Historical analysis of participation in 161 km ultramarathons in North America

Fatigue associated with prolonged graded running

Scientific experiments on running mainly consider level running. However, the magnitude and etiology of fatigue depend on the exercise under consideration, particularly the predominant type of contraction, which differs between level, uphill, and downhill running. The purpose of this review is to comprehensively summarize the neurophysiological and biomechanical changes due to fatigue in graded running. When comparing prolonged hilly running (i.e., a combination of uphill and downhill running) to level running, it is found that (1) the general shape of the neuromuscular fatigue-exercise duration curve as well as the etiology of fatigue in knee extensor and plantar flexor muscles are similar and (2) the biomechanical consequences are also relatively comparable, suggesting that duration rather than elevation changes affects neuromuscular function and running patterns. However, 'pure' uphill or downhill running has several fatigue-related intrinsic features compared with the level running. Downhill running induces severe lower limb tissue damage, indirectly evidenced by massive increases in plasma creatine kinase/myoglobin concentration or inflammatory markers. In addition, low-frequency fatigue (i.e., excitation-contraction coupling failure) is systematically observed after downhill running, although it has also been found in high-intensity uphill running for different reasons. Indeed, low-frequency fatigue in downhill running is attributed to mechanical stress at the interface sarcoplasmic reticulum/T-tubule, while the inorganic phosphate accumulation probably plays a central role in intense uphill running. Other fatigue-related specificities of graded running such as strategies to minimize the deleterious effects of downhill running on muscle function, the difference of energy cost versus heat storage or muscle activity changes in downhill, level, and uphill running are also discussed.

Incidence and Prevalence of Acute Kidney Injury During Multistage Ultramarathons

OBJECTIVE

Determine prevalence, incidence, and risk factors of acute kidney injury (AKI) during multistage ultramarathons.

DESIGN

Prospective observational cohort study.

SETTING

Jordanian Desert 2012; Atacama Desert, Chile 2012 and 2013; and Gobi Desert 2013 RacingThePlanet 250 km, 6-stage, ultramarathons.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred twenty-eight participants (384 measurements) from the Jordan (25, 19.5%), Gobi (35, 27.3%), 2012 Atacama (24, 18.8%), and 2013 Atacama (44, 34.4%) races.

INTERVENTIONS

Blood samples and weights were gathered and analyzed immediately after stage 1 (40 km), 3 (120 km), and 5 (225 km).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Changes in serum creatinine (Cr), cumulative incidence, and prevalence of AKI were calculated for each stage with "risk of injury" defined as 1.5 × baseline Cr and "injury" defined as 2 × Cr.

RESULTS

Cumulative incidence of AKI was 41.4%. Stage 1 had 56 (43.8%) with risk of AKI and 24 (18.8%) with injury; in stage 3, 61 (47.7%) were at risk, 41 (32%) had injury; in stage 5, 62 (48.4%) runners were at risk and 36 (28.1%) had injury. Acute kidney injury was significantly associated with females [odds ratio (OR), 4.64; 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.07-10.37; P < 0.001], lower pack weight (OR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.56-0.91; P < 0.007), and percentage weight loss (OR, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.78-0.97; P < 0.015). Lowest quintile of finishers was less likely to develop AKI (OR, 0.18; 95% CI, 0.04-0.78; P < 0.022).

CONCLUSIONS

Prevalence of AKI was 63%-78% during multistage ultramarathons. Female sex, lower pack weight, and greater weight loss were associated with renal impairment.

Joint power and kinematics coordination in load carriage running: Implications for performance and injury

Investigating the impact of incremental load magnitude on running joint power and kinematics is important for understanding the energy cost burden and potential injury-causative mechanisms associated with load carriage. It was hypothesized that incremental load magnitude would result in phase-specific, joint power and kinematic changes within the stance phase of running, and that these relationships would vary at different running velocities. Thirty-one participants performed running while carrying three load magnitudes (0%, 10%, 20% body weight), at three velocities (3, 4, 5m/s). Lower limb trajectories and ground reaction forces were captured, and global optimization was used to derive the variables. The relationships between load magnitude and joint power and angle vectors, at each running velocity, were analyzed using Statistical Parametric Mapping Canonical Correlation Analysis. Incremental load magnitude was positively correlated to joint power in the second half of stance. Increasing load magnitude was also positively correlated with alterations in three dimensional ankle angles during mid-stance (4.0 and 5.0m/s), knee angles at mid-stance (at 5.0m/s), and hip angles during toe-off (at all velocities). Post hoc analyses indicated that at faster running velocities (4.0 and 5.0m/s), increasing load magnitude appeared to alter power contribution in a distal-to-proximal (ankle→hip) joint sequence from mid-stance to toe-off. In addition, kinematic changes due to increasing load influenced both sagittal and non-sagittal plane lower limb joint angles. This study provides a list of plausible factors that may influence running energy cost and injury risk during load carriage running.

Do women reduce the gap to men in ultra-marathon running?

The aim of the present study was to examine sex differences across years in performance of runners in ultra-marathons lasting from 6 h to 10 days (i.e. 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 144, and 240 h). Data of 32,187 finishers competing between 1975 and 2013 with 93,109 finishes were analysed using multiple linear regression analyses. With increasing age, the sex gap for all race durations increased. Across calendar years, the gap between women and men decreased in 6, 72, 144 and 240 h, but increased in 24 and 48 h. The men-to-women ratio differed among age groups, where a higher ratio was observed in the older age groups, and this relationship varied by distance. In all durations of ultra-marathon, the participation of women and men varied by age (p < 0.001), indicating a relatively low participation of women in the older age groups. In summary, between 1975 and 2013, women were able to reduce the gap to men for most of timed ultra-marathons and for those age groups where they had relatively high participation.

Injury and Illness Rates During Ultratrail Running

This study aimed to describe injury/illness rates in ultratrail runners competing in a 65-km race to build a foundation for injury prevention and help race organizers to plan medical provision for these events. Prospectively transcribed medical records were analysed for 77 athletes at the end of the race. Number of injuries/illnesses per 1 000 runners and per 1 000-h run, overall injury/illness rate and 90% confidence intervals and rates for major and minor illnesses, musculoskeletal injuries, and skin disorders were analysed. A total of 132 injuries/illnesses were encountered during the race. The overall injuries/illnesses were 1.9 per runner and 13.1 per 1 000-h run. Medical illnesses were the most prominent medical diagnoses encountered (50.3%), followed by musculoskeletal injuries (32.8%), and skin-related disorders (16.9%). Despite the ultra-long nature of the race, the majority of injuries/illnesses were minor in nature. Medical staff and runners should prepare to treat all types of injuries and illnesses, especially the fatigue arising throughout the course of an ultratrail run and injuries to the lower limbs. Future studies should attempt to systematically identify injury locations and mechanisms in order to better direct injury prevention strategies and plan more accurate medical care.

The Acute Risks of Exercise in Apparently Healthy Adults and Relevance for Prevention of Cardiovascular Events

BACKGROUND

Increased physical activity (PA) is associated with improved quality of life and reductions in cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and all-cause mortality in the general population in a dose-response manner. However, PA acutely increases the risk of adverse CV event or sudden cardiac death (SCD) above levels expected at rest. We review the likelihood of adverse CV events related to exercise in apparently healthy adults and strategies for prevention, and contextualize our understanding of the long-term risk reduction conferred from PA.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed using electronic databases; additional hand-picked relevant articles from reference lists and additional sources were included after the search.

RESULTS

The incidence of adverse CV events in adults is extremely low during and immediately after PA of varying types and intensities and is significantly lower in those with long-standing PA experience. The risk of SCD and nonfatal events during and immediately after PA remains extremely low (well below 0.01 per 10,000 participant hours); increasing age and PA intensity are associated with greater risk. In most cases of exercise-related SCD, occult CV disease is present and SCD is typically the first clinical event.

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise acutely increases the risk of adverse CV events, with greater risk associated with vigorous intensity. The risks of an adverse CV event during and immediately after exercise are outweighed by the health benefits of vigorous exercise performed regularly. A key challenge remains the identification of occult structural heart disease and inheritable conditions that increase the chances of lethal arrhythmias during exercise.

Mandatory Rest Stops Improve Athlete Safety during Event Medical Coverage for Ultramarathons

INTRODUCTION

Provisions of medical direction and clinical services for ultramarathons require specific attention to heat illness. Heat stress can affect athlete performance negatively, and heat accumulation without acclimatization is associated with the development of exertional heat stroke (EHS). In order to potentially mitigate the risk of this safety concern, the Jungle Marathon (Para, Brazil) instituted mandatory rest periods during the first two days of this 7-day, staged, Brazilian ultramarathon.

METHODS

Race records were reviewed retrospectively to determine the number of runners that suffered an emergency medical complication related to heat stress and did not finish (DNF) the race. Review of records included three years before and three years after the institution of these mandatory rest periods.

RESULTS

A total of 326 runners competed in the Jungle Marathon during the 2008-2013 period of study. During the pre-intervention years, a total of 46 athletes (21%) DNF the full race with 25 (54.3%) cases attributed to heat-related factors. During the post-intervention years, a total of 26 athletes (24.3%) DNF the full race with four (15.4%) cases attributed to heat-related factors.

CONCLUSION

Mandatory rest stops during extreme running events in hot or tropical environments, like the Jungle Marathon, are likely to improve athlete safety and improve the heat acclimatization process.

Performance and Age of the Fastest Female and Male 100-KM Ultramarathoners Worldwide From 1960 to 2012

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the change in 100-km running performance and in the age of peak performance for 100-km ultramarathoners. Age and running speed of the annual fastest women and men in all 100-km ultramarathons held worldwide between 1960 and 2012 were analyzed in 148,017 finishes with 18,998 women and 129,019 men using single, multivariate, and nonlinear regressions. Running speed of the annual fastest men increased from 8.67 to 15.65 km.h(-1) and from 8.06 to 13.22 km.h(-1) for the annual fastest women. For the annual 10 fastest men, running speed increased from 10.23 ± 1.22 to 15.05 ± 0.29 km.h(-1) (p < 0.0001) and for the annual 10 fastest women from 7.18 ± 1.54 to 13.03 ± 0.18 km.h(-1) (p < 0.0001). The sex difference decreased from 56.1 to 16.3% for the annual fastest finishers (p < 0.0001) and from 46.7 ± 8.7% to 14.0 ± 1.2% for the annual 10 fastest finishers (p < 0.0001). The age of the annual fastest men increased from 29 to 40 years (p = 0.025). For the annual fastest women, the age remained unchanged at 35.0 ± 9.7 years (p = 0.469). For the annual 10 fastest women and men, the age remained unchanged at 34.9 ± 3.2 (p = 0.902) and 34.5 ± 2.5 years (p = 0.064), respectively. To summarize, 100-km ultramarathoners became faster, the sex difference in performance decreased but the age of the fastest finishers remained unchanged at ∼ 35 years. For athletes and coaches to plan a career as 100-km ultramarathoner, the age of the fastest female and male 100-km ultramarathoners remained unchanged at ∼ 35 years between 1960 and 2012 although the runners improved their performance over time.

Aspects of respiratory muscle fatigue in a mountain ultramarathon race

PURPOSE

Ultramarathon running offers a unique possibility to investigate the mechanisms contributing to the limitation of endurance performance. Investigations of locomotor muscle fatigue show that central fatigue is a major contributor to the loss of strength in the lower limbs after an ultramarathon. In addition, respiratory muscle fatigue is known to limit exercise performance, but only limited data are available on changes in respiratory muscle function after ultramarathon running and it is not known whether the observed impairment is caused by peripheral and/or central fatigue.

METHODS

In 22 experienced ultra-trail runners, we assessed respiratory muscle strength, i.e., maximal voluntary inspiratory and expiratory pressures, mouth twitch pressure (n = 16), and voluntary activation (n = 16) using cervical magnetic stimulation, lung function, and maximal voluntary ventilation before and after a 110-km mountain ultramarathon with 5862 m of positive elevation gain.

RESULTS

Both maximal voluntary inspiratory (-16% ± 13%) and expiratory pressures (-21% ± 14%) were significantly reduced after the race. Fatigue of inspiratory muscles likely resulted from substantial peripheral fatigue (reduction in mouth twitch pressure, -19% ± 15%; P < 0.01), as voluntary activation (-3% ± 6%, P = 0.09) only tended to be decreased, suggesting negligible or only mild levels of central fatigue. Forced vital capacity remained unchanged, whereas forced expiratory volume in 1 s, peak inspiratory and expiratory flow rates, and maximal voluntary ventilation were significantly reduced (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Ultraendurance running reduces respiratory muscle strength for inspiratory muscles shown to result from significant peripheral muscle fatigue with only little contribution of central fatigue. This is in contrast to findings in locomotor muscles. Whether this difference between muscle groups results from inherent neuromuscular differences, their specific pattern of loading or other reasons remain to be clarified.

Managing collapsed or seriously ill participants of ultra-endurance events in remote environments

Increasing participation in ultramarathons and other ultra-endurance events amplifies the potential for serious medical issues during and immediately following these competitions. Since these events are often located in remote settings where access may be extremely limited; the diagnostic capabilities, treatment options, and expectations of medical care may differ from those of urban events. This work outlines a process for assessment and treatment of athletes presenting for medical attention in remote environments, with a focus on potentially serious conditions such as major trauma, acute coronary syndrome, exertional heat stroke, hypothermia, hypoglycemia, exercise-associated hyponatremic encephalopathy, severe dehydration, altitude illness, envenomation, anaphylaxis, and bronchospasm. A list of suggested medical supplies is provided and discussed. But, given that diagnostic and treatment options may be extremely limited in remote settings, it is important for medical providers to understand how to assess and manage the most common serious medical issues with limited resources, and to be prepared to make presumptive diagnoses when necessary.

Clinical Impact of Speed Variability to Identify Ultramarathon Runners at Risk for Acute Kidney Injury

BACKGROUND

Ultramarathon is a high endurance exercise associated with a wide range of exercise-related problems, such as acute kidney injury (AKI). Early recognition of individuals at risk of AKI during ultramarathon event is critical for implementing preventative strategies.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the impact of speed variability to identify the exercise-related acute kidney injury anticipatively in ultramarathon event.

METHODS

This is a prospective, observational study using data from a 100 km ultramarathon in Taipei, Taiwan. The distance of entire ultramarathon race was divided into 10 splits. The mean and variability of speed, which was determined by the coefficient of variation (CV) in each 10 km-split (25 laps of 400 m oval track) were calculated for enrolled runners. Baseline characteristics and biochemical data were collected completely 1 week before, immediately post-race, and one day after race. The main outcome was the development of AKI, defined as Stage II or III according to the Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN) criteria. Multivariate analysis was performed to determine the independent association between variables and AKI development.

RESULTS

26 ultramarathon runners were analyzed in the study. The overall incidence of AKI (in all Stages) was 84.6% (22 in 26 runners). Among these 22 runners, 18 runners were determined as Stage I, 4 runners (15.4%) were determined as Stage II, and none was in Stage III. The covariates of BMI (25.22 ± 2.02 vs. 22.55 ± 1.96, p = 0.02), uric acid (6.88 ± 1.47 vs. 5.62 ± 0.86, p = 0.024), and CV of speed in specific 10-km splits (from secondary 10 km-split (10th - 20th km-split) to 60th - 70th km-split) were significantly different between runners with or without AKI (Stage II) in univariate analysis and showed discrimination ability in ROC curve. In the following multivariate analysis, only CV of speed in 40th - 50th km-split continued to show a significant association to the development of AKI (Stage II) (p = 0.032).

CONCLUSIONS

The development of exercise-related AKI was not infrequent in the ultramarathon runners. Because not all runners can routinely receive laboratory studies after race, variability of running speed (CV of speed) may offer a timely and efficient tool to identify AKI early during the competition, and used as a surrogate screening tool, at-risk runners can be identified and enrolled into prevention trials, such as adequate fluid management and avoidance of further NSAID use.

Sex differences in cardiac function after prolonged strenuous exercise

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate sex differences in left ventricular (LV) function after an ultramarathon, and the association of vascular and training indices with the magnitude of exercise-induced cardiac fatigue.

DESIGN

Descriptive field study.

SETTING

Fat Dog 100 Ultramarathon Trail Race, Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

Thirty-four (13 women) recreational runners (aged 28-56 years).

INTERVENTIONS

A 100-km or 160-km mountain marathon.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Baseline baroreceptor sensitivity, heart rate variability, and arterial compliance; Pre-exercise and postexercise echocardiographic evaluations of LV dimensions, volumes, Doppler flow velocities, tissue velocities, strain, and strain rate.

RESULTS

Finishers represented 17 men (44.8 ± 6.6 years) and 8 women (45.9 ± 10.2 years; P = 0.758). After ultraendurance exercise, significant reductions (P < 0.05) in fractional shortening (men: 40.9 ± 6.9 to 34.1 ± 7.6%; women: 42.5 ± 6.5 to 34.6 ± 7.9%) diastolic filling (E/A, men: 1.28 ± 0.68 to 1.26 ± 0.33; women: 1.55 ± 0.51 to 1.30 ± 0.27), septal and lateral tissue velocities (E'), and longitudinal strain (men: -21.02 ± 1.98 to -18.44 ± 0.34; women: -20.28 ± 1.90 to -18.44 ± 2.34) were observed. Sex differences were found for baseline cardiac structure and global function, peak late transmitral flow velocity, and estimates of LV filling pressures (P < 0.05). Regression analysis found that higher baseline arterial compliance was associated with lower reductions in cardiac function postexercise, to which sex was a significant factor for E' of the lateral wall. Faster race pace and greater lifetime ultramarathons were associated with lower reductions in LV longitudinal strain (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Cardiac responses after an ultramarathon were similar between men and women. Greater evidence of exercise-induced cardiac fatigue was found to be associated with lower baseline arterial compliance and training status/experience.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

These findings suggest that vascular health is an important contributor to the degree of cardiovascular strain incurred as the result of an acute bout of prolonged strenuous exercise.

Performance differences between sexes in 50-mile to 3,100-mile ultramarathons

Anecdotal reports have assumed that women would be able to outrun men in long-distance running. The aim of this study was to test this assumption by investigating the changes in performance difference between sexes in the best ultramarathoners in 50-mile, 100-mile, 200-mile, 1,000-mile, and 3,100-mile events held worldwide between 1971 and 2012. The sex differences in running speed for the fastest runners ever were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance with subsequent Tukey–Kramer posthoc analysis. Changes in sex difference in running speed of the annual fastest were analyzed using linear and nonlinear regression analyses, correlation analyses, and mixed-effects regression analyses. The fastest men ever were faster than the fastest women ever in 50-mile (17.5%), 100-mile (17.4%), 200-mile (9.7%), 1,000-mile (20.2%), and 3,100-mile (18.6%) events. For the ten fastest finishers ever, men were faster than women in 50-mile (17.1%±1.9%), 100-mile (19.2%±1.5%), and 1,000-mile (16.7%±1.6%) events. No correlation existed between sex difference and running speed for the fastest ever (r²=0.0039, P=0.91) and the ten fastest ever (r²=0.15, P=0.74) for all distances. For the annual fastest, the sex difference in running speed decreased linearly in 50-mile events from 14.6% to 8.9%, remained unchanged in 100-mile (18.0%±8.4%) and 1,000-mile (13.7%±9.1%) events, and increased in 3,100-mile events from 12.5% to 16.9%. For the annual ten fastest runners, the performance difference between sexes decreased linearly in 50-mile events from 31.6%±3.6% to 8.9%±1.8% and in 100-mile events from 26.0%±4.4% to 24.7%±0.9%. To summarize, the fastest men were ~17%–20% faster than the fastest women for all distances from 50 miles to 3,100 miles. The linear decrease in sex difference for 50-mile and 100-mile events may suggest that women are reducing the sex gap for these distances.

Exercise behavior of ultramarathon runners: baseline findings from the ULTRA study

Little is known about exercise habits of those who compete in foot races longer than the standard 42-km marathon distance. The purpose of this work was to describe the past-year and lifetime exercise patterns of a large cohort of ultramarathon runners. Information on exercise history was collected on 1,345 current and former ultramarathon runners as baseline data for participation in a longitudinal observational study. Median age at the first ultramarathon was 36 years, and the median number of years of regular running before the first ultramarathon was 7 (interquartile range, 3-15). Age at first ultramarathon did not change across the past several decades, but there was evidence of an inverse relationship (r = -0.13, p < 0.0001) between number of years of regular running before the first ultramarathon and calendar year. The active ultramarathon runners (n = 1,212) had a previous year median running distance of 3,347 km, which was minimally related to age (r = -0.068, p = 0.018), but mostly related to their longest ultramarathon competition of the year (p < 0.0001). Running injuries represented the most common reason for discontinuation of regular running, whereas work and family commitments were reported as the main reasons for not running an ultramarathon in the previous year among those who were regularly running and intending to run ultramarathons again. We conclude that runners tend to be well into adulthood and with several years of running experience before running their first ultramarathon, but 25% have only been regularly running for 3 years or less at the time of their first ultramarathon.

What is the age for the fastest ultra-marathon performance in time-limited races from 6 h to 10 days?

Recent findings suggested that the age of peak ultra-marathon performance seemed to increase with increasing race distance. The present study investigated the age of peak ultra-marathon performance for runners competing in time-limited ultra-marathons held from 6 to 240 h (i.e. 10 days) during 1975-2013. Age and running performance in 20,238 (21%) female and 76,888 (79%) male finishes (6,863 women and 24,725 men, 22 and 78%, respectively) were analysed using mixed-effects regression analyses. The annual number of finishes increased for both women and men in all races. About one half of the finishers completed at least one race and the other half completed more than one race. Most of the finishes were achieved in the fourth decade of life. The age of the best ultra-marathon performance increased with increasing race duration, also when only one or at least five successful finishes were considered. The lowest age of peak ultra-marathon performance was in 6 h (33.7 years, 95% CI 32.5-34.9 years) and the highest in 48 h (46.8 years, 95% CI 46.1-47.5). With increasing number of finishes, the athletes improved performance. Across years, performance decreased, the age of peak performance increased, and the age of peak ultra-marathon performance increased with increasing number of finishes. In summary, the age of peak ultra-marathon performance increased and performance decreased in time-limited ultra-marathons. The age of peak ultra-marathon performance increased with increasing race duration and with increasing number of finishes. These athletes improved race performance with increasing number of finishes.

Characterization of medical care at the 161-km Western States Endurance Run

OBJECTIVE

To examine the medical care at a highly competitive 161-km mountain ultramarathon.

METHODS

Encounter forms from the 2010 through 2013 Western States Endurance Run were analyzed for trends in consultation and use of intravenous fluids.

RESULTS

A total of 63 consultations (8.2% of starters) were documented in 2012 and 2013, of which 10% involved noncompetitors. Most (77%) of the consultations with competitors occurred on the course rather than at the finish line, and were generally during the middle third of the race. Of the on-course consultations, the runner was able to continue the race 55% of the time, and 75% of those who continued after consultation ultimately finished the race. Relative number of consultations did not differ among competitors within 10-year age groups (P = .7) or between men and women (P = .2). Overall, consultations for medical issues were predominant, and nausea and vomiting accounted for the single highest reason for consultation (24%). Although there was an overall decrease in finish line consultations and intravenous fluid use from 2010 through 2013 (P < .0001 for both) that was independent of maximum ambient temperature (P = .3 and P = .4), the proportion of those being treated with intravenous fluids relative to those receiving consultation at the finish line was directly related to maximum ambient temperature (r = .93, P = .037). Both 2012 and 2013 had a single medical emergency that required emergency evacuation.

CONCLUSIONS

This work demonstrates that the medical needs in a 161-km ultramarathon are mostly for minor issues. However, occasional serious issues arise that warrant a well-organized medical system.

Will the age of peak ultra-marathon performance increase with increasing race duration?

Background

Recent studies found that the athlete’s age of the best ultra-marathon performance was higher than the athlete’s age of the best marathon performance and it seemed that the athlete’s age of peak ultra-marathon performance increased in distance-limited races with rising distance.

Methods

We investigated the athlete’s age of peak ultra-marathon performance in the fastest finishers in time-limited ultra-marathons from 6 hrs to 10 d. Running performance and athlete’s age of the fastest women and men competing in 6 hrs, 12 hrs, 24 hrs, 48 hrs, 72 hrs, 144 hrs (6 d) and 240 hrs (10 d) were analysed for races held between 1975 and 2012 using analysis of variance and multi-level regression analysis.

Results

The athlete’s ages of the ten fastest women ever in 6 hrs, 12 hrs, 24 hrs, 48 hrs, 72 hrs, 6 d and 10 d were 41 ± 9, 41 ± 6, 42 ± 5, 46 ± 5, 44 ± 6, 42 ± 4, and 37 ± 4 yrs, respectively. The athlete’s age of the ten fastest women was different between 48 hrs and 10 d. For men, the athlete’s ages were 35 ± 6, 37 ± 9, 39 ± 8, 44 ± 7, 48 ± 3, 48 ± 8 and 48 ± 6 yrs, respectively. The athlete’s age of the ten fastest men in 6 hrs and 12 hrs was lower than the athlete’s age of the ten fastest men in 72 hrs, 6 d and 10 d, respectively.

Conclusion

The athlete’s age of peak ultra-marathon performance did not increase with rising race duration in the best ultra-marathoners. For the fastest women ever in time-limited races, the athlete’s age was lowest in 10 d (~37 yrs) and highest in 48 hrs (~46 yrs). For men, the athlete’s age of the fastest ever in 6 hrs (~35 yrs) and 12 hrs (~37 yrs) was lower than the athlete’s age of the ten fastest in 72 hrs (~48 yrs), 6 d (~48 yrs) and 10 d (~48 yrs). The differences in the athlete’s age of peak performance between female and male ultra-marathoners for the different race durations need further investigations.

Age group performances in 100 km and 100 miles ultra-marathons

Improved performance has been reported for master runners (i.e. athletes older than 40 years) in both single marathons and single ultra-marathons. This study investigated performance trends of age group ultra-marathoners competing in all 100 km and 100 miles races held worldwide between 1971 and 2013. Changes in running speeds across years were investigated for the annual ten fastest 5-year age group finishers using linear, non-linear and multi-level regression analyses. In 100 km, running speed remained unchanged in women in 25–29 years, increased non-linearly in 30–34 to 55–59 years, and linearly in 60–64 years. In men, running speed increased non-linearly in 18–24 to 60–64 years and linearly in 65–69 to 75–79 years. In 100 miles, running speed increased in women linearly in 25–29 and 30–34 years, non-linearly in 35–39 to 45–49 years, and linearly in 50–54 and 55–59 years. For men, running speed increased linearly in 18–24 years, non-linearly in 25–29 to 45–49 years, and linearly in 50–54 to 65–69 years. Overall, the faster race times over the last 30 years are a result of all top ten finishers getting faster. These findings suggest that athletes in younger to middle age groups (i.e. 25–35 to 50–65 years depending upon sex and distance) have reached their limits due to a non-linear increase in running speed whereas runners in very young (i.e. younger than 25–35 years) and older age groups (i.e. older than 50–65 years) depending upon sex and distance might still improve their performance due to a linear increase in running speed.

Longitudinal assessment of the effect of age and experience on performance in 161-km ultramarathons

PURPOSE

This work longitudinally assesses the influence of aging and experience on time to complete 161-km ultramarathons.

METHODS

From 29,331 finishes by 4066 runners who had completed 3 or more 161-km ultramarathons in North America from 1974 through 2010, independent cohorts of men (n = 3,092), women (n = 717), and top-performing men (n = 257) based on age-group finish place were identified. Linear mixed-effects regression was used to assess the effects of aging and previous 161-km finish number on finish time adjusted for the random effects of runner, event, and year.

RESULTS

Men and women up to 38 y of age slowed by 0.05-0.06 h/y with advancing age. Men slowed 0.17 h/y from 38 through 50 y and 0.23 h/y after 50 y. Women slowed 0.20-0.23 h/y with advancing age from 38 y. Top-performing men under 38 y did not slow with increasing age but slowed by 0.26 and 0.39 h/y from 38 through 50 y and after 50 y, respectively. Finish number was inversely associated with finish time for all 3 cohorts. A 10th or higher finish was 1.3, 1.7, and almost 3 h faster than a first finish for men, women, and top-performing men, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

High-level performances in 161-km ultramarathoners can be sustained late into the 4th decade of life, but subsequent aging is associated with declines in performance. Nevertheless, the adverse effects of aging on performance can be offset by greater experience in these events.

Sex and age-related differences in performance in a 24-hour ultra-cycling draft-legal event - a cross-sectional data analysis

Background

The purpose of this study was to examine the sex and age-related differences in performance in a draft-legal ultra-cycling event.

Methods

Age-related changes in performance across years were investigated in the 24-hour draft-legal cycling event held in Schötz, Switzerland, between 2000 and 2011 using multi-level regression analyses including age, repeated participation and environmental temperatures as co-variables.

Results

For all finishers, the age of peak cycling performance decreased significantly (β = −0.273, p = 0.036) from 38 ± 10 to 35 ± 6 years in females but remained unchanged (β = −0.035, p = 0.906) at 41.0 ± 10.3 years in males. For the annual fastest females and males, the age of peak cycling performance remained unchanged at 37.3 ± 8.5 and 38.3 ± 5.4 years, respectively. For all female and male finishers, males improved significantly (β = 7.010, p = 0.006) the cycling distance from 497.8 ± 219.6 km to 546.7 ± 205.0 km whereas females (β = −0.085, p = 0.987) showed an unchanged performance of 593.7 ± 132.3 km. The mean cycling distance achieved by the male winners of 960.5 ± 51.9 km was significantly (p < 0.001) greater than the distance covered by the female winners with 769.7 ± 65.7 km but was not different between the sexes (p > 0.05). The sex difference in performance for the annual winners of 19.7 ± 7.8% remained unchanged across years (p > 0.05). The achieved cycling distance decreased in a curvilinear manner with advancing age. There was a significant age effect (F = 28.4, p < 0.0001) for cycling performance where the fastest cyclists were in age group 35–39 years.

Conclusion

In this 24-h cycling draft-legal event, performance in females remained unchanged while their age of peak cycling performance decreased and performance in males improved while their age of peak cycling performance remained unchanged. The annual fastest females and males were 37.3 ± 8.5 and 38.3 ± 5.4 years old, respectively. The sex difference for the fastest finishers was ~20%. It seems that women were not able to profit from drafting to improve their ultra-cycling performance.

Analysis of weight change and Borg rating of perceived exertion as measurements of runner health and safety during a 6-day, multistage, remote ultramarathon

OBJECTIVE

To determine the feasibility of using weight change and Borg score as tools for monitoring runner health and safety during a multistage, remote ultramarathon.

DESIGN

Observational cohort study of feasibility on nonblinded event participants.

SETTING

Six-day, multistage, remote ultramarathon in Utah.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-seven athletes in the 2012 Desert R.A.T.S. (Race Across the Sand) ultramarathon.

ASSESSMENT OF RISK FACTORS

Participant weight, health conditions that limited race participation, such as fatigue or exhaustion, and Borg score were reviewed.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Inability to complete a stage of the race (Did Not Finish status) or development of a clinically significant health condition during the race. Potential prognostic risk factors, such as a high Borg score and weight loss, were analyzed.

RESULTS

An overall decrease in weight was observed over the course of the event. Median percent weight changes were losses of 2.96% (day 1), 7.42% (day 2), 2.21% (day 4), and 3.35% (day 6). There was no statistically significant difference in percent weight change between the 14 runners who finished the race and the 13 runners who did not finish the race (U = 73; z = 0.189; P = 0.85). Runners' ability to complete the race was related to the development of adverse health conditions (P = 0.004). Median Borg scores reported were 15 (day 1), 17 (day 2), 13 (day 3), 16 (day 4), and 15 (day 6). Only 2 racers who finished the entire event without adverse events ever gave a Borg score of ≥ 18.

CONCLUSIONS

The feasibility of weight change as a tool for monitoring runner health and safety in this setting is limited, but the Borg rating of perceived exertion warrants further study as a potential field expedient tool for monitoring runner health and safety during a multiday, remote ultramarathon.

Trends in Triathlon Performance: Effects of Sex and Age

The influences of sex and age upon endurance performance have previously been documented for both running and swimming. A number of recent studies have investigated how sex and age influence triathlon performance, a sport that combines three disciplines (swimming, cycling and running), with competitions commonly lasting between 2 (short distance: 1.5-km swim, 40-km cycle and 10-km run) and 8 h (Ironman distance: 3.8-km swim,180-km cycle and 42-km run) for elite triathletes. Age and sex influences upon performance have also been investigated for ultra-triathlons, with distances corresponding to several Ironman distances and lasting several days, and for off-road triathlons combining swimming, mountain biking and trail running. Triathlon represents an intriguing alternative model for analysing the effects of age and sex upon endurance and ultra-endurance ([6 h) performance because sex differences and age-related declines in performance can be analysed in the same individuals across the three separate disciplines. The relative participation of both females and masters athletes (age[40 years) in triathlon has increased consistently over the past 25 years. Sex differences in triathlon performance are also known to differ between the modes of locomotion adopted (swimming, cycling or running) for both elite and non-elite triathletes. Generally, time differences between sexes in swimming have been shown to be smaller on average than during cycling and running. Both physiological and morphological factors contribute to explaining these findings. Performance density (i.e. the time difference between the winner and tenth-placed competitor) has progressively improved (time differences have decreased) for international races over the past two decades for both males and females, with performance density now very similar for both sexes. For age-group triathletes, sex differences in total triathlon performance time increases with age. However,the possible difference in age-related changes in the physiological determinants of endurance and ultra-endurance performances between males and females needs further investigation. Non-physiological factors such as low rates of participation of older female triathletes may also contribute to the greater age-related decline in triathlon performance shown by females. Total triathlon performance has been shown to decrease in a curvilinear manner with advancing age. However, when triathlon performanceis broken down into its three disciplines, there is a smaller age-related decline in cycling performance than in running and swimming performances. Age-associated changes in triathlon performance are also related to the total duration of triathlon races. The magnitude of the declines in cycling and running performances with advancing age for short triathlons are less pronounced than for longer Ironman distance races. Triathlon distance is also important when considering how age affects the rate of the decline in performance. Off-road triathlon performances display greater decrements with age than road-based triathlons, suggesting that the type of discipline (road vs. mountain bike cycling and road vs. trail running) is an important factor in age-associated changes in triathlon performance.Finally, masters triathletes have shown relative improvements in their performances across the three triathlon disciplines and total triathlon event times during Ironman races over the past three decades. This raises an important issue as to whether older male and female triathletes have yet reached their performance limits during Ironman triathlons

Nation related participation and performance trends in 'Ironman Hawaii' from 1985 to 2012

BACKGROUND

This study examined participation and performance trends in 'Ironman Hawaii' regarding the nationality of the finishers.

METHODS

Associations between nationalities and race times of 39,706 finishers originating from 124 countries in the 'Ironman Hawaii' from 1985 to 2012 were analyzed using single and multi-level regression analysis.

RESULTS

Most of the finishers originated from the United States of America (47.5%) followed by athletes from Germany (11.7%), Japan (7.9%), Australia (6.7%), Canada (5.2%), Switzerland (2.9%), France (2.3%), Great Britain (2.0%), New Zealand (1.9%), and Austria (1.5%). German women showed the fastest increase in finishers (r(2) = 0.83, p < 0.0001), followed by Australia (r(2) = 0.78, p < 0.0001), Canada (r(2) = 0.78, p < 0.0001) and the USA (r(2) = 0.69, p < 0.0001). Japanese women showed no change in the number of finishers (r(2) = 0.01, p > 0.05). For men, athletes from France showed the steepest increase (r(2) = 0.85, p < 0.0001), followed by Austria (r(2) = 0.68, p < 0.0001), Australia (r(2) = 0.67, p < 0.0001), Brazil (r(2) = 0.60, p < 0.0001), Great Britain (r(2) = 0.46, p < 0.0001), Germany (r(2) = 0.26, p < 0.0001), the United States of America (r(2) = 0.21, p = 0.013) and Switzerland (r(2) = 0.14, p = 0.0044). The number of Japanese men decreased (r(2) = 0.35, p = 0.0009). The number of men from Canada (r(2) = 0.02, p > 0.05) and New Zealand (r(2) = 0.02, p > 0.05) remained unchanged. Regarding female performance, the largest improvements were achieved by Japanese women (17.3%). The fastest race times in 2012 were achieved by US-American women. Women from Japan, Canada, Germany, Australia, and the United States of America improved race times. For men, the largest improvements were achieved by athletes originating from Brazil (20.9%) whereas the fastest race times in 2012 were achieved by athletes from Germany. Race times for athletes originating from Brazil, Austria, Great Britain, Switzerland, Germany, Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand and France decreased. Race times in athletes originating from Australia and the United States of America showed no significant changes. Regarding the fastest race times ever, the fastest women originated from the United States (546 ± 7 min) followed by Great Britain (555 ± 15 min) and Switzerland (558 ± 8 min). In men, the fastest finishers originated from the United States (494 ± 7 min), Germany (496 ± 6 min) and Australia (497 ± 5 min).

CONCLUSIONS

The 'Ironman Hawaii' has been dominated by women and men from the United States of America in participation and performance.

Runners in their forties dominate ultra-marathons from 50 to 3,100 miles

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated performance trends and the age of peak running speed in ultra-marathons from 50 to 3,100 miles.

METHODS

The running speed and age of the fastest competitors in 50-, 100-, 200-, 1,000- and 3,100-mile events held worldwide from 1971 to 2012 were analyzed using single- and multi-level regression analyses.

RESULTS

The number of events and competitors increased exponentially in 50- and 100-mile events. For the annual fastest runners, women improved in 50-mile events, but not men. In 100-mile events, both women and men improved their performance. In 1,000-mile events, men became slower. For the annual top ten runners, women improved in 50- and 100-mile events, whereas the performance of men remained unchanged in 50- and 3,100-mile events but improved in 100-mile events. The age of the annual fastest runners was approximately 35 years for both women and men in 50-mile events and approximately 35 years for women in 100-mile events. For men, the age of the annual fastest runners in 100-mile events was higher at 38 years. For the annual fastest runners of 1,000-mile events, the women were approximately 43 years of age, whereas for men, the age increased to 48 years of age. For the annual fastest runners of 3,100-mile events, the age in women decreased to 35 years and was approximately 39 years in men.

CONCLUSION

The running speed of the fastest competitors increased for both women and men in 100-mile events but only for women in 50-mile events. The age of peak running speed increased in men with increasing race distance to approximately 45 years in 1,000-mile events, whereas it decreased to approximately 39 years in 3,100-mile events. In women, the upper age of peak running speed increased to approximately 51 years in 3,100-mile events.

Health and exercise-related medical issues among 1,212 ultramarathon runners: baseline findings from the Ultrarunners Longitudinal TRAcking (ULTRA) Study

Regular exercise is associated with substantial health benefits; however, little is known about the health impact of extreme levels of exercise. This study examined the prevalence of chronic diseases, health-care utilization, and risk factors for exercise-related injuries among ultramarathon runners. Retrospective, self-reported enrollment data from an ongoing longitudinal observational study of 1,212 active ultramarathon runners were analyzed. The most prevalent chronic medical conditions were allergies/hay fever (25.1%) and exercise-induced asthma (13.0%), but there was a low prevalence of serious medical issues including cancers (4.5%), coronary artery disease (0.7%), seizure disorders (0.7%), diabetes (0.7%), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (0.2%). In the year preceding enrollment, most (64.6%) reported an exercise-related injury that resulted in lost training days (median of 14 days), but little nonattendance of work or school due to illness, injury, or exercise-related medical conditions (medians of 0 days for each). The knee was the most common area of exercise-related injury. Prior year incidence of stress fractures was 5.5% with most (44.5%) involving the foot. Ultramarathon runners who sustained exercise-related injuries were younger (p<0.001) and less experienced (p<0.01) than those without injury. Stress fractures were more common (p<0.01) among women than men. We conclude that, compared with the general population, ultramarathon runners appear healthier and report fewer missed work or school days due to illness or injury. Ultramarathon runners have a higher prevalence of asthma and allergies than the general population, and the prevalence of serious medical issues was nontrivial and should be recognized by those providing medical care to these individuals. Ultramarathon runners, compared with shorter distance runners, have a similar annual incidence of exercise-related injuries but higher proportion of stress fractures involving the foot, and it is the younger and less experienced ultramarathoners who appear most at risk for injury.

Sex differences in 24-hour ultra-marathon performance--a retrospective data analysis from 1977 to 2012

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the changes in running performance and the sex differences between women and men in 24-hour ultra-marathons held worldwide from 1977 to 2012.

METHOD

Changes in running speed and ages of the fastest 24-hour ultra-marathoners were determined using single- and multi-level regression analyses.

RESULTS

From 1977 to 2012, the sex differences in 24-hour ultra-marathon performance were 4.6±0.5% for all women and men, 13.3% for the annual fastest finishers, 12.9±0.8% for the top 10 and 12.2±0.4% for the top 100 finishers. Over time, the sex differences decreased for the annual fastest finishers to 17%, for the annual 10 fastest finishers to 11.3±2.2% and for the annual 100 fastest finishers to 14.2±1.8%. For the annual fastest men, the age of peak running speed increased from 23 years (1977) to 53 years (2012). For the annual 10 and 100 fastest men, the ages of peak running speed were unchanged at 40.9±2.5 and 44.4±1.1 years, respectively. For women, the ages of the annual fastest, the annual 10 fastest and the annual 100 fastest remained unchanged at 43.0±6.1, 43.2±2.6 and 43.8±0.8 years, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The gap between the annual top, annual top 10 and annual top 100 female and male 24-hour ultra-marathoners decreased over the last 35 years; however, it seems unlikely that women will outrun men in 24-hour ultra-marathons in the near future. The fastest 24-hour ultra-marathoners worldwide achieved their peak performance at the age of master athletes (>35 years).

Analysis of 10 km swimming performance of elite male and female open-water swimmers

This study investigated trends in performance and sex difference in swimming speed of elite open-water swimmers at FINA 10 km competitions (i.e. World Cup races, European Championships, World Championships and Olympic Games). Swimming speed and sex difference in swimming speed of the fastest and the top ten women and men per event competing at 10 km open-water races between 2008 and 2012 were analysed using single and multi-level regression analyses. A total of 2,591 swimmers (i.e. 1,120 women and 1,471 men) finished 47 races. Swimming speed of the fastest women (1.35 ± 0.9 m/s) and men (1.45 ± 0.10 m/s) showed no changes across years. The mean sex difference in swimming speed for the fastest swimmers was 6.8 ± 2.5%. Swimming speed of the top ten female swimmers per event was 1.34 ± 0.09 m/s and remained stable across the years. The top ten male swimmers per event showed a significant decrease in swimming speed over time, even though swimming speed in the first race (i.e. January 2008, 1.40 ± 0.0 m/s) was slower than the swimming speed in the last race (i.e. October 2012, 1.50 ± 0.0 m/s) (P < 0.05). To summarize, swimming performances remained stable for the fastest elite open-water swimmers at 10 km FINA competitions between 2008 and 2012, while performances of the top ten men tended to decrease. The sex difference in swimming speed in elite ultra-swimmers (~7%) appeared smaller compared to other ultra-distance disciplines such as running. Further studies should examine how body shape and physiology of elite open-water ultra-distance swimmers influence performances.

Sex difference in open-water ultra-swim performance in the longest freshwater lake swim in Europe

This study examined participation and performance trends in the 26.4-km open-water ultra-swim "Marathon Swim in Lake Zurich," Switzerland. A total of 461 athletes (157 women and 304 men) finished the race between 1987 and 2011. The mean age of the finishers during the studied period was 32.0 ± 6.5 years for men and 30.9 ± 7.2 years for women. The mean age of finishers and the age of winners increased significantly across years for both sexes (p < 0.01). The winner times were significantly lower for men (403 ± 43 minutes) compared with women (452 ± 63 minutes) (p < 0.01). In contrast, the mean swimming time of the finishers did not differ between men (530 ± 39 minutes) and women (567 ± 71 minutes) (p > 0.05). The swimming time performance remained stable (p > 0.05) for both sexes across years. A higher age was associated with an increased risk for not finishing the race (odds ratio = 0.93, p = 0.045). Swim time was negatively associated with water temperature in the top 3 swimmers (ß = -9.87, p = 0.025). These results show that open-water ultra-swimming performance of elite swimmers over 26.4 km in a freshwater lake is affected by age, sex, and water temperature. The sex difference in open-water ultra-swimming performance (approximately 11.5%) remained unchanged these last 25 years. It seems unlikely that elite female swimmers will achieve the same performance of elite male swimmers competing in open-water ultra-swimming in water of approximately 20 °C. Anthropometric and physiological characteristics such as skeletal muscle mass and thermoregulation need additional investigations in female and male open-water ultra-swimmers.

Finisher and performance trends in female and male mountain ultramarathoners by age group

Background

This study examined changes according to age group in the number of finishers and running times for athletes in female and male mountain ultramarathoners competing in the 78 km Swiss Alpine Marathon, the largest mountain ultramarathon in Europe and held in high alpine terrain.

Methods

The association between age and performance was investigated using analysis of variance and both single and multilevel regression analyses.

Results

Between 1998 and 2011, a total of 1,781 women and 12,198 men finished the Swiss Alpine Marathon. The number of female finishers increased (r² = 0.64, P = 0.001), whereas the number of male finishers (r² = 0.18, P = 0.15) showed no change. The annual top ten men became older and slower, whereas the annual top ten women became older but not slower. Regarding the number of finishers in the age groups, the number of female finishers decreased in the age group 18–24 years, whereas the number of finishers increased in the age groups 30–34, 40–44, 45–49, 50–54, 55–59, 60–64, and 70–74 years. In the age groups 25–29 and 35–39 years, the number of finishers showed no changes across the years. In the age group 70–74 years, the increase in number of finishers was linear. For all other age groups, the increase was exponential. For men, the number of finishers decreased in the age groups 18–24, 25–29, 30–34, and 35–39 years. In the age groups 40–44, 45–49, 50–54, 55–59, 60–64, 70–74, and 75–79 years, the number of finishers increased. In the age group 40–44 years, the increase was linear. For all other age groups, the increase was exponential. Female finishers in the age group 40–44 years became faster over time. For men, finishers in the age groups 18–24, 25–29, 30–34, 40–44, and 45–49 years became slower.

Conclusion

The number of women older than 30 years and men older than 40 years increased in the Swiss Alpine Marathon. Performance improved in women aged 40–44 years but decreased in male runners aged 18–49 years.

Gender difference and age-related changes in performance at the long-distance duathlon

The differences in gender- and the age-related changes in triathlon (i.e., swimming, cycling, and running) performances have been previously investigated, but data are missing for duathlon (i.e., running, cycling, and running). We investigated the participation and performance trends and the gender difference and the age-related decline in performance, at the "Powerman Zofingen" long-distance duathlon (10-km run, 150-km cycle, and 30-km run) from 2002 to 2011. During this period, there were 2,236 finishers (272 women and 1,964 men, respectively). Linear regression analyses for the 3 split times, and the total event time, demonstrated that running and cycling times were fairly stable during the last decade for both male and female elite duathletes. The top 10 overall gender differences in times were 16 ± 2, 17 ± 3, 15 ± 3, and 16 ± 5%, for the 10-km run, 150-km cycle, 30-km run and the overall race time, respectively. There was a significant (p < 0.001) age effect for each discipline and for the total race time. The fastest overall race times were achieved between the 25- and 39-year-olds. Female gender and increasing age were associated with increased performance times when additionally controlled for environmental temperatures and race year. There was only a marginal time period effect ranging between 1.3% (first run) and 9.8% (bike split) with 3.3% for overall race time. In accordance with previous observations in triathlons, the age-related decline in the duathlon performance was more pronounced in running than in cycling. Athletes and coaches can use these findings to plan the career in long-distance duathletes with the age of peak performance between 25 and 39 years for both women and men.

Increase in finishers and improvement of performance of masters runners in the Marathon des Sables

Aim

The aim of the study was to examine finisher and performance trends of ultrarunners in the Marathon des Sables, the world’s largest multistage ultramarathon.

Methods

The age and running speed was analyzed for 6945 finishes of 909 women and 6036 men between 2003 and 2012 at the Marathon des Sables covering about 240 km in the Moroccan desert.

Results

The number of finishes increased significantly for both women and men from 2003–2012. The annual number of finishes increased in age groups: 30–34 years (r² = 0.50; P = 0.021), 45–49 years (r² = 0.81; P = 0.0004), and 50–54 years (r² = 0.46; P = 0.029) for women and in all age groups older than 35 years for men (35–39 years: r² = 0.64, P = 0.0054; 40–44 years: r² = 0.67, P = 0.0036; 45–49 years: r² = 0.77, P = 0.0007; 50–54 years: r² = 0.72, P = 0.0018; 55–59 years: r² = 0.42, P = 0.041; and 60–64 years: r² = 0.67, P = 0.0038). The fastest running speed was achieved by runners in the age group of 35–39 years for both sexes. The mean age of overall finishers was 41.0 ± 9.1 years for women and 41.3 ± 9.5 years for men. For men, running speed improved for athletes in the age group of 35–39 years (r² = 0.44; P = 0.036) and of 40–44 years (r² = 0.51; P = 0.019), while it decreased for athletes in the age group of 30–34 years (r² = 0.66, P = 0.0039). For women, running speed remained stable during the study period for athletes in all age groups.

Conclusion

These data suggest that the number of finishers of masters runners older than 40 years increased for both sexes at the Marathon des Sables, as has been previously observed for single-stage ultramarathons. In contrast to women, men aged 35 to 44 years improved running speed during the study period. Future studies are needed to investigate the reasons for the growing numbers of masters athletes in endurance sports and their improvement in performance.

Relative improvements in endurance performance with age: evidence from 25 years of Hawaii Ironman racing

Despite of the growth of ultra-endurance sports events (of duration >6 h) over the previous few decades, the age-related declines in ultra-endurance performance have drawn little attention. The aim of the study was to analyse the changes in participation and performance trends of older (>40 years of age) triathletes between 1986 and 2010 at the Hawaii Ironman triathlon consisting of 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling and 42 km running. Swimming, cycling, running and total times of the best male and female triathletes between 18 and 69 years of age who competed in the Hawaii Ironman triathlon were analysed. The relative participation of master triathletes increased during the 1986-2010 period, while the participation of triathletes younger than 40 years of age decreased. Linear regression showed that males older than 44 years and females older than 40 years significantly improved their performances in the three disciplines and in the total time taken to complete the race. Gender differences in total time performance significantly decreased in the same time period for all age groups between the 40-44 and 55-59 years ones. The reasons for these relative improvements of Ironman athlete performances in older age groups remain, however, unknown. Further studies investigating training regimes, competition experience or sociodemographic factors are needed to gain better insights into the phenomenon of increasing participation and improvement of ultra-endurance performance with advancing age.

Age group athletes in inline skating: decrease in overall and increase in master athlete participation in the longest inline skating race in Europe - the Inline One-Eleven

BACKGROUND

Participation and performance trends in age group athletes have been investigated in endurance and ultraendurance races in swimming, cycling, running, and triathlon, but not in long-distance inline skating. The aim of this study was to investigate trends in participation, age, and performance in the longest inline race in Europe, the Inline One-Eleven over 111 km, held between 1998 and 2009.

METHODS

The total number, age distribution, age at the time of the competition, and race times of male and female finishers at the Inline One-Eleven were analyzed.

RESULTS

Overall participation increased until 2003 but decreased thereafter. During the 12-year period, the relative participation in skaters younger than 40 years old decreased while relative participation increased for skaters older than 40 years. The mean top ten skating time was 199 ± 9 minutes (range: 189-220 minutes) for men and 234 ± 17 minutes (range: 211-271 minutes) for women, respectively. The gender difference in performance remained stable at 17% ± 5% across years.

CONCLUSION

To summarize, although the participation of master long-distance inline skaters increased, the overall participation decreased across years in the Inline One-Eleven. The race times of the best female and male skaters stabilized across years with a gender difference in performance of 17% ± 5%. Further studies should focus on the participation in the international World Inline Cup races.

Reproducibility of performance and fatigue in trail running

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to test the reproducibility of running performance, neuromuscular fatigue markers and indirect muscle damage indicators in a field-based trail time-trial.

DESIGN

Running performance and changes in classical physiological parameters were analysed in 11 experienced trail runners before and in the days following four bouts of outdoor trail running (15.6 km), 7 days apart.

METHODS

Heart rate, running time and lactate concentration were monitored in each running bout. Maximal voluntary contraction torque, counter movement jump height, plasma creatine kinase activity and muscle soreness were assessed before and 1, 24 and 48 h post-race. Within-bout changes were elucidated using a two-way repeated measures ANOVA. Inter-repetition reproducibility was examined using an intraclass correlation coefficient (R) and the mean intra-subject coefficient of variation at each measurement time point.

RESULTS

Running time was longer (p<0.05) for the first bout compared with the other three bouts. Magnitude and time course of changes in counter movement jump height, creatine kinase activity and muscle soreness were similar among all four bouts (overall peak means: -17%, +35% and 54/100mm respectively). The acute reduction in maximal voluntary contraction torque (peak mean: -17%) was attenuated exclusively in the fourth bout (p<0.05). The two middle bouts showed good reproducibility (intraclass correlation coefficient and coefficient of variation) for running time, maximal voluntary contraction torque and counter movement jump height, but low to moderate for creatine kinase activity, muscle soreness, blood lactate and rate of perceived exertion.

CONCLUSIONS

A short outdoor trail run is a reliable model for investigations of fatigue and muscle damage, but certain methodological precautions should be respected.

Analysis of performance and age of the fastest 100-mile ultra-marathoners worldwide

OBJECTIVES

The performance and age of peak ultra-endurance performance have been investigated in single races and single race series but not using worldwide participation data. The purpose of this study was to examine the changes in running performance and the age of peak running performance of the best 100-mile ultra-marathoners worldwide.

METHOD

The race times and ages of the annual ten fastest women and men were analyzed among a total of 35,956 finishes (6,862 for women and 29,094 for men) competing between 1998 and 2011 in 100-mile ultra-marathons.

RESULTS

The annual top ten performances improved by 13.7% from 1,132±61.8 min in 1998 to 977.6±77.1 min in 2011 for women and by 14.5% from 959.2±36.4 min in 1998 to 820.6±25.7 min in 2011 for men. The mean ages of the annual top ten fastest runners were 39.2±6.2 years for women and 37.2±6.1 years for men. The age of peak running performance was not different between women and men (p>0.05) and showed no changes across the years.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicated that the fastest female and male 100-mile ultra-marathoners improved their race time by ∼14% across the 1998-2011 period at an age when they had to be classified as master athletes. Future studies should analyze longer running distances (>200 km) to investigate whether the age of peak performance increases with increased distance in ultra-marathon running.

Participation and performance trends in ultra-endurance running races under extreme conditions - 'Spartathlon' versus 'Badwater'

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to compare the trends in participation, performance and age of finishers in 'Badwater' and 'Spartathlon' as two of the toughest ultramarathons in the world of more than 200 km of distance.

METHODS

Running speed and age of male and female finishers in Badwater and Spartathlon were analyzed from 2000 to 2012. Age of peak performance and sex difference in running speed were investigated during the studied period.

RESULTS

The number of female and male finishes increased in Badwater and Spartathlon. Women accounted on average for 21.5% ± 6.9% in Badwater and 10.8% ± 2.3% in Spartathlon. There was a significant increase in female participation in Badwater from 18.4% to 19.1% (p < 0.01) and in Spartathlon from 11.9% to 12.5% (p = 0.02). In men, the age of finishers was higher in Badwater (46.5 ± 9.3 years) compared to Spartathlon (44.8 ± 8.2 years) (p < 0.01). The age of female finishers of both races was similar with 43.0 ± 7.5 years in Badwater and 44.5 ± 7.8 years in Spartathlon (p > 0.05). Over the years, the age of the annual five fastest men decreased in Badwater from 42.4 ± 4.2 to 39.8 ± 5.7 years (p < 0.05). For women, the age remained unchanged at 42.3 ± 3.8 years in Badwater (p > 0.05). In Spartathlon, the age was unchanged at 39.7 ± 2.4 years for men and 44.6 ± 3.2 years for women (p > 0.05). In Badwater, women and men became faster over the years. The running speed increased from 7.9 ± 0.7 to 8.7 ± 0.6 km/h (p < 0.01) in men and from 5.4 ± 1.1 to 6.6 ± 0.5 km/h (p < 0.01) in women. The sex difference in running speed remained unchanged at 19.8% ± 4.8% (p > 0.05). In Spartathlon, the running speed was stable over time at 10.8 ± 0.7 km/h for men and 8.7 ± 0.5 km/h for women (p > 0.05). The sex difference remained unchanged at 19.6% ± 2.5% (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that for both Badwater and Spartathlon, (a) female participation increased, (b) the fastest finishers were approximately 40 to 45 years, and (c) the sex difference was at approximately 20%. Women will not outrun men in both Badwater and Spartathlon races. Master ultramarathoners can achieve a high level of performance in ultramarathons greater than 200 km under extreme conditions.

Sex difference in Double Iron ultra-triathlon performance

BACKGROUND

The present study examined the sex difference in swimming (7.8 km), cycling (360 km), running (84 km), and overall race times for Double Iron ultra-triathletes.

METHODS

Sex differences in split times and overall race times of 1,591 men and 155 women finishing a Double Iron ultra-triathlon between 1985 and 2012 were analyzed.

RESULTS

The annual number of finishes increased linearly for women and exponentially for men. Men achieved race times of 1,716 ± 243 min compared to 1,834 ± 261 min for women and were 118 ± 18 min (6.9%) faster (p < 0.01). Men finished swimming within 156 ± 63 min compared to women with 163 ± 31 min and were 8 ± 32 min (5.1 ± 5.0%) faster (p < 0.01). For cycling, men (852 ± 196 min) were 71 ± 70 min (8.3 ± 3.5%) faster than women (923 ± 126 min) (p < 0.01). Men completed the run split within 710 ± 145 min compared to 739 ± 150 min for women and were 30 ± 5 min (4.2 ± 3.4%) faster (p = 0.03). The annual three fastest men improved race time from 1,650 ± 114 min in 1985 to 1,339 ± 33 min in 2012 (p < 0.01). Overall race time for women remained unchanged at 1,593 ± 173 min with an unchanged sex difference of 27.1 ± 8.6%. In swimming, the split times for the annual three fastest women (148 ± 14 min) and men (127 ± 20 min) remained unchanged with an unchanged sex difference of 26.8 ± 13.5%. In cycling, the annual three fastest men improved the split time from 826 ± 60 min to 666 ± 18 min (p = 0.02). For women, the split time in cycling remained unchanged at 844 ± 54 min with an unchanged sex difference of 25.2 ± 7.3%. In running, the annual fastest three men improved split times from 649 ± 77 min to 532 ± 16 min (p < 0.01). For women, however, the split times remained unchanged at 657 ± 70 min with a stable sex difference of 32.4 ± 12.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

To summarize, the present findings showed that men were faster than women in Double Iron ultra-triathlon, men improved overall race times, cycling and running split times, and the sex difference remained unchanged across years for overall race time and split times. The sex differences for overall race times and split times were higher than reported for Ironman triathlon.

Changes in the energy cost of running during a 24-h treadmill exercise

PURPOSE

Although fatigue generally increases the energy cost of running (Cr), the changes of Cr and associated variables during an ultramarathon are not known. This study aimed to determine the changes of metabolic and cardiovascular adjustments during an ultraendurance exercise.

METHODS

Twelve healthy males ran 24 h on a motorized treadmill (24TR). Overall oxygen consumption (V˙O2 mL·min·kg), net energy cost (Cr J·kg·m), and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were determined before, every 2 h, and after the 24TR at 8 km·h. Running speed and heart rate (HR) were continuously measured during the 24TR.

RESULTS

V˙O2 increased (+7.6%, P < 0.001) during the 24TR, principally in the first 8 h of exercise. The RER mirrored changes in V˙O2, that is, decreased significantly until the eighth hour and remained constant thereafter. As a consequence of RER decrease, the increased Cr was markedly attenuated but was still significantly higher at the 8th and 12th hour compared with pre-24TR. Speed was constant over the first 6 h then significantly decreased during the 24TR. HR increased until the sixth hour (i.e., HR drift), then decreased until post-24TR. Furthermore, a significant positive correlation (R = 0.75, P < 0.01) was observed between the velocity sustained during the 24TR (expressed in percentage of the velocity attained at V˙O2max: %VV˙O2max) and the pre- to postchanges in Cr.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study characterized accurately the changes of energy cost and substrate use during an extreme run, showing a plateau after 8 h of exercise. It is also concluded that the participants who maintained the highest %VV˙O2max were also those having most deteriorated their Cr over the 24TR, supporting the notion of a trade-off between running speed (relative to VV˙O2max) and Cr.

Participation and performance trends in ultracycling

Background

Participation and performance trends have been investigated in ultramarathons and ultratriathlons but not in ultracycling. The aim of the present study was to investigate (1) participation and performance trends in ultraendurance cyclists, (2) changes in cycling speed over the years, and (3) the age of the fastest male and female ultraendurance cyclists.

Methods

Participation and performance trends in the 5000 km Race Across America (RAAM) and in two RAAM-qualifier races – the 818 km Furnace Creek 508 in the United States and the 715 km Swiss Cycling Marathon in Europe – were investigated using linear regression analyses and analyses of variance.

Results

On average, ~41% of participants did not finish either the RAAM or the Furnace Creek 508, whereas ~26% did not finish the Swiss Cycling Marathon. Female finishers accounted for ~11% in both the RAAM and the Furnace Creek 508 but only ~3% in the Swiss Cycling Marathon. The mean cycling speed of all finishers remained unchanged during the studied periods. The winner’s average speed was faster for men than for women in the RAAM (22.6 ± 1.1 km · h⁻¹ versus 18.4 ± 1.7 km · h⁻¹, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 25.0% ± 11.9%), the Swiss Cycling Marathon (30.8 ± 0.8 km · h⁻¹ versus 24.4 ± 1.9 km · h⁻¹, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 27.8% ± 9.4%), and the Furnace Creek 508 (27.4 ± 1.6 km · h⁻¹ versus 23.4 ± 3.0 km · h⁻¹, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 18.4% ± 13.9%). In both the Furnace Creek 508 and the Swiss Cycling Marathon, ~46% of the finishers were aged between 35 and 49 years. The mean age of winners, both male and female, across the years in the Furnace Creek 508 and in the Swiss Cycling Marathon was 37 ± 10 years.

Conclusion

These findings in ultracycling races showed that (1) ~26%–40% of starters were unable to finish, (2) the percentage of female finishers was ~3%–11%, (3) the gender difference in performance was ~18%–28%, and (4) ~46% of the successful finishers were master athletes. Future studies need to investigate the reasons for the low female participation and focus on the age-related performance decline in other ultraendurance events in order to confirm that master athletes are predisposed to ultraendurance performances.

Does Muscle Mass Affect Running Times in Male Long-distance Master Runners?

Purpose

The aim of the present study was to investigate associations between skeletal muscle mass, body fat and training characteristics with running times in master athletes (age > 35 years) in half-marathon, marathon and ultra-marathon.

Methods

We compared skeletal muscle mass, body fat and training characteristics in master half-marathoners (n=103), master marathoners (n=91) and master ultra-marathoners (n=155) and investigated associations between body composition and training characteristics with race times using bi- and multi-variate analyses.

Results

After multi-variate analysis, body fat was related to half-marathon (β=0.9, P=0.0003), marathon (β=2.2, P<0.0001), and ultra-marathon (β=10.5, P<0.0001) race times. In master half-marathoners (β=-4.3, P<0.0001) and master marathoners (β=-11.9, P<0.0001), speed during training was related to race times. In master ultra-marathoners, however, weekly running kilometers (β=-1.6, P<0.0001) were related to running times.

Conclusions

To summarize, body fat and training characteristics, not skeletal muscle mass, were associated with running times in master half-marathoners, master marathoners, and master ultra-marathoners. Master half-marathoners and master marathoners rather rely on a high running speed during training whereas master ultra-marathoners rely on a high running volume during training. The common opinion that skeletal muscle mass affects running performance in master runners needs to be questioned.

Ultramarathon runners: nature or nurture?

Ultramarathon running is increasingly popular. An ultramarathon is defined as a running event involving distances longer than the length of a traditional marathon of 42.195 km. In ultramarathon races, ~80% of the finishers are men. Ultramarathoners are typically ~45 y old and achieve their fastest running times between 30 and 49 y for men, and between 30 and 54 y for women. Most probably, ultrarunners start with a marathon before competing in an ultramarathon. In ultramarathoners, the number of previously completed marathons is significantly higher than the number of completed marathons in marathoners. However, recreational marathoners have a faster personal-best marathon time than ultramarathoners. Successful ultramarathoners have 7.6 ± 6.3 y of experience in ultrarunning. Ultramarathoners complete more running kilometers in training than marathoners do, but they run more slowly during training than marathoners. To summarize, ultramarathoners are master runners, have a broad experience in running, and prepare differently for an ultramarathon than marathoners do. However, it is not known what motivates male ultramarathoners and where ultramarathoners mainly originate. Future studies need to investigate the motivation of male ultramarathoners, where the best ultramarathoners originate, and whether they prepare by competing in marathons before entering ultramarathons.

European dominance in multistage ultramarathons: an analysis of finisher rate and performance trends from 1992 to 2010

BACKGROUND

Participation and performance trends regarding the nationality of ultraendurance athletes have been investigated in the triathlon, but not in running. The present study aimed to identify the countries in which multistage ultramarathons were held around the world and the nationalities of successful finishers.

METHODS

Finisher rates and performance trends of finishers in multistage ultramarathons held worldwide between 1992 and 2010 were investigated.

RESULTS

Between 1992 and 2010, the bulk of multistage ultramarathons were held in Germany and France, with more than 30 races organized in each country. Completion rates for men and women increased exponentially, with women representing on average 16.4% of the total field. Since 1992, 6480 athletes have competed in Morocco, 2538 in Germany, and 1842 in France. A total of 81.9% of athletes originated from Europe, and more specifically from France (22.9%), Great Britain (18.0%), and Germany (13.4%).

CONCLUSION

European ultramarathoners dominated the athletes who completed multistage ultramarathons worldwide, with specific dominance of French, British, and German athletes. Future studies should investigate social aspects, such as sport tourism, among European athletes to understand why European athletes are so interested in participating in multistage ultramarathons.

Participation and performance trends in multistage ultramarathons-the 'Marathon des Sables' 2003-2012

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to investigate participation and performance changes in the multistage ultramarathon 'Marathon des Sables' from 2003 to 2012.

METHODS

Participation and performance trends in the four- or six-stage running event covering approximately 250 km were analyzed with special emphasis on the nationality and age of the athletes. The relations between gender, age, and nationality of finishers and performance were investigated using regression analyses and analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Between 2003 and 2012, a number of 7,275 athletes with 938 women (12.9%) and 6,337 men (87.1%) finished the Marathon des Sables. The finisher rate in both women (r2 = 0.62) and men (r2 = 0.60) increased across years (p < 0.01). Men were significantly (p < 0.01) faster than women for overall finishers (5.9 ± 1.6 km·h-1 versus 5.1 ± 1.3 km·h-1) and for the top three finishers (12.2 ± 0.4 km·h-1 versus 8.3 ± 0.6 km·h-1). The gender difference in running speed of the top three athletes decreased (r2 = 0.72; p < 0.01) from 39.5% in 2003 to 24.1% in 2012 with a mean gender difference of 31.7 ± 2.0%. In men, Moroccans won nine of ten competitions, and one edition was won by a Jordanian athlete. In women, eight races were won by Europeans (France five, Luxembourg two, and Spain one, respectively), and two events were won by Moroccan runners.

CONCLUSIONS

The finisher rate in the Marathon des Sables increased this last decade. Men were significantly faster than women with a higher gender difference in performance compared to previous reports. Social or cultural inhibitions may determine the outcome in this event. Future studies need to investigate participation trends regarding nationalities and socioeconomic background, as well as the motivation to compete in ultramarathons.

Comparison of anthropometric and training characteristics between recreational male marathoners and 24-hour ultramarathoners

Background

Of the anthropometry and training variables used to predict race performance in a 24-hour ultrarun, the personal best marathon time is the strongest predictor in recreational male 24-hour ultramarathoners. This finding raises the question of whether similarities exist between male recreational 24-hour ultramarathoners and male recreational marathoners.

Methods

The association between age, anthropometric variables (ie, body mass, body height, body mass index, percent body fat, skeletal muscle mass, limb circumference, and skinfold thickness at the pectoral, mid axillary, triceps, subscapular, abdominal, suprailiac, front thigh, and medial calf sites), previous experience and training characteristics (ie, volume, speed, and personal best time), and race time for 79 male recreational 24-hour ultramarathoners and 126 male recreational marathoners was investigated using bivariate and multivariate analysis.

Results

The 24-hour ultramarathoners were older (P < 0.05), had a lower circumference at both the upper arm (P < 0.05) and thigh (P < 0.01), and a lower skinfold thickness at the pectoral, axillary, and suprailiac sites (P < 0.05) compared with the marathoners. During training, the 24-hour ultramarathoners were running for more hours per week (P < 0.001) and completed more kilometers (P < 0.001), but were running slower (P < 0.01) compared with the marathoners. In the 24-hour ultramarathoners, neither anthropometric nor training variables were associated with kilometers completed in the race (P > 0.05). In the marathoners, percent body fat (P < 0.001) and running speed during training (P < 0.0001) were related to marathon race times.

Conclusion

In summary, differences in anthropometric and training predictor variables do exist between male recreational 24-hour ultramarathoners and male recreational marathoners for race performance.