Variation in neural development as a result of exposure to institutionalization early in childhood

The long-term effects of institutional rearing, foster care intervention and disruptions in care on brain electrical activity in adolescence

Exposure to early psychosocial deprivation as a result of institutional care disrupts typical brain development. The Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP) is the first longitudinal study to investigate the neurodevelopment of institutionalized infants randomized to a foster care (FCG) intervention versus care as usual (CAUG). Here, we present findings from a follow-up assessment of brain electrical activity as indexed by resting EEG at age 16 years. In addition, we examined the effects of disruption of foster care placement (e.g. the number of moves among foster care placements) on brain electrical activity. Resting-state EEG was collected from 48 CAUG, 46 FCG and 48 never institutionalized (NIG) control participants. Absolute (µV² ) and relative (proportion) power were computed from eyes closed, resting EEG data for theta, alpha and beta frequency bands. The CAUG displayed higher relative theta and lower relative alpha power compared to the FCG at 16 years of age. The FCG showed brain activity comparable to the NIG. The results further showed that disruptions following the original foster care placement had an adverse effect on brain electrical activity. Within the foster care group, there were no effects of age of placement on EEG power. Placement of children who have experienced early institutional rearing into stable foster care settings ensure long-term improvement in brain functioning.

Dysmaturation of Premature Brain: Importance, Cellular Mechanisms, and Potential Interventions

Prematurity, especially preterm birth (less than 32 weeks' gestation), is common and associated with high rates of both survival and neurodevelopmental disability, especially apparent in cognitive spheres. The neuropathological substrate of this disability is now recognized to be related to a variety of dysmaturational disturbances of the brain. These disturbances follow initial brain injury, particularly cerebral white matter injury, and involve many of the extraordinary array of developmental events active in cerebral white and gray matter structures during the premature period. This review delineates these developmental events and the dysmaturational disturbances that occur in premature infants. The cellular mechanisms involved in the genesis of the dysmaturation are emphasized, with particular focus on the preoligodendrocyte. A central role for the diffusely distributed activated microglia and reactive astrocytes in the dysmaturation is now apparent. As these dysmaturational cellular mechanisms appear to occur over a relatively long time window, interventions to prevent or ameliorate the dysmaturation, that is, neurorestorative interventions, seem possible. Such interventions include pharmacologic agents, especially erythropoietin, and particular attention has also been paid to such nutritional factors as quality and source of milk, breastfeeding, polyunsaturated fatty acids, iron, and zinc. Recent studies also suggest a potent role for interventions directed at various experiential factors in the neonatal period and infancy, i.e., provision of optimal auditory and visual exposures, minimization of pain and stress, and a variety of other means of environmental behavioral enrichment, in enhancing brain development.

How Early Experience Shapes Human Development: The Case of Psychosocial Deprivation

Experience plays an essential role in building brain architecture after birth. The question we address in this paper is what happens to brain and behavior when a young child is deprived of key experiences during critical periods of brain development. We focus in particular on the consequences of institutional rearing, with implication for the tens of millions of children around the world who from an early age experience profound psychosocial deprivation. Evidence is clear that deprivation can lead to a host of both short- and long-term consequences, including perturbations in brain structure and function, changes at cellular and molecular levels, and a plethora of psychological and behavioral impairments.

Parsing neurodevelopmental features of irritability and anxiety: Replication and validation of a latent variable approach

Irritability and anxiety are two common clinical phenotypes that involve high-arousal negative affect states (anger and fear), and that frequently co-occur. Elucidating how these two forms of emotion dysregulation relate to perturbed neurodevelopment may benefit from alternate phenotyping strategies. One such strategy applies a bifactor latent variable approach that can parse shared versus unique mechanisms of these two phenotypes. Here, we aim to replicate and extend this approach and examine associations with neural structure in a large transdiagnostic sample of youth (N = 331; M = 13.57, SD = 2.69 years old; 45.92% male). FreeSurfer was used to extract cortical thickness, cortical surface area, and subcortical volume. The current findings replicated the bifactor model and demonstrate measurement invariance as a function of youth age and sex. There were no associations of youth's factor scores with cortical thickness, surface area, or subcortical volume. However, we found strong convergent and divergent validity between parent-reported irritability and anxiety factors with clinician-rated symptoms and impairment. A general negative affectivity factor was robustly associated with overall functional impairment across symptom domains. Together, these results support the utility of the bifactor model as an alternative phenotyping strategy for irritability and anxiety, which may aid in the development of targeted treatments.

Access to a high resource environment protects against accelerated maturation following early life stress: A translational animal model of high, medium and low security settings

Early life exposure to a low security setting, characterized by a scarcity of resources and limited food access, increases the risk for psychiatric illness and metabolic dysfunction. We utilized a translational rat model to mimic a low security environment and determined how this manipulation affected offspring behavior, metabolism, and puberty. Because food insecurity in humans is associated with reduced access to healthy food options the "low security" rat manipulation combined a Western diet with exposure to a limited bedding and nesting manipulation (WD-LB). In this setting, dams were provided with limited nesting materials during the pups' early life (P2-P10). This manipulation was contrasted with standard rodent caging (SD) and environmental enrichment (EE), to model "medium security" and "high security" environments, respectively. To determine if transitioning from a low to high security environment improved outcomes, some juvenile WD-LB offspring were exposed to EE. Maternal care was impacted by these environments such that EE dams engaged in high quality care when on the nest, but spent less time on the nest than SD dams. Although WD-LB dams excessively chased their tails, they were very attentive to their pups, perhaps to compensate for limited resources. Offspring exposed to WD-LB only displayed subtle changes in behavior. However, WD-LB exposure resulted in significant metabolic dysfunction characterized by increased body weight, precocious puberty and alterations in the hypothalamic kisspeptin system. These negative effects of WD-LB on puberty and weight regulation were mitigated by EE exposure. Collectively, these studies suggest that both compensatory maternal care and juvenile enrichment can reduce the impact of a low security environment. Moreover, they highlight how utilizing diverse models of resource (in)stability can reveal mechanisms that confer vulnerability and resilience to early life stress.

A person-centered approach to the assessment of early life stress: Associations with the volume of stress-sensitive brain regions in early adolescence

Researchers are becoming increasingly interested in linking specific forms of early life stress (ELS) to specific neurobiological markers, including alterations in the morphology of stress-sensitive brain regions. We used a person-centered, multi-informant approach to investigate the associations of specific constellations of ELS with hippocampal and amygdala volume in a community sample of 211 9- to 13-year-old early adolescents. Further, we compared this approach to a cumulative risk model of ELS, in which ELS was quantified by the total number of stressors reported. Using latent class analysis, we identified three classes of ELS (labeled typical/low, family instability, and direct victimization) that were distinguished by experiences of family instability and victimization. Adolescents in the direct victimization class had significantly smaller hippocampal volume than did adolescents in the typical/low class; ELS classes were not significantly associated with amygdala volume. The cumulative risk model of ELS had a poorer fit than did the person-centered model; moreover, cumulative ELS was not significantly associated with hippocampal or amygdala volume. Our results underscore the utility of taking a person-centered approach to identify alterations in stress-sensitive brain regions based on constellations of ELS, and suggest victimization is specifically associated with hippocampal hypotrophy observed in early adolescence.

Evidence for a sensitive period in the effects of early life stress on hippocampal volume

Exposure to stress has been causally linked to changes in hippocampal volume (HV). Given that the hippocampus undergoes rapid changes in the first years of life, stressful experiences during this period may be particularly important in understanding individual differences in the development of the hippocampus. One hundred seventy-eight early adolescents (ages 9-13 years; 43% male) were interviewed regarding exposure to and age of onset of experiences of stress; the severity of each stressful event was rated by an objective panel. All participants underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging, from which HVs were automatically segmented. Without considering the age of onset for stressful experiences, there was a small but statistically significant negative association of stress severity with bilateral HV. When considering the age of onset, there was a moderate and significant negative association between stress severity during early childhood (through 5 years of age) and HV; there was no association between stress severity during later childhood (age 6 years and older) and HV. We provide evidence of a sensitive period through 5 years of age for the effects of life stress on HV in adolescence. It will be important in future research to elucidate how reduced HV stemming from early life stress may contribute to stress-related health outcomes.

Early Parenting Intervention and Adverse Family Environments Affect Neural Function in Middle Childhood

BACKGROUND

Growing work points to the negative impact of early adverse experiences on the developing brain. An outstanding question concerns the extent to which early intervention can normalize trajectories of brain development in at-risk children. We tested this within the context of a randomized clinical trial of an early parenting program, the Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC), delivered to parents and infants monitored for maltreatment by Child Protective Services.

METHODS

Families participated in the randomized clinical trial when children were 2.5 years of age or younger. Parenting and home adversity was measured at baseline. Children were followed longitudinally, and resting brain activity was measured electrophysiologically (n = 106) when children reached 8 years of age. Spectral power was quantified and compared across children assigned to the experimental intervention (ABC), a control intervention, and a low-risk comparison group (n = 76) recruited at the follow-up assessment.

RESULTS

Higher early home adversity was associated with electrophysiological profiles indicative of cortical delays/immaturity in middle childhood, based on relatively greater power in lower frequency bands (theta, 4-6 Hz, and low alpha, 6-9 Hz) and lower power in a higher frequency band (high alpha, 9-12 Hz). Children assigned to ABC showed relatively greater high-frequency power (beta, 12-20 Hz) than children assigned to the control intervention. Beta power in the ABC did not differ from that of the low-risk comparison group.

CONCLUSIONS

Maltreatment risk and home adversity can affect indicators of middle childhood brain maturation. Early parenting programs can support more normative patterns of neural function during middle childhood.

Characterizing adverse prenatal and postnatal experiences in children

BACKGROUND

Prenatal and postnatal adversities, including prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE), prenatal exposure to other substances, toxic stress, lack of adequate resources, and postnatal abuse or neglect, often co-occur. These exposures can have cumulative effects, or interact with each other, leading to worse outcomes than single exposures. However, given their complexity and heterogeneity, exposures can be difficult to characterize. Clinical services and research often overlook additional exposures and attribute outcomes solely to one factor.

METHODS

We propose a framework for characterizing adverse prenatal and postnatal exposures and apply it to a cohort of 77 children. Our approach considers type, timing, and frequency to quantify PAE, other prenatal substance exposure, prenatal toxic stress, postnatal threat (harm or threat of harm), and postnatal deprivation (failure to meet basic needs) using a 4-point Likert-type scale. Postnatal deprivation and harm were separated into early (<24 months of age) and late (≥24 months) time periods, giving seven exposure variables. Exposures were ascertained via health records, child welfare records, interviews with birth parents, caregivers, and/or close family/friends.

RESULTS

Nearly all children had co-occurring prenatal exposures, and two-thirds had both prenatal and postnatal adversities. Children with high PAE were more likely to experience late postnatal adversities, and children with other prenatal substance exposure were more likely to have early postnatal deprivation. Postnatal adversities were more likely to co-occur.

CONCLUSION

This framework provides a comprehensive picture of a child's adverse exposures, which can inform assessment and intervention approaches and policy and will be useful for future research.

Effects of early adversity on the brain: Larger-volume anterior cingulate cortex in AIDS orphans

Multiple studies have revealed that adolescent AIDS orphans have more psychosocial problems than healthy adolescents. However, little is known about whether and how the brain structures of adolescent AIDS orphans differ from those of healthy adolescents. Here, we used magnetic resonance imaging to compare adolescent AIDS orphans reared in institutions (N = 20) with a sex- and age-matched group of healthy adolescents reared in families (N = 20) in China using a voxel-based morphometry analysis. First, we found that both total gray- and white-matter volumes did not differ between groups. Second, after correcting for age, sex, and total gray-matter volume, the AIDS orphan group demonstrated smaller hippocampal volumes, larger anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) volumes, and no differences in the amygdala. Third, a whole-brain analysis identified higher gray-matter volume of the ACC in the AIDS orphan group than in the control group. The preliminary findings of this study highlight the need for future research to confirm the sensitivity of the hippocampus and ACC to early adversity.

Long-term effects of institutional rearing, foster care, and brain activity on memory and executive functioning

Children experiencing psychosocial deprivation as a result of early institutional rearing demonstrate many difficulties with memory and executive functioning (EF). To date, there is scant evidence that foster care placement remediates these difficulties during childhood. The current study examined longitudinal trajectories of memory and EF from childhood to adolescence in the Bucharest Early Intervention Project, a randomized controlled trial of foster care for institutionally reared children. We demonstrate that both ever- and never-institutionalized children show age-related improvements on several measures of memory and EF from age 8 to 16. Distinct patterns were observed for different domains of functioning: (i) Early-emerging disparities in attention and short-term visual memory, as well as spatial planning and problem solving, between ever- and never-institutionalized children persisted through adolescence; (ii) the gap in spatial working memory between ever- and never-institutionalized children widened by adolescence; and (iii) early difficulties in visual-spatial memory and new learning among children in foster care were mitigated by adolescence. Secondary analyses showed that higher resting EEG alpha power at age 8 predicted better EF outcomes in several domains at age 8, 12, and 16. These results suggest that early institutional rearing has enduring consequences for the development of memory and EF, with the possibility of catch-up among previously institutionalized children who start out with higher levels of problems. Finally, interindividual differences in brain activity relate to memory and EF across ages, thus highlighting one potential biological pathway through which early neglect impacts long-term cognitive functioning.

Neurocognitive Precursors of Substance Misuse Corresponding to Risk, Resistance, and Resilience Pathways: Implications for Prevention Science

Studies of substance misuse prevention generally focus on characteristics that typify risk, with the assumption that the prevalence of the problem will be optimally reduced by identifying, targeting, and reducing or eliminating risk factors. However, this risk-centered approach neglects variations in individual-level and environmental characteristics that portend differential pathways that are distinguishable by timing of substance use initiation (e.g., early versus delayed), the likelihood of use escalation versus eventual desistance, and enduring abstinence, despite exposure to significant risk factors. Considering the various underpinnings of these distinct substance use trajectories is critical to a more nuanced understanding of the effects, potency, and malleability of factors that are known to increase risk or confer protection. Here, we discuss three pathways relative to substance use patterns and predictors in the context of adversity, a well-known, highly significant influence on propensity for substance misuse. The first pathway is designated as "high risk" based on early onset of substance use, rapid escalation, and proneness to substance use disorders. Individuals who defy all odds and eventually exhibit adaptive developmental outcomes despite an initial maladaptive reaction to adversity, are referred to as "resilient." However, another categorization that has not been adequately characterized is "resistant." Resistant individuals include those who do not exhibit problematic substance use behaviors (e.g., early onset and escalation) and do not develop substance use disorders or other forms of psychopathology, despite significant exposure to factors that normally increase the propensity for such outcomes (e.g. trauma and/or adversity). In this paper, we apply this conceptualization of risk, resistance, and resilience for substance misuse to a more fine-grained analysis of substance use pathways and their corresponding patterns (e.g., non-use, initiation, escalation, desistance). The significance of the progression of neurocognitive functioning over the course of development is discussed as well as how this knowledge may be translated to make a science-based determination of intervention targets. This more encompassing theoretical model has direct implications for primary prevention and clinical approaches to disrupt risk pathways and to optimize long-term outcomes.

Epigenetic Transmission of Maternal Behavior: Impact on the Neurobiological System of Healthy Mothers

Quality of maternal caregiving not only impacts children's development but can also result in heritable changes in gene expression (i.e., in an epigenetic manner). Consequently, when women become mothers, they adopt parenting behavior similar to that they received at family of origin. This transgenerational transmission of maternal behavior may also be associated with changes in the neurobiological system of future mothers. This review aims to highlight the effect quality of perceived parenting has on maternal behavior and the neurobiological system of mothers, specifically the oxytocin system, brain morphology and brain function. This would likely help in finding biomarkers that profile the impact of perceived parenting on mothers, and thus allow identification of mothers who experience poor-quality parenting for intervention.

Association of Childhood Adversity With Differential Susceptibility of Transdiagnostic Psychopathology to Environmental Stress in Adulthood

IMPORTANCE

Multivariable comorbidity research indicates that childhood adversity increases the risk for the development of common mental disorders. This risk is explained by underlying internalizing and externalizing transdiagnostic constructs that are amplified by environmental stressors. The differential susceptibility model suggests that this interaction of risk and environment is bidirectional: at-risk individuals will have worse outcomes in high-stress environments but better outcomes in in low-stress environments.

OBJECTIVE

To test the differential susceptibility model by examining how a history of adverse childhood experiences moderates the association between life stress and transdiagnostic psychopathology.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Data came from the US National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), a population-based observational longitudinal survey administered to adults (≥18 years of age). Participants completed the survey at wave 1 (from 2001 through 2002) and wave 2 (from 2004 through 2005). Responses from 34 458 participants were used for the analyses from March 3, 2017, through October 8, 2018.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Latent variables for internalizing-fear, internalizing-distress, externalizing, and general psychopathology were created to represent continuous levels of psychopathology in each wave. Latent variables were also created to represent continuous levels of life stress at each wave. Level of childhood adversity was characterized based on the number of types of childhood adversity experienced (no [0 types], low [1-2 types], and high [≥3 types] exposure). Analyses examined how the interaction between level of childhood adversity and adult life stress was associated with change in adult transdiagnostic psychopathology factors.

RESULTS

Of the 34 458 participants included in the analysis (58.0% women and 42.0% men; mean [SD] age, 46.0 [17.4] years at wave 1 and 49.0 [17.3] years at wave 2), 40.5% had no adverse childhood experiences, 34.6% had 1 to 2, and 24.9% had 3 or more. At wave 1, 61.5% of the sample endorsed at least 1 stressful life event and 27.2% met criteria for at least 1 mental disorder; at wave 2, these figures were 64.7% and 29.7%, respectively. Childhood adversity moderated the association between changes in adult life stress and changes in all transdiagnostic psychopathology factors. Specifically, higher levels of childhood adversity had a stronger association between adult life stress and adult transdiagnostic psychopathology factors. Further, significant differences between childhood adversity groups occurred in the mean scores of all transdiagnostic psychopathology factors for both increases and decreases in life stress, providing preliminary evidence of differential susceptibility.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Results provide empirical support for childhood adversity as a differential susceptibility factor engendering heightened functional and dysfunctional reactivity to later stress.

The relationship between cognitive enrichment and cognitive control: A systematic investigation of environmental influences on development through socioeconomic status

We measured the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on cognitive processes. We examined cognitive control, specifically working memory (WM), in a sample of N = 141 7- to 17-year-olds using rule-guided behavior tasks. Our hypothesis is based on computational modeling data that suggest that the development of flexible cognitive control requires variable experiences in which to implement rule-guided action. We found that not all experiences that correlated with SES in our sample impacted task performance, and not all experiential variables that impacted performance were associated with SES. Of the experiential variables associated with task performance, only cognitive enrichment opportunities worked indirectly through SES to affect WM as tested with rule-guided behavior tasks. We discuss the data in the context of necessary precision in SES research.

Risk taking, decision-making, and brain volume in youth adopted internationally from institutional care

Early life stress in the form of early institutional care has been shown to have wide-ranging impacts on the biological and behavioral development of young children. Studies of brain structure using magnetic resonance imaging have reported decreased prefrontal volumes, and a large literature has detailed decreased executive function (EF) in post-institutionalized (PI) youth. Little is known about how these findings relate to decision-making, particularly in PI youth entering adolescence-a period often characterized by social transition and increased reliance upon EF skills and the still-maturing prefrontal regions that support them. As decision-making in risky situations can be an especially important milestone in early adolescence, a clearer knowledge of the relationship between risky decision making and prefrontal structures in post-institutionalized youth is needed. The youth version of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task and a two-deck variant of the Iowa Gambling Task were used to assess risky decision-making in post-institutionalized youth and a community control group (N = 74, PI = 44, Non-adopted = 30; mean age = 12.93). Participants also completed a structural MRI scan for the assessment of group differences in brain structure. We hypothesized that participants adopted from institutions would display poorer performance on risky-decision making tasks and smaller brain volumes compared to non-adopted youth. Results indicated that later-adopted participants made fewer risky decisions than those experiencing shorter periods of deprivation or no institutional rearing. Further, decreased prefrontal volumes were observed in later-adopted youth and were significantly associated with task performance. Our results suggest that changes in risky-decision making behavior and brain structure are associated with the duration of early institutional care.

The Relationship of Childhood Adversity on Burnout and Depression Among BSN Students

BACKGROUND

Research evidence strongly suggests that Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) predispose individuals to development of an increased sensitivity to stress and negative physical and mental health outcomes in adulthood.

PURPOSE

To determine if there was a relationship between the number of ACEs reported by first semester BSN students and their reported level of Burnout and Depression.

METHODS

211 students enrolled in the first semester of upper division courses of their BSN program completed self-report questionnaires which measured the number of ACEs, the level of Depression and the level of Burnout.

RESULTS

The number of reported ACEs by participants had a significant relationship on the levels of burnout and severity of depressive symptoms. Female students with a higher number of ACEs were more likely to report higher levels of Burnout A (Emotional Exhaustion) and Burnout B (Depersonalization), and higher depression severity scores compared to males.

CONCLUSION

Nursing programs should educate faculty concerning the frequency and range of adverse experiences that students may have had prior to admission to the nursing program, and the possible relationship with Burnout and Depression. Faculty can provide early information on counseling and support services.

Quantitative EEG Tomography of Early Childhood Malnutrition

The goal of this study is to identify the quantitative electroencephalographic (qEEG) signature of early childhood malnutrition [protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)]. To this end, archival digital EEG recordings of 108 participants in the Barbados Nutrition Study (BNS) were recovered and cleaned of artifacts (46 children who suffered an episode of PEM limited to the first year of life) and 62 healthy controls). The participants of the still ongoing BNS were initially enrolled in 1973, and EEGs for both groups were recorded in 1977-1978 (at 5-11 years). Scalp and source EEG Z-spectra (to correct for age effects) were obtained by comparison with the normative Cuban Human Brain Mapping database. Differences between both groups in the z spectra (for all electrode locations and frequency bins) were assessed by t-tests with thresholds corrected for multiple comparisons by permutation tests. Four clusters of differences were found: (a) increased theta activity (3.91-5.86 Hz) in electrodes T4, O2, Pz and in the sources of the supplementary motor area (SMA); b) decreased alpha1 (8.59-8.98 Hz) in Fronto-central electrodes and sources of widespread bilateral prefrontal are; (c) increased alpha2 (11.33-12.50 Hz) in Temporo-parietal electrodes as well as in sources in Central-parietal areas of the right hemisphere; and (d) increased beta (13.67-18.36 Hz), in T4, T5 and P4 electrodes and decreased in the sources of bilateral occipital-temporal areas. Multivariate Item Response Theory of EEGs scored visually by experts revealed a neurophysiological latent variable which indicated excessive paroxysmal and focal abnormality activity in the PEM group. A robust biomarker construction procedure based on elastic-net regressions and 1000-cross-validations was used to: (i) select stable variables and (ii) calculate the area under ROC curves (AUC). Thus, qEEG differentiate between the two nutrition groups (PEM vs Control) performing as well as visual inspection of the EEG scored by experts (AUC = 0.83). Since PEM is a global public health problem with lifelong neurodevelopmental consequences, our finding of consistent differences between PEM and controls, both in qualitative and quantitative EEG analysis, suggest that this technology may be a source of scalable and affordable biomarkers for assessing the long-term brain impact of early PEM.

Paradoxical associations between familial affective responsiveness, stress, and amygdala reactivity

Studies of early life extremes such as trauma, abuse, and neglect highlight the critical importance of quality caregiving in the development of brain circuits supporting emotional behavior and mental health. The impact of normative variability in caregiving on such biobehavioral processes, however, is poorly understood. Here, we provide initial evidence that even subtle variability in normative caregiving maps onto individual differences in threat-related brain function and, potentially, associated psychopathology in adolescence. Specifically, we report that greater familial affective responsiveness is associated with heightened amygdala reactivity to interpersonal threat, particularly in adolescents having experienced relatively low recent stress. These findings extend the literature on the effects of caregiving extremes on brain function to subtle, normative variability but suggest that presumably protective factors may be associated with increased risk-related amygdala reactivity. We consider these paradoxical associations with regard to studies of basic associative threat learning and further consider their relevance for understanding potential effects of caregiving on psychological development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Ameliorating the biological impacts of childhood adversity: A review of intervention programs

Childhood adversity negatively impacts the biological development of children and has been linked to poor health outcomes across the life course. The purpose of this literature review is to explore and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions that have addressed an array of biological markers and physical health outcomes in children and adolescents affected by adversity. PubMed, CINAHL, PsychInfo, Sociological Abstracts databases and additional sources (Cochrane, WHO, NIH trial registries) were searched for English language studies published between January 2007 and September 2017. Articles with a childhood adversity exposure, biological health outcome, and evaluation of intervention using a randomized controlled trial study design were selected. The resulting 40 intervention studies addressed cortisol outcomes (n = 20) and a range of neurological, epigenetic, immune, and other outcomes (n = 22). Across institutional, foster care, and community settings, intervention programs demonstrated success overall for improving or normalizing morning and diurnal cortisol levels, and ameliorating the impacts of adversity on brain development, epigenetic regulation, and additional outcomes in children. Factors such as earlier timing of intervention, high quality and nurturant parenting traits, and greater intervention engagement played a role in intervention success. This study underlines progress and promise in addressing the health impacts of adversity in children. Ongoing research efforts should collect baseline data, improve retention, replicate studies in additional samples and settings, and evaluate additional variables, resilience factors, mediators, and long-term implications of results. Clinicians should integrate lessons from the intervention sciences for preventing and treating the health effects of adversity in children and adolescents.

Subcortical volume and cortical surface architecture in women with acute and remitted anorexia nervosa: An exploratory neuroimaging study

BACKGROUND

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a highly heritable psychiatric disorder characterized by starvation and emaciation and associated with changes in brain structure. The precise nature of these changes remains unclear, as does their developmental time course and capacity for reversal with weight-restoration. In this comprehensive neuroimaging study, we sought to characterize these changes by measuring subcortical volume and cortical surface architecture in women with acute and remitted AN.

METHODS

Structural magnetic resonance imaging data was acquired from underweight women with a current diagnosis of AN (acAN: n = 23), weight-recovered women with a past diagnosis of AN (recAN: n = 24), and female controls (HC: n = 24). Subcortical segmentation and cortical surface reconstruction were performed with FreeSurfer 6.0.0, and group differences in regional volume and vertex-wise, cortex-wide thickness, surface area, and local gyrification index (LGI), a measure of folding, were tested with separate univariate analyses of covariance.

RESULTS

Mean hippocampal and thalamic volumes were significantly reduced in acAN participants, as was mean cortical thickness in four frontal and temporal clusters. Mean LGI was significantly reduced in acAN and recAN participants in five frontal and parietal clusters. No significant group differences in cortical surface area were detected.

CONCLUSIONS

Reductions in subcortical volume, cortical thickness, and right postcentral LGI were unique to women with acute AN, indicating state-dependence and pointing towards cellular remodeling and sulcal widening as consequences of disease manifestation. Reductions in bilateral frontal LGI were observed in women with acute and remitted AN, suggesting a role of atypical neurodevelopment in disease vulnerability.

Neurobiology and consequences of social isolation stress in animal model-A comprehensive review

The brain is a vital organ, susceptible to alterations under genetic influences and environmental experiences. Social isolation (SI) acts as a stressor which results in alterations in reactivity to stress, social behavior, function of neurochemical and neuroendocrine system, physiological, anatomical and behavioral changes in both animal and humans. During early stages of life, acute or chronic SIS has been proposed to show signs and symptoms of psychiatric and neurological disorders such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsy and memory loss. Exposure to social isolation stress induces a variety of endocrinological changes including the activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, culminating in the release of glucocorticoids (GCs), release of catecholamines, activation of the sympatho-adrenomedullary system, release of Oxytocin and vasopressin. In several regions of the central nervous system (CNS), SIS alters the level of neurotransmitter such as dopamine, serotonin, gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, nitrergic system and adrenaline as well as leads to alteration in receptor sensitivity of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and opioid system. A change in the function of oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS) mediated mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammatory factors, neurotrophins and neurotrophicfactors (NTFs), early growth response transcription factor genes (Egr) and C-Fos expression are also involved as a pathophysiological consequences of SIS which induce neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Impact of early institutionalization on attention mechanisms underlying the inhibition of a planned action

Institutional rearing is associated with deficits in executive functions, such as inhibitory control, and may contribute to later externalizing behavior problems. In the current study, we explored the impact of institutional rearing on attention in the context of inhibiting a planned action. As part of the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP), children were randomized to either remain in the institutions in which they lived (Care as Usual Group) or be placed into foster family homes (Foster Care Group). We also recruited age and gender matched never-institutionalized (NIG) children from the Bucharest community. We examined differences in behavioral and Event Related Potentials (ERPs) during a go-no-go task when children were 12 years old. Results revealed that the ever-institutionalized group (CAUG and FCG combined) showed slower reaction times, worse performance accuracy, larger P2 activation, and smaller (less negative) N2 activation than the NIG group. Results of a moderation analysis revealed that children who spent more time in institutions and had small N2s showed more externalizing symptoms. These results have implications for the design of treatment approaches for previously institutionalized children with externalizing behavior problems.

Rapid Infant Prefrontal Cortex Development and Sensitivity to Early Environmental Experience

Over the last fifteen years, the emerging field of developmental cognitive neuroscience has described the relatively late development of prefrontal cortex in children and the relation between gradual structural changes and children's protracted development of prefrontal-dependent skills. Widespread recognition by the broader scientific community of the extended development of prefrontal cortex has led to the overwhelming perception of prefrontal cortex as a "late developing" region of the brain. However, despite its supposedly protracted development, multiple lines of research have converged to suggest that prefrontal cortex development may be particularly susceptible to individual differences in children's early environments. Recent studies demonstrate that the impacts of early adverse environments on prefrontal cortex are present very early in development: within the first year of life. This review provides a comprehensive overview of new neuroimaging evidence demonstrating that prefrontal cortex should be characterized as a "rapidly developing" region of the brain, discusses the converging impacts of early adversity on prefrontal circuits, and presents potential mechanisms via which adverse environments shape both concurrent and long-term measures of prefrontal cortex development. Given that environmentally-induced disparities are present in prefrontal cortex development within the first year of life, translational work in intervention and/or prevention science should focus on intervening early in development to take advantages of this early period of rapid prefrontal development and heightened plasticity.

Self-reported neglect, amygdala volume, and symptoms of anxiety in adolescent boys

Experiences of psychosocial neglect affect the developing brain and may place individuals at increased risk for anxiety. The majority of research in this area has focused on children who have experienced severe psychosocial deprivation; it is not clear whether typical variation in neglect experienced in community samples would have the same neurobiological consequences as those documented in extreme samples. The present study examined the associations among self-reported childhood neglect, amygdala volume, and anxiety symptoms in a community sample of 138 adolescents ages 9-15 years (43% male). Linear mixed modeling yielded a three-way interaction of neglect, sex, and brain hemisphere, reflecting a significant positive association between neglect and right amygdala volume in boys. Additional analyses indicated that right amygdala volume significantly mediated the association between neglect and anxiety symptoms in boys. These findings are consistent with previous reports of larger amygdala volumes in previously institutionalized children, and with documented associations between caregiving deprivation and anxiety symptoms. The results suggest that the effects of childhood neglect on limbic structures are sex-specific and lateralized, and provide support for a neural mechanism relating childhood neglect to later difficulties in emotional functioning.

Hippocampal Subfields Volume Reduction in High Schoolers with Previous Verbal Abuse Experiences

Objective

Reduced hippocampal volume and alterations in white matter tracts have been frequently reported in adults having the history of emotional maltreatment. We investigated whether these structural change occur in adolescents with previous verbal abuse (VA) experiences.

Methods

Hippocampal subfield volume and white matter structural connectivity measures were assessed in 31 first year male high school students with various degrees of exposure to parental and peer VA.

Results

The high VA group showed significant volume reduction in the left cornu ammonis (CA) 1 and left subiculum compared to the low VA group (p＜0.05). Volumes of left hippocampal subfields CA1 and subiculum were negatively correlated with previous VA experiences (p＜0.05). Increased mean diffusivity (MD) of the splenium of the corpus callosum was related to high VA score across all subjects (p＜0.05). There was an inverse relationship between volume of the CA1 and subiculum and MD of the splenium (p＜0.05).

Conclusion

Exposure to parental and peer VA may affect development of the left hippocampal subfields and the splenium of corpus callosum. These structural alterations can be discernible during adolescence.

Early Socioemotional Intervention Mediates Long-Term Effects of Atypical Rearing on Structural Covariation in Gray Matter in Adult Chimpanzees

Atypical rearing has deleterious effects on chimpanzee behavior during development, some of which can be ameliorated with a responsive care intervention (RCI). Here, we obtained in vivo magnetic resonance images of adult brains of 27 chimpanzees given institutional care, with and without RCI, and compared them with those of 16 chimpanzees mother-reared from birth. We found significant long-term rearing effects on structural covariation and gray matter volume, specifically in the basal forebrain (i.e., caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens, rectus gyrus, and orbital prefrontal cortex), indicating that RCI prevented brain changes due to atypical rearing. A significant correlation between covariation in these brain areas and caregiver nurturing, experienced in the first month of life, suggests a possible developmental mechanism for the effect of early experience on brain networks. We identified an early intervention that prevents changes in the basal forebrain that otherwise emerge as a consequence of institutionalized rearing without species-typical socioemotional experiences.

Effects of Early Neglect Experience on Recognition and Processing of Facial Expressions: A Systematic Review

Background: Child neglect is highly prevalent and associated with a series of biological and social consequences. Early neglect may alter the recognition of emotional faces, but its precise impact remains unclear. We aim to review and analyze data from recent literature about recognition and processing of facial expressions in individuals with history of childhood neglect. Methods: We conducted a systematic review using PubMed, PsycINFO, ScIELO and EMBASE databases in the search of studies for the past 10 years. Results: In total, 14 studies were selected and critically reviewed. A heterogeneity was detected across methods and sample frames. Results were mixed across studies. Different forms of alterations to perception of facial expressions were found across 12 studies. There was alteration to the recognition and processing of both positive and negative emotions, but for emotional face processing there was predominance in alteration toward negative emotions. Conclusions: This is the first review to examine specifically the effects of early neglect experience as a prevalent condition of child maltreatment. The results of this review are inconclusive due to methodological diversity, implement of distinct instruments and differences in the composition of the samples. Despite these limitations, some studies support our hypothesis that individuals with history of early negligence may present alteration to the ability to perceive face expressions of emotions. The article brings relevant information that can help in the development of more effective therapeutic strategies to reduce the impact of neglect on the cognitive and emotional development of the child.

Association of the World War II Finnish Evacuation of Children With Psychiatric Hospitalization in the Next Generation

IMPORTANCE

Although there is evidence that adverse childhood experiences are associated with worse mental health in adulthood, scarce evidence is available regarding an emerging concern that the next generation might also be affected.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the risk of psychiatric hospitalization in cousins whose parents were vs were not exposed to the Finnish evacuation policy that involved a mean 2-year stay with a Swedish foster family.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This multigenerational, population-based cohort study of Finnish individuals and their siblings born between January 1, 1933, and December 31, 1944, analyzed the association of evacuee status as a child during World War II in the first generation with the risk of psychiatric hospitalization among offspring in the second generation. Evacuee status during World War II was determined using the Finnish National Archive's registry of participants in the Finnish evacuation. Data on evacuee status were linked to the psychiatric diagnoses in the Finnish Hospital Discharge Register from January 1, 1971, through December 31, 2012, for offspring (n = 93 391) born between January 1, 1950, and December 31, 2010. Sex-specific Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate hazard ratios for risk of psychiatric hospitalization during the follow-up period. Because offspring of evacuees and their nonevacuated siblings are cousins, the Cox proportional hazards regression models included fixed effects to adjust for confounding factors in families. Data analysis was performed from June 15, 2016, to August 26, 2017.

EXPOSURES

Parental participation in the evacuation during World War II (coded 1 for parents who were evacuated and placed in foster care and 0 for those not evacuated).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Offspring's initial admission to the hospital for a psychiatric disorder, obtained from the Finnish Hospital Discharge Register from January 1, 1971, through December 31, 2012.

RESULTS

Of the 93 391 study persons, 45 955 (49.2%) were women and 47 436 (50.8) were men; mean (SD) age in 2012 among survivors was 45.4 (6.58) years. Female offspring of mothers evacuated to Sweden during childhood had an elevated risk of psychiatric hospitalization (hazard ratio for any type of psychiatric disorder: 2.04 [95% CI, 1.04-4.01]; hazard ratio for mood disorder: 4.68 [95% CI, 1.92-11.42]). There was no excess risk of being hospitalized for a psychiatric disorder among women whose fathers were exposed to the Finnish evacuation policy during World War II or among men whose mothers or fathers were exposed.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In a prior follow-up study of the Finnish evacuees, girls evacuated to Swedish foster families during World War II were more likely to be hospitalized for a psychiatric disorder-in particular, a mood disorder-in adulthood than their nonevacuated sisters. The present study found that the offspring of these individuals were also at risk for mental health problems that required hospitalization and suggests that early-life adversities, including war-related exposures, may be associated with mental health disorders that persist across generations.

Dimensions of childhood adversity have distinct associations with neural systems underlying executive functioning

Childhood adversity is associated with increased risk for psychopathology. Neurodevelopmental pathways underlying this risk remain poorly understood. A recent conceptual model posits that childhood adversity can be deconstructed into at least two underlying dimensions, deprivation and threat, that are associated with distinct neurocognitive consequences. This model argues that deprivation (i.e., a lack of cognitive stimulation and learning opportunities) is associated with poor executive function (EF), whereas threat is not. We examine this hypothesis in two studies measuring EF at multiple levels: performance on EF tasks, neural recruitment during EF, and problems with EF in daily life. In Study 1, deprivation (low parental education and child neglect) was associated with greater parent-reported problems with EF in adolescents (N = 169; 13-17 years) after adjustment for levels of threat (community violence and abuse), which were unrelated to EF. In Study 2, low parental education was associated with poor working memory (WM) performance and inefficient neural recruitment in the parietal and prefrontal cortex during high WM load among adolescents (N = 51, 13-20 years) after adjusting for abuse, which was unrelated to WM task performance and neural recruitment during WM. These findings constitute strong preliminary evidence for a novel model of the neurodevelopmental consequences of childhood adversity.

Motor learning in children and adolescents institutionalized in shelters

Abstract Introduction: Children and adolescents living in shelters may present with impaired motor development, cognitive function, as well as speech and understanding; psychological alterations; and hyperactivity. All of these factors may be detrimental to motor learning. Objective: To investigate motor learning in children and adolescents living in shelters, and to compare it with that of individuals living in a family context. Methods: We assessed 36 individuals who were divided into groups: an experimental group, composed of institutionalized children and adolescents (EG, n=18), and a control group (CG, n = 18) that was matched by age and sex. Motor learning was assessed using a maze test in three stages: acquisition, retention and transfer. The data were analyzed using the Shapiro Wilk, Wilcoxon, Mann Whitney, Kruskal Wallis tests and Dunn’s post-test (p < 5%). Results: The EG had a longer task performance time than the CG. There was a significant reduction in task performance time between the first (EG = 11.05 [8.50-14.85]s; CG:7.65 [5.95-10.23]s) and the last task performance block (EG:8.02 [6.86-10.23]s; GC: 5.50 [4.50-6.82]s) in both groups. When comparing the variables of the last acquisition (GE:8.02[6.86-10.23]s; GC: 5.50[4.50-6.82]s), retention (GE:8.20[7.09-9.89]s;GC:5.35[4.50-6.22]s) and transfer blocks (GE:8.30[6.28-11.43]s; GC:5.30[4.90-6.82]s) in each group, we found no changes in task performance time between test batteries. Conclusion: Individuals living in shelters showed a motor learning deficit, as evidenced by longer task performance time when compared to their controls. Nevertheless, both groups performed the task in a similar manner.

Social Origins of Developmental Risk for Mental and Physical Illness

Adversity in early childhood exerts an enduring impact on mental and physical health, academic achievement, lifetime productivity, and the probability of interfacing with the criminal justice system. More science is needed to understand how the brain is affected by early life stress (ELS), which produces excessive activation of stress response systems broadly throughout the child's body (toxic stress). Our research examines the importance of sex, timing and type of stress exposure, and critical periods for intervention in various brain systems across species. Neglect (the absence of sensitive and responsive caregiving) or disrupted interaction with offspring induces robust, lasting consequences in mice, monkeys, and humans. Complementary assessment of internalizing disorders and brain imaging in children suggests that early adversity can interfere with white matter development in key brain regions, which may increase risk for emotional difficulties in the long term. Neural circuits that are most plastic during ELS exposure in monkeys sustain the greatest change in gene expression, offering a mechanism whereby stress timing might lead to markedly different long-term behaviors. Rodent models reveal that disrupted maternal-infant interactions yield metabolic and behavioral outcomes often differing by sex. Moreover, ELS may further accelerate or delay critical periods of development, which reflect GABA circuit maturation, BDNF, and circadian Clock genes. Such factors are associated with several mental disorders and may contribute to a premature closure of plastic windows for intervention following ELS. Together, complementary cross-species studies are elucidating principles of adaptation to adversity in early childhood with molecular, cellular, and whole organism resolution.

A novel ecological account of prefrontal cortex functional development

In this paper, we argue that prefrontal cortex ontogenetic functional development is best understood through an ecological lens. We first begin by reviewing evidence supporting the existing consensus that PFC structural and functional development is protracted based on maturational constraints. We then examine recent findings from neuroimaging studies in infants, early life stress research, and connectomics that support the novel hypothesis that PFC functional development is driven by reciprocal processes of neural adaptation and niche construction. We discuss implications and predictions of this model for redefining the construct of executive functions and for informing typical and atypical child development. This ecological account of PFC functional development moves beyond descriptions of development that are characteristic of existing frameworks, and provides novel insights into the mechanisms of developmental change, including its catalysts and influences. (PsycINFO Database Record

Neglect as a Violation of Species-Expectant Experience: Neurodevelopmental Consequences

The human brain requires a wide variety of experiences and environmental inputs in order to develop normally. Children who are neglected by caregivers or raised in institutional environments are deprived of numerous types of species-expectant environmental experiences. In this review, we articulate a model of how the absence of cognitive stimulation and sensory, motor, linguistic, and social experiences common among children raised in deprived early environments constrains early forms of learning, producing long-term deficits in complex cognitive function and associative learning. Building on evidence from animal models, we propose that deprivation accelerates the neurodevelopmental process of synaptic pruning and limits myelination, resulting in age-specific reductions in cortical thickness and white matter integrity among children raised in deprived early environments. We review evidence linking early experiences of psychosocial deprivation to reductions in cognitive ability, associative and implicit learning, language skills, and executive functions as well as atypical patterns of cortical and white matter development-domains that should be profoundly influenced by deprivation through the learning and neural mechanisms we propose. These patterns of atypical development are difficult to explain with existing models that emphasize stress pathways and accelerated limbic system development. A learning account of how deprived early environments influence cognitive and neural development provides a complementary perspective to stress models and highlights novel pathways through which deprivation might confer risk for internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. We end by reviewing evidence for plasticity in cognitive and neural development among children raised in deprived environments following interventions that improve caregiving quality.

Social touch interacts with infants' learning of auditory patterns

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Infants use intersensory redundancy provided by social touch to learn auditory patterns.

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There is wide variation in the frequency of different patterns of touch from caregivers.

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Less frequent patterns of touch may be more likely to enhance attention and learning.

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The findings suggest that infants track patterns of touch in naturalistic input from caregivers.

Infants’ experiences are defined by the presence of concurrent streams of perceptual information in social environments. Touch from caregivers is an especially pervasive feature of early development. Using three lab experiments and a corpus of naturalistic caregiver-infant interactions, we examined the relevance of touch in supporting infants’ learning of structure in an altogether different modality: audition. In each experiment, infants listened to sequences of sine-wave tones following the same abstract pattern (e.g., ABA or ABB) while receiving time-locked touch sequences from an experimenter that provided either informative or uninformative cues to the pattern (e.g., knee-elbow-knee or knee-elbow-elbow). Results showed that intersensorily redundant touch supported infants’ learning of tone patterns, but learning varied depending on the typicality of touch sequences in infants’ lives. These findings suggest that infants track touch sequences from moment to moment and in aggregate from their caregivers, and use the intersensory redundancy provided by touch to discover patterns in their environment.

Are there sensitive periods when child maltreatment substantially elevates suicide risk? Results from a nationally representative sample of adolescents

BACKGROUND

Although child maltreatment is a well documented risk factor for suicidal behavior, little is known about whether the timing of child maltreatment differentially associates with risk of suicidal ideation, suicide plans, or suicide attempts. The goal of this study was to examine whether a first exposure to physical or sexual abuse during specific developmental periods significantly elevated risk for suicidal behavior in adolescents.

METHODS

Data came from the National Comorbidity Survey Adolescent Supplement, a population-based sample of US adolescents aged 13-18 years old (n = 9,272). Using discrete time survival analysis, we assessed the association between timing of first abuse (early childhood: ages 0-5; middle childhood: ages 6-10; adolescence: ages 11-18) and suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts.

RESULTS

Exposure to either physical or sexual abuse increased the odds of reporting suicidal ideation (odds ratio [OR] = 5.06 and OR = 3.56, respectively), plans (OR = 3.63 and OR = 3.58, respectively), and attempts (OR = 5.80 and OR = 4.21, respectively), even after controlling for sociodemographic covariates and psychiatric disorders. However, the timing of physical and sexual abuse exposure was unassociated with suicidal behavior (all p values >.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to child maltreatment is strongly associated with risk for adolescent suicidal behaviors, though this association did not vary based on the developmental timing of first exposure. These findings suggest that prevention efforts should be implemented throughout early development and target all children, regardless of when they were first exposed.

Social isolation stress and chronic glutathione deficiency have a common effect on the glutamine-to-glutamate ratio and myo-inositol concentration in the mouse frontal cortex

Environmental stress can interact with genetic predisposition to increase the risk of developing psychopathology. In this work, we tested the hypothesis that social isolation stress interacts with impaired glutathione synthesis and have cumulative effects on the neurochemical profile of the frontal cortex. A mouse model with chronic glutathione deficit induced by knockout (-/-) of the glutamate-cysteine ligase modulatory subunit (Gclm) was exposed to social isolation stress from weaning to post-natal day 65. Using magnetic resonance methods at high-field (14.1 T), we analysed the neurochemical profile in the frontal cortex, brain size and ventricular volume of adult animals. Glutathione deficit was accompanied by elevated concentrations of N-acetylaspartate, alanine, and glutamine, as well as the ratio of glutamine-to-glutamate (Gln/Glu), and by a reduction in levels of myo-inositol and choline-containing compounds in the frontal cortex of -/- animals with respect to wild-type littermates. Although there was no significant interaction between social isolation stress and glutathione deficiency, mice reared in isolation displayed lower myo-inositol concentration (-8.4%, p < 0.05) and larger Gln/Glu (+7.6%, p < 0.05), relative to those in group housing. Furthermore, glutathione deficiency caused a reduction in whole brain volume and enlargement of ventricles, but social isolation had no effect on these parameters. We conclude that social isolation caused neurochemical alterations that may add to those associated to impaired glutathione synthesis.

Neuronal networks in the developing brain are adversely modulated by early psychosocial neglect

The brain's neural circuitry plays a ubiquitous role across domains in cognitive processing and undergoes extensive reorganization during the course of development in part as a result of experience. In this study we investigated the effects of profound early psychosocial neglect associated with institutional rearing on the development of task-independent brain networks, estimated from longitudinally acquired electroencephalographic (EEG) data from <30 to 96 mo, in three cohorts of children from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP), including abandoned children reared in institutions who were randomly assigned either to a foster care intervention or to remain in care as usual and never-institutionalized children. Two aberrantly connected brain networks were identified in children that had been reared in institutions: 1) a hyperconnected parieto-occipital network, which included cortical hubs and connections that may partially overlap with default-mode network, and 2) a hypoconnected network between left temporal and distributed bilateral regions, both of which were aberrantly connected across neural oscillations. This study provides the first evidence of the adverse effects of early psychosocial neglect on the wiring of the developing brain. Given these networks' potentially significant role in various cognitive processes, including memory, learning, social communication, and language, these findings suggest that institutionalization in early life may profoundly impact the neural correlates underlying multiple cognitive domains, in ways that may not be fully reversible in the short term.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This paper provides first evidence that early psychosocial neglect associated with institutional rearing profoundly affects the development of the brain's neural circuitry. Using longitudinally acquired electrophysiological data from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP), the paper identifies multiple task-independent networks that are abnormally connected (hyper- or hypoconnected) in children reared in institutions compared with never-institutionalized children. These networks involve spatially distributed brain areas and their abnormal connections may adversely impact neural information processing across cognitive domains.

Alternatives for abandoned children: insights from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project

The Bucharest Early Intervention Project is the first and only randomized controlled trial of foster care as an alternative to institutional care for orphaned and abandoned children. Across various domains of brain and behavioral development we demonstrated that children in families developed more favorably than children in institutions, that foster care remediates some but not all compromises associated with institutional placement and that earlier placement in foster care leads to more developmental gains in some but not all domains. In addition to early placement, higher quality of care provided and more stable placements for children all enhanced outcomes. These results have important implications for science, practice and policy.

Interpersonal early-life trauma alters amygdala connectivity and sustained attention performance

INTRODUCTION

Interpersonal early life trauma (I-ELT) is associated with a myriad of functional impairments in adulthood, increased risk of drug addiction, and neuropsychiatric disorders. While deficits in emotional regulation and amygdala functioning are well characterized, deficits in general cognitive functioning have also been documented. However, the neural underpinnings of cognitive dysfunction in adults with a history of I-ELT and the potential relationship between amygdala-based functional connectivity and behavioral performance are currently poorly understood. This study examined how I-ELT affects the cognitive and neural mechanisms supporting sustained attention.

METHODS

A total of 66 Veterans (18 with and 48 without a history of I-ELT) completed a nonemotional sustained attention task during functional MRI.

RESULTS

The individuals with I-ELT showed significant impairments in sustained attention (i.e., higher error rates, greater response variability). This cohort exhibited increased amygdala functional connectivity with the prefrontal cortex and decreased functional connectivity with the parahippocampal gyrus when compared to those without I-ELT. These connections were significantly correlated with individual differences in sustained attention performance. Notably, classification analyses revealed that the pattern of amygdala connectivity across the whole brain was able to classify I-ELT status with 70% accuracy.

CONCLUSION

These results provide evidence of a lasting negative impact for those with a history of I-ELT on sustained attention ability. They also highlight a critical role for amygdala functioning in cognitive control and sustained attention for those with a history of I-ELT, which may underlie the observed attention deficits in clinical assessments and cognitive tests involving both emotional and nonemotional stimuli.

QEEG and LORETA in Teenagers With Conduct Disorder and Psychopathic Traits

BACKGROUND

Few studies have investigated the impact of the psychopathic traits on the EEG of teenagers with conduct disorder (CD). To date, there is no other research studying low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (LORETA) technique using quantitative EEG (QEEG) analysis in adolescents with CD and psychopathic traits.

OBJECTIVE

To find electrophysiological differences specifically related to the psychopathic traits. The current investigation compares the QEEG and the current source density measures between adolescents with CD and psychopathic traits and adolescents with CD without psychopathic traits.

METHODS

The resting EEG activity and LORETA for the EEG fast spectral bands were evaluated in 42 teenagers with CD, 25 with and 17 without psychopathic traits according to the Antisocial Process Screening Device. All adolescents were assessed using the DSM-IV-TR criteria. The EEG visual inspection characteristics and the use of frequency domain quantitative analysis techniques (narrow band spectral parameters) are described.

RESULTS

QEEG analysis showed a pattern of beta activity excess on the bilateral frontal-temporal regions and decreases of alpha band power on the left central-temporal and right frontal-central-temporal regions in the psychopathic traits group. Current source density calculated at 17.18 Hz showed an increase within fronto-temporo-striatal regions in the psychopathic relative to the nonpsychopathic traits group.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that QEEG analysis and techniques of source localization may reveal differences in brain electrical activity among teenagers with CD and psychopathic traits, which was not obvious to visual inspection. Taken together, these results suggest that abnormalities in a fronto-temporo-striatal network play a relevant role in the neurobiological basis of psychopathic behavior.

The Troubled Touch of Autism

A study finds that deficits in touch-sensing somatosensory neurons contribute to social interaction and anxiety phenotypes in mouse models of autism and Rett syndrome. These findings suggest that some core symptoms of autism might originate from aberrant development or function of the peripheral nervous system.

Childhood socioeconomic status and childhood maltreatment: Distinct associations with brain structure

The present study examined the relationship between childhood socioeconomic status (SES), childhood maltreatment, and the volumes of the hippocampus and amygdala between the ages of 25 and 36 years. Previous work has linked both low SES and maltreatment with reduced hippocampal volume in childhood, an effect attributed to childhood stress. In 46 adult subjects, only childhood maltreatment, and not childhood SES, predicted hippocampal volume in regression analyses, with greater maltreatment associated with lower volume. Neither factor was related to amygdala volume. When current SES and recent interpersonal stressful events were also considered, recent interpersonal stressful events predicted smaller hippocampal volumes over and above childhood maltreatment. Finally, exploratory analyses revealed a significant sex by childhood SES interaction, with women’s childhood SES showing a significantly more positive relation (less negative) with hippocampus volume than men’s. The overall effect of childhood maltreatment but not SES, and the sex-specific effect of childhood SES, indicate that different forms of stressful childhood adversity affect brain development differently.

Child Abuse, Neural Structure, and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Longitudinal Study

OBJECTIVE

Child abuse exerts a deleterious impact on a broad array of mental health outcomes. However, the neurobiological mechanisms that mediate this association remain poorly characterized. Here, we use a longitudinal design to prospectively identify neural mediators of the association between child abuse and psychiatric disorders in a community sample of adolescents.

METHOD

Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data and assessments of mental health were acquired for 51 adolescents (aged 13-20; M=16.96; SD=1.51), 19 of whom were exposed to physical or sexual abuse. Participants were assessed for abuse exposure (time 1), participated in MRI scanning and a diagnostic structured interview (time 2), and 2 years later were followed-up to assess psychopathology (time 3). We examined associations between child abuse and neural structure, and identified whether abuse-related differences in neural structure prospectively predicted psychiatric symptoms.

RESULTS

Abuse was associated with reduced cortical thickness in medial and lateral prefrontal and temporal lobe regions. Thickness of the left and right parahippocampal gyrus predicted antisocial behavior symptoms, and thickness of the middle temporal gyrus predicted symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder. Thickness of the left parahippocampal gyrus mediated the longitudinal association of abuse with antisocial behavior.

CONCLUSION

Child abuse is associated with widespread disruptions in cortical structure, and these disruptions are selectively associated with increased vulnerability to internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Identifying predictive biomarkers of vulnerability following childhood maltreatment may uncover neurodevelopmental mechanisms linking environmental experience with the onset of psychopathology.

Toward understanding the impact of trauma on the early developing human brain

Traumatic experiences early in life predispose animals and humans to later cognitive-behavioral, emotional, and somatic problems. In humans, traumatic experiences are strong predictors of psychiatric illness. A growing body of research has emphasized alterations in neurological structure and function that underscore phenotypic changes following trauma. However, results are mixed and imprecise. We argue that future translation of neurological findings to clinical practice will require: (1) discovery of neurobehavioral associations within a longitudinal context, (2) dissociation of trauma types and of trauma versus chronic stress, and (3) better localization of neural sequelae considerate of the fine resolution of neural circuitry. We provide a brief overview of early brain development and highlight the role of longitudinal research in unearthing brain-behavior relations in youth. We relay an emergent framework in which dissociable trauma types are hypothesized to impact distinct, rationally informed neural systems. In line with this, we discuss the long-standing challenge of separating effects of chronic stress and trauma, as these are often intertwined. We bring to light inconsistencies in localization of neural correlates of trauma, emphasizing results in medial prefrontal regions. We assert that more precise spatial brain localization will help to advance prevailing models of trauma pathways and inform future research.

Rhythms dysregulation: A new perspective for understanding PTSD?

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a complex syndrome that may occur after exposure to one or more traumatic events. It associates physiological, emotional, and cognitive changes Brain and hormonal modifications contribute to some impairments in learning, memory, and emotion regulation. Some of these biological dysfunctions may be analyzed in terms of rhythms dysregulation that would be expressed through endocrine rhythmicity, sleep organization, and temporal synchrony in brain activity. In the first part of this article, we report studies on endocrine rhythmicity revealing that some rhythms abnormalities are frequently observed, although not constantly, for both cortisol and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity. The most typical changes are a flattening of the diurnal secretion of cortisol and the hyperactivation of the SNS. These results may explain why cognitive functioning, in particular consolidation of emotional memories, attention, learning, vigilance and arousal, is altered in patients with PTSD. The second part of this article focuses on sleep disturbances, one of the core features of PTSD. Abnormal REM sleep reported in various studies may have a pathophysiological role in PTSD and may exacerbate some symptoms such as emotional regulation and memory. In addition, sleep disorders, such as paradoxical insomnia, increase the risk of developing PTSD. We also discuss the potential impact of sleep disturbances on cognition. Finally, temporal synchrony of brain activity and functional connectivity, explored using electroencephalography and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are addressed. Several studies reported abnormalities in alpha, beta and gamma frequency bands that may affect both attentional and memory processes. Other studies confirmed abnormalities in connectivity and recent fMRI data suggest that this could limit top-down control and may be associated with flashback intrusive memories. These data illustrate that a better knowledge of the different patterns of biological rhythms contributes to explain the heterogeneity of PTSD and shed new light on the association with some frequent medical disorders.