101
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Meisen I, Distler U, Müthing J, Berkenkamp S, Dreisewerd K, Mathys W, Karch H, Mormann M. Direct Coupling of High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography with UV Spectroscopy and IR-MALDI Orthogonal TOF MS for the Analysis of Cyanobacterial Toxins. Anal Chem 2009; 81:3858-66. [DOI: 10.1021/ac900217q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Iris Meisen
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 41, D-48149 Münster, Germany, Sequenom GmbH, Mendelssohnstrasse 15 d, 22761 Hamburg, Germany, and Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 31, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Ute Distler
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 41, D-48149 Münster, Germany, Sequenom GmbH, Mendelssohnstrasse 15 d, 22761 Hamburg, Germany, and Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 31, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Johannes Müthing
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 41, D-48149 Münster, Germany, Sequenom GmbH, Mendelssohnstrasse 15 d, 22761 Hamburg, Germany, and Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 31, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Stefan Berkenkamp
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 41, D-48149 Münster, Germany, Sequenom GmbH, Mendelssohnstrasse 15 d, 22761 Hamburg, Germany, and Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 31, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Klaus Dreisewerd
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 41, D-48149 Münster, Germany, Sequenom GmbH, Mendelssohnstrasse 15 d, 22761 Hamburg, Germany, and Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 31, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Werner Mathys
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 41, D-48149 Münster, Germany, Sequenom GmbH, Mendelssohnstrasse 15 d, 22761 Hamburg, Germany, and Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 31, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Helge Karch
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 41, D-48149 Münster, Germany, Sequenom GmbH, Mendelssohnstrasse 15 d, 22761 Hamburg, Germany, and Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 31, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Michael Mormann
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 41, D-48149 Münster, Germany, Sequenom GmbH, Mendelssohnstrasse 15 d, 22761 Hamburg, Germany, and Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Strasse 31, D-48149 Münster, Germany
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102
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Schmidtkunz C, Bernd Stich H, Welsch T. Improving the Selectivity and Confidence in the HPLC Analysis of Microcystins in Lake Sediments. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/10826070902767999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Schmidtkunz
- a Institute of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry , Ulm University , Ulm, Germany
| | - Hans Bernd Stich
- b Institute for Lake Research–State Institute for Environment, Measurement and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg , Langenargen, Germany
| | - Thomas Welsch
- a Institute of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry , Ulm University , Ulm, Germany
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103
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Mekebri A, Blondina G, Crane D. Method validation of microcystins in water and tissue by enhanced liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:3147-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.01.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2008] [Revised: 01/17/2009] [Accepted: 01/29/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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104
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The first occurrence of the cyanobacterial alkaloid toxin cylindrospermopsin in the Czech Republic as determined by immunochemical and LC/MS methods. Toxicon 2009; 53:519-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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105
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Fraga LE, Anderson MA, Beatriz ML, Paschoal FM, Romão LP, Zanoni MVB. Evaluation of the photoelectrocatalytic method for oxidizing chloride and simultaneous removal of microcystin toxins in surface waters. Electrochim Acta 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2008.08.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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106
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Fewer DP, Köykkä M, Halinen K, Jokela J, Lyra C, Sivonen K. Culture-independent evidence for the persistent presence and genetic diversity of microcystin-producing Anabaena (Cyanobacteria) in the Gulf of Finland. Environ Microbiol 2008; 11:855-66. [PMID: 19128321 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01806.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The late summer mass occurrences of cyanobacteria in the Baltic Sea are among the largest in the world. These blooms are rarely monotypic and are often composed of a diverse assemblage of cyanobacteria. The toxicity of the blooms is attributed to Nodularia spumigena through the production of the hepatotoxic nodularin. However, the microcystin hepatotoxins have also been reported from the Baltic Sea on a number of occasions. Recent evidence links microcystin production in the Gulf of Finland directly to the genus Anabaena. Here we developed a denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) method based on the mcyE microcystin synthetase gene and ndaF nodularin synthetase gene that allows the culture-independent discrimination of microcystin- and nodularin-producing cyanobacteria directly from environmental samples. We PCR-amplified microcystin and nodularin synthetase genes from environmental samples taken from the Gulf of Finland and separated them on a denaturing gradient gel using optimized conditions. Sequence analyses demonstrate that uncultured microcystin-producing Anabaena strains are genetically more diverse than previously demonstrated from cultured strains. Furthermore, our data show that microcystin-producing Anabaena are widespread in the open Gulf of Finland. Non-parametric statistical analysis suggested that salinity plays an important role in defining the distribution of microcystin-producing Anabaena. Our results indicate that microcystin-producing blooms are a persistent phenomenon in the Gulf of Finland.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Fewer
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, PO Box 56, Viikki Biocenter, Viikinkaari 9, FIN-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
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107
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Xu W, Chen Q, Zhang T, Cai Z, Jia X, Xie Q, Ren Y. Development and application of ultra performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization tandem triple quadrupole mass spectrometry for determination of seven microcystins in water samples. Anal Chim Acta 2008; 626:28-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2008.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2008] [Revised: 07/19/2008] [Accepted: 07/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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108
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Rodríguez EM, Acero JL, Spoof L, Meriluoto J. Oxidation of MC-LR and -RR with chlorine and potassium permanganate: toxicity of the reaction products. WATER RESEARCH 2008; 42:1744-1752. [PMID: 18037466 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2007.10.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2007] [Revised: 10/27/2007] [Accepted: 10/29/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Toxin-producing cyanobacteria are abundant in surface waters used as drinking water resources. Microcystins (MC) produced by certain cyanobacteria present acute and chronic toxicity, and their removal in drinking water treatment processes is of increasing concern. Previous studies have demonstrated that chlorine and potassium permanganate are feasible oxidants for the removal of MCs present in drinking water resources, although the oxidation might lead to toxic oxidation products. In this paper, the toxicity of the oxidation products of MC-LR and -RR has been studied using protein phosphatase 1 inhibition assay (PPIA). The HPLC and ELISA analyses correlated with the PPIA results for both toxins. The samples containing the oxidation products were fractionated by HPLC and the toxicity of the fractions was tested with PPIA. The results revealed that protein phosphatase 1 inhibition emerged only from intact MC, while the oxidation products were non-toxic. Similar results were obtained in experiments performed in natural waters: no reaction products or interactions exhibiting protein phosphatase 1 inhibition were detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva M Rodríguez
- Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Química Física, Universidad de Extremadura, 06071 Badajoz, Spain.
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109
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Cyanotoxins: sampling, sample processing and toxin uptake. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2008; 619:483-99. [PMID: 18461780 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-75865-7_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
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110
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Osswald J, Rellán S, Gago A, Vasconcelos V. Toxicology and detection methods of the alkaloid neurotoxin produced by cyanobacteria, anatoxin-a. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2007; 33:1070-89. [PMID: 17673293 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2007] [Revised: 06/06/2007] [Accepted: 06/13/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Freshwater resources are under stress due to naturally occurring conditions and human impacts. One of the consequences is the proliferation of cyanobacteria, microphytoplankton organisms that are capable to produce toxins called cyanotoxins. Anatoxin-a is one of the main cyanotoxins. It is a very potent neurotoxin that was already responsible for some animal fatalities. In this review we endeavor to divulgate much of the internationally published information about toxicology, occurrence and detection methods of anatoxin-a. Cyanobacteria generalities, anatoxin-a occurrence and production as well as anatoxin-a toxicology and its methods of detection are the aspects focused in this review. Remediation of anatoxin-a occurrence will be addressed with a public health perspective. Final remarks call the attention for some important gaps in the knowledge about this neurotoxin and its implication to public health. Alterations of aquatic ecosystems caused by anatoxin-a is also addressed. Although anatoxin-a is not the more frequent cyanotoxin worldwide, it has to be regarded as a health risk that can be fatal to terrestrial and aquatic organisms because of its high toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Osswald
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), Rua dos Bragas, 289, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal.
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111
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Jähnichen S, Ihle T, Petzoldt T, Benndorf J. Impact of inorganic carbon availability on microcystin production by Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73:6994-7002. [PMID: 17827326 PMCID: PMC2074933 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01253-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Batch culture experiments with the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806 were performed in order to test the hypothesis that microcystins (MCYSTs) are produced in response to a relative deficiency of intracellular inorganic carbon (C(i,i)). In the first experiment, MCYST production was studied under increased C(i,i) deficiency conditions, achieved by restricting sodium-dependent bicarbonate uptake through replacement of sodium bicarbonate in the medium with its potassium analog. The same experimental approach was used in a second experiment to compare the response of the wild-type strain M. aeruginosa PCC 7806 with its mcyB mutant, which lacks the ability to produce MCYSTs. In a third experiment, the impact of varying the C(i,i) status on MCYST production was examined without suppressing the sodium-dependent bicarbonate transporter; instead, a detailed investigation of a dark-light cycle was performed. In all experiments, a relative C(i,i) deficiency was indicated by an elevated variable fluorescence signal and led to enhanced phycocyanin cell quotas. Higher MCYST cell quotas (in the first and third experiments) and increased total (intracellular plus extracellular) MCYST production (in the first experiment) were detected with increased C(i,i) deficiency. Furthermore, the MCYST-producing wild-type strain and its mcyB mutant showed basically the same response to restrained inorganic carbon uptake, with elevated variable fluorescence and phycocyanin cell quotas with increased C(i,i) deficiency. The response of the wild type, however, was distinctly stronger and also included elevated chlorophyll a cell quotas. These differences indicate the limited ability of the mutant to adapt to low-C(i,i) conditions. We concluded that MCYSTs may be involved in enhancing the efficiency of the adaptation of the photosynthetic apparatus to fluctuating inorganic carbon conditions in cyanobacterial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Jähnichen
- Dresden University of Technology, Institute of Hydrobiology, 01062 Dresden, Germany.
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112
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Hiller S, Krock B, Cembella A, Luckas B. Rapid detection of cyanobacterial toxins in precursor ion mode by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2007; 42:1238-50. [PMID: 17657826 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
We established an analytical method based on liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in the precursor ion mode for simultaneous qualitative monitoring of various groups of cyanobacterial toxins. The toxin groups investigated were paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, anatoxins (ANAs), cylindrospermopsins (CYNs), microcystins (MCs), and nodularins (NODs), including rare and uncharacterized derivatives found in plankton and water matrices. Alternative analytical methods based on tandem mass spectrometry commonly operate in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode and depend on prior knowledge of putative toxigenicity of the cyanobacterium species and strain, and the expected toxin variants. In contrast, the precursor ion mode yields diagnostic mass fragments for the detection of characteristic compounds of the different toxin classes and thus allows monitoring of a large set of unspecified cyanotoxins of various groups, even when the species composition is undetermined or uncertain. This rapid method enables screening for a wide spectrum of toxic cyanobacterial metabolites and degradation products in a single chromatographic separation with detection limits at nanogram levels. The precursor ion technique is a valuable adjunct to existing mass spectrometric methods for cyanotoxins, although it is not a complete replacement for detailed quantitative analysis requiring comprehensive sample cleanup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susann Hiller
- Friedrich Schiller University, Institute of Nutrition, Dornburger Str 25, D-07743, Jena, Germany
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113
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Howard KL, Boyer GL. Quantitative analysis of cyanobacterial toxins by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 2007; 79:5980-6. [PMID: 17590013 DOI: 10.1021/ac0705723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are a growing problem in drinking water supplies worldwide. Common analytical techniques used to determine MC concentrations have several shortcomings, including extensive sample handling and lengthy analysis times. A simple, rapid method for quantitation of MCs by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is presented. Four potential internal standards were tested, including an 15N-labeled MC. For MC-LR in mixed standard solutions, a linear range of 0.11-5.0 microM (R2 = 0.98) was achieved, with a method detection limit (MDL) of 0.015 microM. Matrix effects due to extracted cell components decreased the MC-LR linear range slightly to 0.19-5.0 microM (R2 = 0.99), with MDL = 0.058 microM. Extensive analysis of possible internal standards indicates that nodularin was preferred over [15N]10-microcystin-YR or angiotensin I. The ionization efficiency and analyte-analyte suppression for four MCs of varying polarity are presented; the three polar congeners exhibited good ionization efficiency and acceptable levels of analyte-analyte suppression. These results indicate that MALDI-TOF MS represents a viable alternative for the quantitative measurement of MCs in field samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Howard
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, New York 13210, USA
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114
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Rosen R. Mass spectrometry for monitoring micropollutants in water. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2007; 18:246-51. [PMID: 17399974 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2007.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2006] [Revised: 02/20/2007] [Accepted: 03/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Surface water reservoirs and aquifers are exposed to contamination by thousands of micropollutants from industrial, pharmaceutical, agricultural and natural origins. Most developed and developing countries implement a water-quality regulation programme to prevent contamination by such chemicals at illegal concentrations. Traditionally, analytical methods based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography with UV/fluorescence detection were used to monitor water quality. These methods require multistep sample preparation and several have low specificity. Nowadays, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry has become a key technique for environmental analysis, allowing the detection of a wide range of polar and nonvolatile compounds. The use of this method has increased the specificity and confidence of identification, while reducing sample preparation to a minimum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Rosen
- Agentek Ltd, Atidim Scientific Park Building 2, Tel Aviv 61580, Israel.
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115
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Abstract
Blue-green algae are found in lakes, ponds, rivers and brackish waters throughout the world. In case of excessive growth such as bloom formation, these bacteria can produce inherent toxins in quantities causing toxicity in mammals, including humans. These cyanotoxins include cyclic peptides and alkaloids. Among the cyclic peptides are the microcystins and the nodularins. The alkaloids include anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(S), cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins (STXs), aplysiatoxins and lyngbyatoxin. Both biological and chemical methods are used to determine cyanotoxins. Bioassays and biochemical assays are nonspecific, so they can only be used as screening methods. HPLC has some good prospects. For the subsequent detection of these toxins different detectors may be used, ranging from simple UV-spectrometry via fluorescence detection to various types of MS. The main problem in the determination of cyanobacterial toxins is the lack of reference materials of all relevant toxins. In general, toxicity data on cyanotoxins are rather scarce. A majority of toxicity data are known to be of microcystin-LR. For nodularins, data from a few animal studies are available. For the alkaloids, limited toxicity data exist for anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin and STX. Risk assessment for acute exposure could be relevant for some types of exposure. Nevertheless, no acute reference doses have formally been derived thus far. For STX(s), many countries have established tolerance levels in bivalves, but these limits were set in view of STX(s) as biotoxins, accumulating in marine shellfish. Official regulations for other cyanotoxins have not been established, although some (provisional) guideline values have been derived for microcystins in drinking water by WHO and several countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marian E van Apeldoorn
- Centre for Substances and Integrated Risk Assessment, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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116
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Diehnelt CW, Dugan NR, Peterman SM, Budde WL. Identification of microcystin toxins from a strain of Microcystis aeruginosa by liquid chromatography introduction into a hybrid linear ion trap-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer. Anal Chem 2007; 78:501-12. [PMID: 16408933 DOI: 10.1021/ac051556d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The cyclic heptapeptide microcystin toxins produced by a strain of Microcystis aeruginosa that has not been investigated previously were separated by liquid chromatography and identified by high-accuracy m/z measurements of their [M + H]+ ions and the fragment ions produced by collision-activated dissociation of the [M + H]+ ions. The cyanobacteria B2666 strain was cultured in a standard growth medium, and the toxins were released from the cells, extracted from the aqueous phase, and concentrated using standard procedures. The microcystins were separated by reversed-phase microbore liquid chromatography and introduced directly into a hybrid linear ion trap-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer with electrospray ionization. The known microcystins (MC) MC-LR, MC-LA, [MeSer7]MC-LR, MC-LL, MC-LF, and MC-L(Aba) were identified along with the two previously unreported structural variants [Asp3]MC-LA and [Asp3]MC-LL. In addition to the [M + H]+ ions, accurate m/z measurements were made of 12-18 product ions for each identified microcystin. The mean difference between measured and calculated exact m/z was less than 2 parts per million, which often allowed assignment of unique compositions to the observed ions. A mechanism is presented that accounts for an important collision-activated dissociation process that gives valuable sequence ions from microcystins that do not contain arginine. The analytical technique used in this work is capable of supporting fairly rapid and very reliable identifications of known microcystins when standards are not available and of most structural variants independent of additional information from other analytical techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris W Diehnelt
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, 26 West Martin L. King Jr. Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, USA
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117
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Allis O, Dauphard J, Hamilton B, Shuilleabhain AN, Lehane M, James KJ, Furey A. Liquid Chromatography−Tandem Mass Spectrometry Application, for the Determination of Extracellular Hepatotoxins in Irish Lake and Drinking Waters. Anal Chem 2007; 79:3436-47. [PMID: 17402708 DOI: 10.1021/ac062088q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A novel method for the determination of hepatotoxins; microcystins (MCs), and nodularin (Nod) in lake water and domestic chlorinated tap water has been developed using liquid chromatography hyphenated with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). Optimization of the mass spectrometer parameters and mobile-phase composition was performed to maximize the sensitivity and reproducibility of the method. Detection of the hepatotoxins was carried out using multiple reaction monitoring experiments, thus improving the selectivity of the method. A total ion chromatogram and a precursor ion scan on ion m/z 135 was also applied to all samples to detect unknown microcystins or microcystins for which there are no standards available. A comprehensive validation of the LC-ESI-MS/MS method was completed that took into account matrix effects, specificity, linearity, accuracy, and precision. Good linear calibrations were obtained for MC-LR (1-200 microg/L; R2=0.9994) in spiked lake and tap water samples (1-50 microg/L; R2=0.9974). Acceptable interday repeatability was achieved for MC-LR in lake water with RSD values (n=9) ranging from 9.9 (10 microg/L) to 5.1% (100 microg/L). Excellent limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantitation (LOQ) were achieved with spiked MCs and Nod samples; LOD=0.27 microg/L and LOQ=0.90 microg/L for MC-LR in the "normal linear range" and LOD=0.08 microg/L and LOQ=0.25 microg/L in the "low linear range" in both lake and chlorinated tap water. Similar results were obtained for a suite of microcystins and nodularin. This sensitive and rapid method does not require any sample preconcentration, including the elimination of solid-phase extraction (SPE) for the effective screening of hepatotoxins in water below the 1 microg/L WHO provisional guideline limit for MC-LR. Furthermore, SPE techniques are time-consuming, nonreproducible at trace levels, and offer poor recoveries with chlorinated water. The application of this LC-ESI-MS/MS method for routine screening of hepatotoxins in lake and chlorinated tap water (average Cl2=0.23 mg/L) is achieved and this study represents the first direct method for the screening of hepatotoxins in chlorinated tap water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orla Allis
- PROTEOBIO, Mass Spectrometry Centre for Proteomics and Biotoxin Research, Cork Institute of Technology, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
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118
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Sipiä V, Kankaanpää H, Peltonen H, Vinni M, Meriluoto J. Transfer of nodularin to three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.), herring (Clupea harengus L.), and salmon (Salmo salar L.) in the northern Baltic Sea. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2007; 66:421-5. [PMID: 16616370 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2006.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2005] [Revised: 02/13/2006] [Accepted: 02/18/2006] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Nodularin (NODLN) is a hepatotoxin produced by the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena, which occurs regularly in the Baltic Sea. The primary aim of this study was to study the transfer of NODLN to three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.), herring (Clupea harengus membras L.), and salmon (Salmo salar L.), which were caught from the northern Baltic Sea between August 2002 and August 2003. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used for NODLN analysis. NODLN was found in both herring (0-90 microgkg(-1)dw) and three-spined sticklebacks samples (2.8-700 microgkg(-1)dw). The recovery for the spiked stickleback samples in vitro was 28%. Only 1 salmon of a total of 10 contained a small amount of NODLN (10 microgkg(-1)dw). However, the high concentrations in individual stickleback suggest that possible transfer to higher trophic levels deserves more research.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Sipiä
- Finnish Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 2, FIN-00561 Helsinki, Finland.
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119
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Koskenniemi K, Lyra C, Rajaniemi-Wacklin P, Jokela J, Sivonen K. Quantitative real-time PCR detection of toxic Nodularia cyanobacteria in the Baltic Sea. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73:2173-9. [PMID: 17277219 PMCID: PMC1855639 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02746-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A specific quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) method was developed for the quantification of hepatotoxin nodularin-producing Nodularia, one of the main bloom-forming cyanobacteria in the Baltic Sea. Specific PCR primers were designed for subunit F of the nodularin synthetase gene (ndaF), which encodes the NdaF subunit of the nodularin synthetase gene complex needed for nodularin production. The qPCR method was applied to water samples (a total of 120 samples) collected from the Baltic Sea in July 2004. As few as 30 ndaF gene copies ml(-1) of seawater could be detected, and thus, the method was very sensitive. The ndaF gene copy numbers and nodularin concentrations were shown to correlate in the Baltic seawater, indicating the constant production of nodularin by Nodularia. This qPCR method for the ndaF gene can be used for detailed studies of Nodularia blooms and their formation. ndaF gene copies and nodularin were detected mostly in the surface water but also in deeper water layers (down to 30 m). Toxic Nodularia blooms are not only horizontally but also vertically widely distributed, and thus, the Baltic fauna is extensively exposed to nodularin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerttu Koskenniemi
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, Viikki Biocenter, FIN-00014 Helsinki University, Finland
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120
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Ferretti E, Lucentini L, Veschetti E, Bonadonna L, Stammati A, Turco L, Ottaviani M. Screening and identification of unknown contaminants in water destined to human consumption: A case study. Microchem J 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2006.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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121
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Van Wagoner RM, Drummond AK, Wright JLC. Biogenetic Diversity of Cyanobacterial Metabolites. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2007; 61:89-217. [PMID: 17448789 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(06)61004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Van Wagoner
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
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122
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Howard KL, Boyer GL. Adduct simplification in the analysis of cyanobacterial toxins by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:699-706. [PMID: 17279604 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
A novel method for simplifying adduct patterns to improve the detection and identification of peptide toxins using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry is presented. Addition of 200 microM zinc sulfate heptahydrate (ZnSO(4) . 7H(2)O) to samples prior to spotting on the target enhances detection of the protonated molecule while suppressing competing adducts. This produces a highly simplified spectrum with the potential to enhance quantitative analysis, particularly for complex samples. The resulting improvement in total signal strength and reduction in the coefficient of variation (from 31.1% to 5.2% for microcystin-LR) further enhance the potential for sensitive and accurate quantitation. Other potential additives tested, including 18-crown-6 ether, alkali metal salts (lithium chloride, sodium chloride, potassium chloride), and other transition metal salts (silver chloride, silver nitrate, copper(II) nitrate, copper(II) sulfate, zinc acetate), were unable to achieve comparable results. Application of this technique to the analysis of several microcystins, potent peptide hepatotoxins from cyanobacteria, is illustrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Howard
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
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123
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Spoof L, Berg KA, Rapala J, Lahti K, Lepistö L, Metcalf JS, Codd GA, Meriluoto J. First observation of cylindrospermopsin in Anabaena lapponica isolated from the boreal environment (Finland). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2006; 21:552-60. [PMID: 17091499 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The cyanobacterial cytotoxin cylindrospermopsin has been mostly associated with cyanobacteria present in tropical and subtropical regions. Cylindrospermopsin has recently been found in cyanobacterial samples in central and southern Europe but the possible presence of the toxin in northern Europe has been unknown. Fifty-eight field and laboratory culture samples of Finnish cyanobacteria were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography combined with UV diode-array detection, multiple reactant monitoring in a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS), and accurate mass measurements using a time-of-flight MS instrument. Cylindrospermopsin was confirmed by all three techniques in a culture sample of Anabaena lapponica at a concentration of 242 microg cylindrospermopsin per g freeze-dried cyanobacterial material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Spoof
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6A, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
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124
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Sangolkar LN, Maske SS, Chakrabarti T. Methods for determining microcystins (peptide hepatotoxins) and microcystin-producing cyanobacteria. WATER RESEARCH 2006; 40:3485-96. [PMID: 17014889 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2006] [Revised: 07/27/2006] [Accepted: 08/20/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Episodes of cyanobacterial toxic blooms and fatalities to animals and humans due to cyanobacterial toxins (CBT) are known worldwide. The hepatotoxins and neurotoxins (cyanotoxins) produced by bloom-forming cyanobacteria have been the cause of human and animal health hazards and even death. Prevailing concentration of cell bound endotoxin, exotoxin and the toxin variants depend on developmental stages of the bloom and the cyanobacterial (CB) species involved. Toxic and non-toxic strains do not show any predictable morphological difference. The current instrumental, immunological and molecular methods applied for determining microcystins (peptide hepatotoxins) and microcystin-producing cyanobacteria are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalita N Sangolkar
- Environmental Biotechnology Division, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440 020, India.
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125
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Young FM, Metcalf JS, Meriluoto JA, Spoof L, Morrison LF, Codd GA. Production of antibodies against microcystin-RR for the assessment of purified microcystins and cyanobacterial environmental samples. Toxicon 2006; 48:295-306. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2006] [Accepted: 05/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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126
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Zeisbergerová M, Kost'ál V, Srámková M, Babica P, Bláha L, Glatz Z, Kahle V. Separation of microcystins by capillary electrochromatography in monolithic columns. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 841:140-4. [PMID: 16781901 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.03.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2006] [Revised: 03/27/2006] [Accepted: 03/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Contribution on microcystin variant analysis by capillary electrochromatography (CEC) with easily affordable spectrophotometric detection is presented. Two types of reversed-phase capillary columns formed by inorganic or organic polymer monoliths were prepared for this purpose. The analyses were performed isocratically by means of tris(hydroxymethyl) aminomethane (TRIS) buffers of mildly alkaline pH containing 30% (v/v) acetonitrile as the mobile phases. The samples were injected electrokinetically and the analyses were done at the same separation field strength of 500 V/cm. Microcystins were detected at 238 nm. Although both column types differ not only in monolith quality (inorganic versus organic) but also in the length of the aliphatic moiety (C8 versus C12) similar results were achieved. The on-column preconcentration as the encouraging prospect of electrochromatographic technique was also tested. Consequently 5% of column volume was injected in contrast with 0.5% at standard injection scheme resulting in the six times enrichment of the low concentrated cyanobacterial extract at the top of the separation column. From these preliminary results can be seen that the CEC method is fully applicable for rapid microcystin screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Zeisbergerová
- Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biochemistry, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic.
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127
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Bruno M, Fiori M, Mattei D, Melchiorre S, Messineo V, Volpi F, Bogialli S, Nazzari M. ELISA and LC-MS/MS methods for determining cyanobacterial toxins in blue-green algae food supplements. Nat Prod Res 2006; 20:827-34. [PMID: 16753920 DOI: 10.1080/14786410500410859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The use of natural products as a diet supplement is increasing worldwide but sometimes is not followed by adequate sanitary controls and analyses. Twenty samples of pills and capsules of lyophilised cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), commercialised in Italy as dietary supplements, were found positive at the Vibrio fischeri bioassay. Further analyses with ELISA and LC-MS/MS methods revealed the presence of four microcystin (MC) analogues, MC-LR, -YR, -LA, -RR and two demethylated forms of MC-RR. The highest total microcystin content was 4.5 and 1.4 microg g-1 in pills and capsules, respectively. The ELISA measurements, compared to the LC-MS/MS analyses, showed significantly lower concentrations of microcystins in pills, this confirming a possible ELISA underestimate of mixed microcystins, due to different sensitivities for some toxic analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bruno
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, V.le Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
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128
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Ernst B, Hoeger SJ, O'Brien E, Dietrich DR. Oral toxicity of the microcystin-containing cyanobacterium Planktothrix rubescens in European whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus). AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2006; 79:31-40. [PMID: 16806524 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2006.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2006] [Revised: 04/26/2006] [Accepted: 04/27/2006] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The microcystin-producing cyanobacterium Planktothrix is one of the most widespread genera amongst toxin producing cyanobacteria in European lakes. In particular, the metalimnic blooms of Planktothrix rubescens have been associated with growing problems in the professional freshwater fishery as a decrease in yearly yields in the important coregonids fishery often coincides with the appearance of P. rubescens. P. rubescens is a cyanobacterial species known to produce toxic compounds, e.g. microcystins. Although microcystins have been reported to affect fish health, behaviour, development and growth and have also been associated with feral fish kills, there is currently no specific information on the effects of toxic Planktothrix filaments in fish and especially coregonids. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an environmentally relevant dose of P. rubescens filaments orally applied to coregonids and to discuss the findings in the context of microcystin toxicity previously reported in carp and trout. A single dose of P. rubescens culture, at a density of 80,000 cells per 120 microl, was applied to coregonids thus corresponding to 0.6-0.9 microg microcystin-LR(equiv.)/kg body weight. Behavioural changes and opercular beat rates, growth, hepatosomatic index, condition and plasma glucose were determined. Liver, kidney, gill and the gastrointestinal tract were assessed histopathologically and immunohistologically. Exposed fish showed behavioural changes, increased opercular beat rates and elevated plasma glucose levels, possibly representing a physiological stress response. Histopathological alterations in liver, gastrointestinal tract and kidney, also immunopositive for microcystin suggested causality of tissue damage and the in situ presence of microcystins. The observed combination of stress and organ damage may explain the frequently reduced weight and thus the fitness noted in coregonids subjected to regular occurrences of stratified and dispersed P. rubescens blooms, e.g. in lake Ammersee, Bavaria, Germany.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Ernst
- Environmental Toxicology, University of Konstanz, P.O. Box X-918, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
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129
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Determination of trace amount of microcystins in water samples using liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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130
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Frias HV, Mendes MA, Cardozo KHM, Carvalho VM, Tomazela D, Colepicolo P, Pinto E. Use of electrospray tandem mass spectrometry for identification of microcystins during a cyanobacterial bloom event. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 344:741-6. [PMID: 16631112 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.03.199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Drastic environmental conditions such as elevated temperature, abrupt pH variation, low turbulence, and high nutrient inputs can enhance the development of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in lakes and reservoirs. This study describes the occurrence of four microcystin variants (MC) in a bloom in the eutrophic reservoir Billings, in São Paulo City. The bloom sample was collected in October 2003, and Microcystis were the main genus found. The MC were separated and purified by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Their structures were elucidated by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) and four MC variants were determined: MC-RR, MC-LR, MC-YR, and MC-hRhR. MC-hRhR is described for the first time as a new variant of MC with two homoarginines at positions 2 and 4 in its structure. ESI-MS/MS analysis thus provides a powerful and convenient tool for the determination of variants of MC. These results represent an important contribution to the knowledge of the biochemistry of toxic cyanobacteria and their toxins, specifically in São Paulo State.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Vieira Frias
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, CEP 05508-900, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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131
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Lombardo M, Pinto FCR, Vieira JMS, Honda RY, Pimenta AMC, Bemquerer MP, Carvalho LR, Kiyota S. Isolation and structural characterization of microcystin-LR and three minor oligopeptides simultaneously produced by Radiocystis feernandoi (Chroococcales, Cyanobacteriae): A Brazilian toxic cyanobacterium. Toxicon 2006; 47:560-6. [PMID: 16554079 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2005] [Revised: 01/19/2006] [Accepted: 01/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Several blooms of cyanobacteria naturally occurring in freshwater reservoirs have been associated to numerous fatalities and cases of livestock and human poisoning. Microcystins (Mcs) are the most frequently found cyclic heptapeptide toxins in the cyanobacterial extracts. In previous work, Radiocystis fernandoi (strain SPC 714) lyophilized extracts were found to be hepatotoxic to mice with LD100 of about 60 mg kg(-1) and Mc LR was suggested as responsible for that toxicity. Here, we describe the isolation of four oligopeptides from R. fernandoi methanol extract by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The major component, which eluted with 65% acetonitrile from acetonitrile/water gradient, was identified as Mc-LR and its structure was confirmed by the presence of molecular related ion species [M+H]+ at m/z 996.3, ([M+H-Adda])+ at m/z 861.5, [Arg-Adda-Glu+H]+ at m/z 599.8, and [PhCH2CH(OMe)]+ at m/z 135.1 in the ESI spectra. Two components corresponding to small signals eluted from C18 column, respectively, with 44 and 45% acetonitrile had their structures proposed as isomers of aeruginosin derivatives showing molecular ions at m/z 651.7 and a [CHOI]+ immonium at m/z 140.1. Finally, the structure of the third minor and most hydrophobic component (68% acetonitrile elution) isolated from R. fernandoi extract seemed to correspond to a cyclic cyanopeptolin like micropeptin K139, a trypsin inhibitor firstly isolated from Microcystis aeruginosa, showing similar ions fragmentation pattern and [M+H]+ at m/z 987.6 in its ESI spectra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márcia Lombardo
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Proteínas e Peptídeos, CPDSA, Instituto Biológico, Avenida Conselheiro Rodrigues Alves, 1252, sl. 416, CEP 04014-002, CP 12.898, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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132
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Li CM, Chu RYY, Hsientang Hsieh DP. An enhanced LC-MS/MS method for microcystin-LR in lake water. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2006; 41:169-74. [PMID: 16421859 DOI: 10.1002/jms.972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
A LC-MS/MS method with enhanced sensitivity and specificity was established for monitoring microcystin-LR (MC-LR) in drinking water supplies in southern Taiwan. The enhanced sensitivity was achieved by the selection of a doubly charged MC-LR as the precursor ion to result in an multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) pair ions of m/z 498.6 --> 135.0. Using this ion pair, a record low detection limit of 2 pg was achieved on column, found in the available literature. A sample preparation method involving C8 solid-phase extraction gave satisfactory recoveries of the analyte. Nodularin, with structural similarity to MC-LR, was used as an internal standard to minimize matrix effects of water samples collected from six different water reservoirs in southern Taiwan, where MC-LR was detected at sub-ppb levels in all the reservoirs. The best precision and accuracy of this method were found with samples prepared to contain MC-LR at 0.1 and 1 microg l(-1). This new method requires considerably smaller water sample volumes because of enhanced quantification sensitivity and hence reduces the time needed for analysis. It should serve as a useful example for method development for monitoring other members of the microcystin family in drinking water supplies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Ming Li
- Division of Environmental Health and Occupational Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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133
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Mazur-Marzec H, Meriluoto J, Pliński M, Szafranek J. Characterization of nodularin variants in Nodularia spumigena from the Baltic Sea using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2006; 20:2023-32. [PMID: 16755614 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Nodularin is a potent hepatotoxic cyclic pentapeptide produced by planktonic cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena. Bloom and culture samples of the cyanobacterium collected and isolated from the Gulf of Gdańsk, southern Baltic Sea, were analyzed. Hybrid quadrupole-time-of-flight liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (TOF-LC/MS/MS) with ionspray (ISP) and collision-induced dissociation (CID) were used to characterize nodularin and its analogues. The identification process was based on the comparison of recorded product ion spectra with the previously reported FAB-MS/CID (high-energy) mass spectra of the corresponding nodularin variants. Amino acid structures and sequences were derived from the fragmentation pattern of the [M+H](+) ions. Apart from unmodified nodularin with an arginine residue (NOD-R), three demethylated variants have been found. The sites of demethylation were located on aspartic acid [Asp(1)]NOD, the Adda residue [DMAdda(3)]NOD, and dehydrobutyric acid [dhb(5)]NOD. In two other nodularin variants an additional methyl group is located in the Adda [MeAdda]NOD and Glu [Glu(4)(OMe)]NOD residues. The linear NOD and the geometrical isomer of NOD-R, reported earlier in N. spumigena from New Zealand, have also been detected. Two of the total eight nodularin variants characterized in the present study, [dhb(5)]NOD and [MeAdda]NOD, have not been described earlier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Mazur-Marzec
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, University of Gdańsk, Al. Marszałka Piłsudskiego 46, 81-378 Gdynia, Poland.
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134
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Pérez S, Aga DS. Recent advances in the sample preparation, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric analysis and environmental fate of microcystins in water. Trends Analyt Chem 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2005.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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135
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Karlsson KM, Spoof LEM, Meriluoto JAO. Quantitative LC-ESI-MS analyses of microcystins and nodularin-R in animal tissue--matrix effects and method validation. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:381-9. [PMID: 15892039 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The matrix effects and signal response in LC-MS analysis of six microcystins and nodularin-R were studied in mussels and liver samples from the common eider and rainbow trout. The instrumentation used in the study was a triple quadrupole MS with electrospray ionization. The results from the spiked tissue samples showed that both signal suppression and enhancement occurred. The recorded matrix effects were not severe; all studied toxins could be detected with sufficient limit of detection in all matrices. The results indicate, however, that matrix effects must be monitored for accurate quantification of microcystin and nodularin in tissue samples. Matrix effects can be studied with standard additions in the studied matrix, as was done in this study. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) resulted in a lower limit of detection compared to no cleanup in the sample preparation. SPE also prolonged the chromatographic stability. SPE cleanup is therefore strongly recommeded. Also described in this article are the chromatographic and mass spectrometric details of glutathione and cysteine conjugates, which are the detoxification products of the toxins. LC-MS analysis is suitable for detoxification studies of microcystins and nodularins. Cysteine conjugate was identified as the main detoxification product in a mussel sample that was exposed to toxic cyanobacteria in an aquarium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krister M Karlsson
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, Artillerigatan 6, FIN-20521 Turku, Finland.
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136
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Aranda-Rodriguez R, Tillmanns A, Benoit FM, Pick FR, Harvie J, Solenaia L. Pressurized liquid extraction of toxins from cyanobacterial cells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:390-6. [PMID: 15892041 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The suitability of pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) of cyanotoxins from cells was investigated. The stability of cyanotoxins (MCYST-RR, MCYST-LR, and anatoxin-a) was evaluated at nine combinations of pressure and temperature (7, 10, and 14 MPa and 60 degrees C, 80 degrees C and 100 degrees C) using 75% (v/v) methanol in water (MeOH) as solvent. Additional experiments investigated the stability of cyanotoxins when water was used as solvent (at a pressure of 14 MPa and a temperature of 40 degrees C, 50 degrees C, 60 degrees C, 80 degrees C, or 100 degrees C). Results using 75% MeOH showed that the MCYST-RR and MCYST-LR were stable under the tested pressures up to 80 degrees C. At 100 degrees C MCYST recovery decreased by 10% to 17%. When water was used as the solvent, no differences in recovery were observed for MCYST-LR, whereas for MCYST-RR, maximum recovery was obtained at 60 degrees C, and degradation occurred at 100 degrees C. In contrast, anatoxin-a was labile under all experimental conditions; the best recoveries (ca. 50%) were obtained at 60 degrees C at the three pressures using 75% MeOH. However, only 17%-23% recovery was obtained with water extraction at all temperatures. The extraction of MCYST-LR and variants from cells (Microcystis aeruginosa, UTCC299) was studied using two solvents, 75% MeOH and 100% water, at 14 MPa and 60 degrees C and 100 degrees C. PLE extracts were compared with extracts obtained with 75% MeOH and ultrasonication. Complete extraction was achieved in both solvents in one 5-min cycle (at 100 degrees C). Although lower recovery was obtained using PLE (79%-105%), shorter extraction time and automation are advantageous over ultrasonication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio Aranda-Rodriguez
- Chemistry Research Division, Health Canada, Tunney's Pasture, 0800C, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0L2, Canada.
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137
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Ibelings BW, Bruning K, de Jonge J, Wolfstein K, Pires LMD, Postma J, Burger T. Distribution of microcystins in a lake foodweb: no evidence for biomagnification. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2005; 49:487-500. [PMID: 16052377 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-004-0014-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2004] [Accepted: 06/24/2004] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins, toxins produced by cyanobacteria, may play a role in fish kills, although their specific contribution remains unclear. A better understanding of the eco-toxicological effects of microcystins is hampered by a lack of analyses at different trophic levels in lake foodwebs. We present 3 years of monitoring data, and directly compare the transfer of microcystin in the foodweb starting with the uptake of (toxic) cyanobacteria by two different filter feeders: the cladoceran Daphnia galeata and the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha. Furthermore foodwebs are compared in years in which the colonial cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa or the filamentous cyanobacterium Planktothrix agardhii dominated; there are implications in terms of the types and amount of microcystins produced and in the ingestion of cyanobacteria. Microcystin concentrations in the seston commonly reached levels where harmful effects on zooplankton are to be expected. Likewise, concentrations in zooplankton reached levels where intoxication of fish is likely. The food chain starting with Dreissena (consumed by roach and diving ducks) remained relatively free from microcystins. Liver damage, typical for exposure to microcystins, was observed in a large fraction of the populations of different fish species, although no relation with the amount of microcystin could be established. Microcystin levels were especially high in the livers of planktivorous fish, mainly smelt. This puts piscivorous birds at risk. We found no evidence for biomagnification of microcystins. Concentrations in filter feeders were always much below those in the seston, and yet vectorial transport to higher trophic levels took place. Concentrations of microcystin in smelt liver exceeded those in the diet of these fish, but it is incorrect to compare levels in a selected organ to those in a whole organism (zooplankton). The discussion focuses on the implications of detoxication and covalent binding of microcystin for the transfer of the toxin in the foodweb. It seems likely that microcystins are one, but not the sole, factor involved in fish kills during blooms of cyanobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- B W Ibelings
- Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment (RIZA), Lelystad, The Netherlands.
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138
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McElhiney J, Lawton LA. Detection of the cyanobacterial hepatotoxins microcystins. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2005; 203:219-30. [PMID: 15737676 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2004.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2003] [Accepted: 06/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Concern regarding the presence of microcystins in drinking water and their possible contamination in food (e.g., salad vegetables, fish, shellfish) has resulted in the need for reliable methods for the detection and accurate quantification of this class of toxins. Currently, routine analysis of microcystins is most commonly carried out using high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection (HPLC-PDA), although more sensitive biological assays such as antibody-based ELISAs and protein phosphatase inhibition assays have also proven useful. However, many of these methods have been hindered by the availability of a wide range of purified microcystins. Although over 60 variants have now been reported, only a very small number are commercially available and calibrated standards are not yet obtainable. This has led to the common practice of reporting microcystin-LR equivalence regardless of which variant is present. The increased availability of HPLC with online mass spectral analysis (HPLC-MS) may facilitate more accurate detection of toxin variants but as several microcystins share the same molecular mass, definitive identification can be difficult. A further difficulty in analyzing microcystins is the requirement for sample processing before analysis. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is typically used to enrich environmental concentrations of microcystins, or to eliminate contaminants from complex samples such as animal and plant tissues. Recently, new technologies employing recombinant antibodies and molecularly imprinted polymers have been exploited to develop assays and biosensors for microcystins. These novel detection systems are highly sensitive, often do not require sample processing, and offer a simpler, less expensive alternative to analytical techniques. They have also been successfully employed in solid phase extraction formats for the concentration and clean up of environmental samples before HPLC analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqui McElhiney
- School of Life Sciences, The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, Scotland AB25 1HG, UK.
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139
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Acero JL, Rodriguez E, Meriluoto J. Kinetics of reactions between chlorine and the cyanobacterial toxins microcystins. WATER RESEARCH 2005; 39:1628-38. [PMID: 15878036 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2005.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2004] [Revised: 01/25/2005] [Accepted: 01/26/2005] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Blooms of cyanobacteria can give rise to the production of toxins which contaminate drinking water sources. Among the oxidants and disinfectants typically applied in waterworks, chlorine has been found to be effective for the degradation of microcystins. In the present study, unknown second-order rate constants for the reactions of microcystin-LR (MC-LR), -RR and -YR with chlorine were determined over a wide pH range. It was found that an increase of pH has a negative effect on the microcystin degradation rate. Apparent second-order rate constant for the chlorination of MC-LR at 20 degrees C varied from 475 M(-1)s(-1) at pH 4.8 to 9.8 M(-1)s(-1) at pH 8.8. From these apparent second-order rate constants, rate constants for the reactions of MC-LR with hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite (ClO-) were evaluated. Half-life times ranged from minutes at pH 6 to 1 h at pH 8 for a constant residual chlorine concentration of 1.0-0.5 mgl(-1), typical of oxidation pre-treatment and final disinfection. Similar reactivity with chlorine was found for MC-RR and MC-YR. Therefore, chlorination is a feasible option for microcystin degradation during oxidation and disinfection processes, and can be applied in drinking water treatment in case of cyanobacterial toxin risk if the pH is kept below 8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan L Acero
- Departamento de Ingenieria Quimica y Energetica, Faculdad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. Elvas s/n, 06071 Badajoz, Spain.
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140
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Kubwabo C, Vais N, Benoit FM. Characterization of microcystins using in-source collision-induced dissociation. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2005; 19:597-604. [PMID: 15685685 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.1828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The efficiency of the in-source collision-induced dissociation (in-source CID) technique for the structural characterization of microcystins (MCYSTs) was evaluated. Microcystins that did not contain arginine underwent facile fragmentation to produce characteristic product ions at relatively low cone voltage and could be fully characterized based on their mass spectra. On the other hand, cyclic peptides possessing arginine residues, such as MCYST-RR, -LR, -YR and nodularin, were considerably more stable under in-source CID conditions and required higher cone voltage to induce fragmentation. This behaviour is explained in terms of the mobile proton model for peptide fragmentation that can be used as an indication for the presence of arginine when unknown microcystins are analyzed. In-source CID was applied to the characterization of microcystins released into water from a Microcystis aeruginosa culture (UTCC299) (UTCC: University of Toronto Culture Collection of Algae and Cyanobacteria). Six microcystins were detected in extracts from UTCC299: I, [D-Asp(3)]MCYST-LR; II, MCYST-LR; III, isomer of MCYST-LR; IV, isomer of methyl MCYST-LR; V, [D-Asp(3), Glu(OCH(3))(6)]MCYST-LR; and VI, [D-Glu(OCH(3))(6)]MCYST-LR. In-source CID provided mass spectral patterns similar to those obtained by CID in the collision cell of the mass spectrometer but was more sensitive for the analysis of microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cariton Kubwabo
- Chemistry Research Division, Safe Environments Programme, Health Canada, Environmental Health Centre, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0L2, Canada.
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141
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Richardson SD. Environmental Mass Spectrometry: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues. Anal Chem 2004; 76:3337-63. [PMID: 15193112 DOI: 10.1021/ac040060d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Richardson
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA
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