macrophages and with MMP-2 and -9 positive cells. CONCLUSIONS In apoE(-/-) mice, MMP expression is greater than apoptosis as the disease progresses and MPI may be a better imaging agent for more advanced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yared Tekabe
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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148
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Tsukano H, Gotoh T, Endo M, Miyata K, Tazume H, Kadomatsu T, Yano M, Iwawaki T, Kohno K, Araki K, Mizuta H, Oike Y. The endoplasmic reticulum stress-C/EBP homologous protein pathway-mediated apoptosis in macrophages contributes to the instability of atherosclerotic plaques. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010; 30:1925-32. [PMID: 20651282 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.110.206094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To elucidate whether and how the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) pathway in macrophages is involved in the rupture of atherosclerotic plaques. METHODS AND RESULTS Increases in macrophage-derived foam cell death in coronary atherosclerotic plaques cause the plaque to become vulnerable, thus resulting in acute coronary syndrome. The ER stress-CHOP/growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible gene-153 (GADD153) pathway is induced in the macrophage-derived cells in atherosclerotic lesions and is involved in plaque formation. However, the role of CHOP in the final stage of atherosclerosis has not been fully elucidated. Many CHOP-expressing macrophages showed apoptosis in advanced ruptured atherosclerotic lesions in wild-type mice, whereas few apoptotic cells were observed in Chop(-/-) mice. The rupture of atherosclerotic plaques was significantly reduced in high cholesterol-fed Chop(-/-)/Apoe(-/-) mice compared with Chop(+/+)/Apoe(-/-) mice. Furthermore, using mice that underwent bone marrow transplantation, we showed that expression of CHOP in macrophages significantly contributes to the formation of ruptures. By using primary cultured macrophages, we further showed that unesterified free cholesterol derived from incorporated denatured low-density lipoprotein was accumulated in the ER and induced ER stress-mediated apoptosis in a CHOP-Bcl2-associated X protein (Bax) pathway-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS The ER stress-CHOP-Bax-mediated apoptosis in macrophages contributes to the instability of atherosclerotic plaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroto Tsukano
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
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Zhang L, Liu Y, Lu XT, Xu XS, Zhao YX, Ji XP, Zhang PF, Liu CX, Tang MX, Chen WQ, Zhang Y. Intraplaque injection of Ad5-CMV.p53 aggravates local inflammation and leads to plaque instability in rabbits. J Cell Mol Med 2010; 13:2713-2723. [PMID: 19602038 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00538.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aims to develop a new animal model of vulnerable plaques and investigate the potential mechanisms of exogenous p53-induced plaque instability. Forty rabbits underwent aortic balloon injury, were fed a 1% cholesterol diet for 10 weeks and then normal chow for 6 weeks. Rabbits were divided into Ad5-CMV.p53-treated group (n = 16), Ad5-CMV.lac Z-treated group (n = 16) and blank control group (n = 8). Under the guidance of intravascular ultrasound, a 50-microl suspension of adenovirus containing p53 or lac Z was injected into the largest plaque of the first two groups, respectively, and these rabbits received pharmacological triggering 2 weeks later. In 76.9% of rabbits with p53 transfection, plaque rupture was found, which was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that in the Ad5-CMV.lac Z-treated plaques (23.1%), or blank controls plaques (0%). Increased apoptotic cells, and subsequently, decreased vascular smooth muscle cells and collagen content, enhanced intima macrophage accumulation, increased C-reactive protein (CRP) and matrix metalloproteinases staining and high serum levels of high sensitive CRP (hs-CRP) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) were observed in Ad5-CMV.p53-treated rabbits. However, a binary logistic regression model revealed that hs-CRP concentration rather than apoptosis rate played an independent role in plaque rupture with an odds ratio as 1.314 (95% CI: 1.041-1.657, P = 0.021), and there were high positive correlations between inflammatory biomarkers (hs-CRP or MCP-1) and apoptosis (R(2) = 0.761, and R(2) = 0.557, respectively, both P < 0.01). Intraplaque injection of p53 gene provides a safe and effective method for inducing plaque vulnerability in rabbits. The destabilizing effect of p53 overexpression is mediated mainly through apoptosis-enhanced inflammation rather than cell apoptosis itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Yan Liu
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Xiao Ting Lu
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Xin Sheng Xu
- Department of Cardiology, Dongying People's Hspital, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Yu Xia Zhao
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Xiao Ping Ji
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Peng Fei Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Chun Xi Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Meng Xiong Tang
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Wen Qiang Chen
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Yun Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
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Tao JL, Ruan XZ, Li H, Li XM, Li XW. Lipids-induced apoptosis is aggravated by acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitor. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 25:76-84. [PMID: 20598228 DOI: 10.1016/s1001-9294(10)60026-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the role of acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitor (ACATI) in apoptosis induced by lipids and whether lipids-induced apoptosis is accompanied by increase of free cholesterol in endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in order to further understand the mechanism of lipids-induced apoptosis in advanced atherosclerosis. METHODS Human vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) differentiated THP-1 macrophages were used. Tritiated thymidine incorporation was applied to detect cell proliferation. Cytotoxicity was assessed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release. 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, caspase-3, -7 assay, and Annexin-V/propidium iodide (PI) staining were used to detect apoptosis. High performance liquid chromatography was used in intracellular free cholesterol and cholesterol ester assay. ER free cholesterol was quantified. RESULTS Different lipids had different effects on proliferation and cytotoxicity of VSMCs. 25-hydroxycholesterol (25OHC) had biphasic effects on the proliferation of VSMCs. At low concentration, it stimulated cell proliferation, but turned to proliferation inhibition as concentration reached 15 mug/mL. 25OHC and acetylated low density lipoprotein (AcLDL) could respectively induce apoptosis in human VSMCs and PMA differentiated THP-1 macrophages, which was aggravated by ACATI, accompanied by increase of intracellular free cholesterol content. There was also an increase of cholesterol content in ER with AcLDL-induced apoptosis in THP-1 macrophages. CONCLUSIONS Lipids could induce apoptosis, accompanied by increase of intracellular free cholesterol content, which could be augmented by ACATI, suggesting that insults resulting in ER free cholesterol rise might be the initiator of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-ling Tao
- Department of Nephrology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China
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