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Chen J, Jiao Z, Mo J, Huang D, Li Z, Zhang W, Yang T, Zhao M, Xie F, Hu D, Wang X, Yi X, Jiang Y, Zhong T. Comparison of the Variability of Small Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Human Liver Cancer Tissues and Cultured from the Tissue Explants Based on a Simple Enrichment Method. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2021; 18:1067-1077. [PMID: 34550537 PMCID: PMC8942897 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-021-10264-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A potential use of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes has recently generated a great interest. sEVs, when purified directly from various tissues with proper procedures, can reflect the physiological and pathological state of the organism. However, the quality of sEV is affected by many factors during isolation, including separation of sEV from cell and tissues debris, the use of enzymes for tissue digestion, and the storage state of tissues. In the present study, we established an assay for the isolation and purification of liver cancer tissues-derived sEVs (tdsEVs) and cultured explants-derived sEVs (cedsEVs) by comparing the quality of sEVs derived from different concentration of digestion enzyme and incubation time. The nano-flow cytometry (NanoFCM) showed that the isolated tdsEVs by our method are purer than those obtained from differential ultracentrifugation. Our study thus establishes a simple and effective approach for isolation of high-quality sEVs that can be used for analysis of their constituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Chen
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Zhigang Jiao
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Precision Medicine Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Jianwen Mo
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Defa Huang
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Zhengzhe Li
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Wenjuan Zhang
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Precision Medicine Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Tong Yang
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Minghong Zhao
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Fangfang Xie
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Die Hu
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Xiaoxing Wang
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Xiaomei Yi
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Yu Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Tianyu Zhong
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.
- Precision Medicine Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.
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102
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Qin B, Hu XM, Su ZH, Zeng XB, Ma HY, Xiong K. Tissue-derived extracellular vesicles: Research progress from isolation to application. Pathol Res Pract 2021; 226:153604. [PMID: 34500372 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2021.153604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are the structures that all cells release into the environment. They are separated by a lipid bilayer and contain the cellular components that release them. To date, most studies have been performed on EVs derived from cell supernatants or different body fluids, while the number of studies on EV isolation directly from tissues is still limited. Studies of EV isolation directly from tissues may provide us with better information. This review summarizes the role of EV in the extracellular matrix, the protocol for isolation of EV in the tissue interstitium, and the application of the protocol in different tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Qin
- Hubei Key Laboratory for Kidney Disease Pathogenesis and Intervention, Hubei Polytechnic University School of Medicine, Xialu District Guilin North Road No.16, Huangshi 435003, China
| | - Xi-Min Hu
- Clinical Medicine Eight-year Program, 02 Class, 17 Grade, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - Zhen-Hong Su
- Hubei Key Laboratory for Kidney Disease Pathogenesis and Intervention, Hubei Polytechnic University School of Medicine, Xialu District Guilin North Road No.16, Huangshi 435003, China
| | - Xiao-Bo Zeng
- Hubei Key Laboratory for Kidney Disease Pathogenesis and Intervention, Hubei Polytechnic University School of Medicine, Xialu District Guilin North Road No.16, Huangshi 435003, China
| | - Hong-Ying Ma
- Hubei Key Laboratory for Kidney Disease Pathogenesis and Intervention, Hubei Polytechnic University School of Medicine, Xialu District Guilin North Road No.16, Huangshi 435003, China
| | - Kun Xiong
- Department of Neurobiology and Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China; Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China.
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103
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Tóth EÁ, Turiák L, Visnovitz T, Cserép C, Mázló A, Sódar BW, Försönits AI, Petővári G, Sebestyén A, Komlósi Z, Drahos L, Kittel Á, Nagy G, Bácsi A, Dénes Á, Gho YS, Szabó‐Taylor KÉ, Buzás EI. Formation of a protein corona on the surface of extracellular vesicles in blood plasma. J Extracell Vesicles 2021; 10:e12140. [PMID: 34520123 PMCID: PMC8439280 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study we tested whether a protein corona is formed around extracellular vesicles (EVs) in blood plasma. We isolated medium-sized nascent EVs of THP1 cells as well as of Optiprep-purified platelets, and incubated them in EV-depleted blood plasma from healthy subjects and from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. EVs were subjected to differential centrifugation, size exclusion chromatography, or density gradient ultracentrifugation followed by mass spectrometry. Plasma protein-coated EVs had a higher density compared to the nascent ones and carried numerous newly associated proteins. Interactions between plasma proteins and EVs were confirmed by confocal microscopy, capillary Western immunoassay, immune electron microscopy and flow cytometry. We identified nine shared EV corona proteins (ApoA1, ApoB, ApoC3, ApoE, complement factors 3 and 4B, fibrinogen α-chain, immunoglobulin heavy constant γ2 and γ4 chains), which appear to be common corona proteins among EVs, viruses and artificial nanoparticles in blood plasma. An unexpected finding of this study was the high overlap of the composition of the protein corona with blood plasma protein aggregates. This is explained by our finding that besides a diffuse, patchy protein corona, large protein aggregates also associate with the surface of EVs. However, while EVs with an external plasma protein cargo induced an increased expression of TNF-α, IL-6, CD83, CD86 and HLA-DR of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells, EV-free protein aggregates had no effect. In conclusion, our data may shed new light on the origin of the commonly reported plasma protein 'contamination' of EV preparations and may add a new perspective to EV research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eszter Á. Tóth
- Department of GeneticsCell‐ and ImmunobiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Lilla Turiák
- ELKH‐SE Immune‐Proteogenomics Extracellular Vesicle Research GroupBudapestHungary
- MS Proteomics Research GroupResearch Centre for Natural SciencesEötvös Loránd Research NetworkBudapestHungary
| | - Tamás Visnovitz
- Department of GeneticsCell‐ and ImmunobiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Csaba Cserép
- Laboratory of NeuroimmunologyInstitute of Experimental MedicineEötvös Loránd Research NetworkBudapestHungary
| | - Anett Mázló
- Department of ImmunologyFaculty of MedicineUniversity of DebrecenDebrecenHungary
| | - Barbara W. Sódar
- Department of GeneticsCell‐ and ImmunobiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
- HCEMM‐SE Extracellular Vesicles Research GroupBudapestHungary
| | - András I. Försönits
- Department of GeneticsCell‐ and ImmunobiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Gábor Petővári
- Tumour BiologyTumour Metabolism Research Group1st Department of Pathology and Experimental Cancer ResearchSemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Anna Sebestyén
- Tumour BiologyTumour Metabolism Research Group1st Department of Pathology and Experimental Cancer ResearchSemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Zsolt Komlósi
- Department of GeneticsCell‐ and ImmunobiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - László Drahos
- ELKH‐SE Immune‐Proteogenomics Extracellular Vesicle Research GroupBudapestHungary
- MS Proteomics Research GroupResearch Centre for Natural SciencesEötvös Loránd Research NetworkBudapestHungary
| | - Ágnes Kittel
- Institute of Experimental MedicineEötvös Loránd Research NetworkBudapestHungary
| | - György Nagy
- Department of GeneticsCell‐ and ImmunobiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
- Department of Rheumatology & Clinical ImmunologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Attila Bácsi
- Department of ImmunologyFaculty of MedicineUniversity of DebrecenDebrecenHungary
| | - Ádám Dénes
- Laboratory of NeuroimmunologyInstitute of Experimental MedicineEötvös Loránd Research NetworkBudapestHungary
| | - Yong Song Gho
- Department of Life SciencesPohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH)PohangRepublic of Korea
| | | | - Edit I. Buzás
- Department of GeneticsCell‐ and ImmunobiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
- ELKH‐SE Immune‐Proteogenomics Extracellular Vesicle Research GroupBudapestHungary
- HCEMM‐SE Extracellular Vesicles Research GroupBudapestHungary
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104
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Zadka Ł, Buzalewicz I, Ulatowska-Jarża A, Rusak A, Kochel M, Ceremuga I, Dzięgiel P. Label-Free Quantitative Phase Imaging Reveals Spatial Heterogeneity of Extracellular Vesicles in Select Colon Disorders. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2021; 191:2147-2171. [PMID: 34428422 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2021.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) imaging and quantitative analysis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) remain largely unexplored, mainly because of limitations in detection techniques. In this study, EVs from patients diagnosed with colorectal cancer (CRC) and ulcerative colitis were examined. To investigate the spatial heterogeneity and 3D refractive index (RI) distribution of single EVs, a label-free digital holographic tomography technique was used at a submicrometer spatial resolution. The presented image-processing algorithms were used in quantitative analysis with digital staining and 3D visualization, the determination of the EV size distribution and extraction of fractions with different RIs. Reconstructed 3D RI distributions revealed variations in the spatial heterogeneity of EVs related to tissue specificity, such as CRC, normal colonic mucosa, and ulcerative colitis, as well as the isolation procedures used. The RI values of EVs isolated from solid tissues of frozen CRC samples were also dependent on the tumor grade and cancer cell proliferation. The simultaneous examination of cell culture models confirmed the association of the RI of EVs with the tumor grade. 3D-RI data analysis generates new perspectives with the optical, contact-free, label-free examination of the individual EVs. Depending on the specific tissue and isolation method, EVs exhibit significant spatial heterogeneity. The optical parameters of single EVs enabled their classification into two unique subgroups with different RI values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Zadka
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Igor Buzalewicz
- Bio-Optics Group, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Fundamental Problems of Technology, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Ulatowska-Jarża
- Bio-Optics Group, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Fundamental Problems of Technology, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Rusak
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Maria Kochel
- The Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Ireneusz Ceremuga
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Dzięgiel
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
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105
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Useckaite Z, Rodrigues AD, Hopkins AM, Newman LA, Johnson JG, Sorich MJ, Rowland A. Role of extracellular vesicle derived biomarkers in drug metabolism and disposition. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 49:961-971. [PMID: 34353847 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small, non-replicating, lipid encapsulated particles that contain a myriad of protein and nucleic acid cargo derived from their tissue of origin. The potential role of EV derived biomarkers to the study of drug metabolism and disposition (DMD) has gained attention in recent years. The key trait that makes EVs an attractive biomarker source is their capacity to provide comparable insights to solid organ biopsy through an appreciably less invasive collection procedure. Blood-derived EVs exist as a heterogenous milieu of biologically distinct particles originating from different sources through different biogenesis pathways. Furthermore, blood (plasma and serum) contains an array of vesicular and non-vesicular contaminants such as apoptotic bodies, plasma proteins and lipoproteins that are routinely co-isolated with EVs albeit to a different extent depending on the isolation technique. The following mini-review summarises current studies reporting DMD biomarkers and addresses elements of EV isolation and quantification relevant to the application of EV derived DMD biomarkers. Evidence based best practice guidance aligned to Minimum Information for the Study of Extracellular Vesicles (MISEV) and EV Track reporting standards are summarised in the context of DMD studies. Significance Statement Extracellular vesicle (EV) derived protein and nucleic acid cargo represent a potentially game changing source of novel DMD biomarkers with the capacity to define within- and between- individual variability in drug exposure irrespective of aetiology. However, robust translation of EV-derived biomarkers requires the generation of transparent reproducible evidence. This review outlines the critical elements of data generation and reporting relevant to achieving this evidence in a drug metabolism and disposition context.
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106
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Schnatz A, Müller C, Brahmer A, Krämer‐Albers E. Extracellular Vesicles in neural cell interaction and CNS homeostasis. FASEB Bioadv 2021; 3:577-592. [PMID: 34377954 PMCID: PMC8332475 DOI: 10.1096/fba.2021-00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis critically depends on the interaction between neurons and glia cells. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) recently emerged as versatile messengers in CNS cell communication. EVs are released by neurons and glia in activity-dependent manner and address multiple target cells within and outside the nervous system. Here, we summarize the recent advances in understanding the physiological roles of EVs in the nervous system and their ability to deliver signals across the CNS barriers. In addition to the disposal of cellular components via EVs and clearance by phagocytic cells, EVs are involved in plasticity-associated processes, mediate trophic support and neuroprotection, promote axonal maintenance, and modulate neuroinflammation. While individual functional components of the EV cargo are becoming progressively identified, the role of neural EVs as compound multimodal signaling entities remains to be elucidated. Novel transgenic models and imaging technologies allow EV tracking in vivo and provide further insight into EV targeting and their mode of action. Overall, EVs represent key players in the maintenance of CNS homeostasis essential for the lifelong performance of neural networks and thus provide a wide spectrum of biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Schnatz
- Institute of Developmental Biology and NeurobiologyBiology of Extracellular VesiclesUniversity of MainzMainzGermany
| | - Christina Müller
- Institute of Developmental Biology and NeurobiologyBiology of Extracellular VesiclesUniversity of MainzMainzGermany
| | - Alexandra Brahmer
- Institute of Developmental Biology and NeurobiologyBiology of Extracellular VesiclesUniversity of MainzMainzGermany
| | - Eva‐Maria Krämer‐Albers
- Institute of Developmental Biology and NeurobiologyBiology of Extracellular VesiclesUniversity of MainzMainzGermany
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107
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Li C, Wang C, Zhang Y, Alsrouji OK, Chebl AB, Ding G, Jiang Q, Mayer SA, Lu M, Kole MK, Marin HL, Zhang L, Chopp M, Zhang ZG. Cerebral endothelial cell-derived small extracellular vesicles enhance neurovascular function and neurological recovery in rat acute ischemic stroke models of mechanical thrombectomy and embolic stroke treatment with tPA. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2021; 41:2090-2104. [PMID: 33557693 PMCID: PMC8327102 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x21992980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Treatment of patients with cerebral large vessel occlusion with thrombectomy and tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) leads to incomplete reperfusion. Using rat models of embolic and transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (eMCAO and tMCAO), we investigated the effect on stroke outcomes of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) derived from rat cerebral endothelial cells (CEC-sEVs) in combination with tPA (CEC-sEVs/tPA) as a treatment of eMCAO and tMCAO in rat. The effect of sEVs derived from clots acquired from patients who had undergone mechanical thrombectomy on healthy human CEC permeability was also evaluated. CEC-sEVs/tPA administered 4 h after eMCAO reduced infarct volume by ∼36%, increased recanalization of the occluded MCA, enhanced cerebral blood flow (CBF), and reduced blood-brain barrier (BBB) leakage. Treatment with CEC-sEVs given upon reperfusion after 2 h tMCAO significantly reduced infarct volume by ∼43%, and neurological outcomes were improved in both CEC-sEVs treated models. CEC-sEVs/tPA reduced a network of microRNAs (miRs) and proteins that mediate thrombosis, coagulation, and inflammation. Patient-clot derived sEVs increased CEC permeability, which was reduced by CEC-sEVs. CEC-sEV mediated suppression of a network of pro-thrombotic, -coagulant, and -inflammatory miRs and proteins likely contribute to therapeutic effects. Thus, CEC-sEVs have a therapeutic effect on acute ischemic stroke by reducing neurovascular damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Chunyang Wang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Owais K Alsrouji
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Alex B Chebl
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Guangliang Ding
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Quan Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Stephan A Mayer
- Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Westchester Medical Center, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
| | - Mei Lu
- Department of Biostatistics and Research Epidemiology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Max K Kole
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Horia L Marin
- Clinical Professor of Radiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Michael Chopp
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA.,Department of Physics, Oakland University, Rochester, MI, USA
| | - Zheng Gang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
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108
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Mahjoum S, Rufino-Ramos D, Pereira de Almeida L, Broekman MLD, Breakefield XO, van Solinge TS. Living Proof of Activity of Extracellular Vesicles in the Central Nervous System. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147294. [PMID: 34298912 PMCID: PMC8303915 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of a heterogeneous population of cells with highly specialized functions. For optimal functioning of the CNS, in disease and in health, intricate communication between these cells is vital. One important mechanism of cellular communication is the release and uptake of extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are membrane enclosed particles actively released by cells, containing a wide array of proteins, lipids, RNA, and DNA. These EVs can be taken up by neighboring or distant cells, and influence a wide range of processes. Due to the complexity and relative inaccessibility of the CNS, our current understanding of the role of EVs is mainly derived in vitro work. However, recently new methods and techniques have opened the ability to study the role of EVs in the CNS in vivo. In this review, we discuss the current developments in our understanding of the role of EVs in the CNS in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadi Mahjoum
- Program in Neuroscience, Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02119, USA; (S.M.); (M.L.D.B.); (X.O.B.)
| | - David Rufino-Ramos
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (D.R.-R.); (L.P.d.A.)
- CIBB—Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (D.R.-R.); (L.P.d.A.)
- CIBB—Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Marike L. D. Broekman
- Program in Neuroscience, Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02119, USA; (S.M.); (M.L.D.B.); (X.O.B.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Neurosurgery, Haaglanden Medical Center, 2512 VA The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Xandra O. Breakefield
- Program in Neuroscience, Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02119, USA; (S.M.); (M.L.D.B.); (X.O.B.)
| | - Thomas S. van Solinge
- Program in Neuroscience, Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02119, USA; (S.M.); (M.L.D.B.); (X.O.B.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
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109
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Zhou Y, Chen F, Xie X, Nie H, Lian S, Zhong C, Fu C, Shen W, Li B, Ye Y, Lu Y, Jia L. Tumor-derived Exosome Promotes Metastasis via Altering its Phenotype and Inclusions. J Cancer 2021; 12:4240-4246. [PMID: 34093824 PMCID: PMC8176431 DOI: 10.7150/jca.48043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although tumor-derived exosomes play an important role in the process of metastasis, differences in exosomes secreted by the same cells at different stages or conditions have not been noticed by most of the relevant researchers. Here we developed a lung cancer model in nude mice, and the phenotype and inclusions of exosomes secreted by early and advanced tumors were analysed. The size distribution and surface topography of these two exosomes were not significantly different, but the expression of CD63 in early tumor exosome (E-exosome) was significantly lower than that in advanced tumor exosome (A-exosome). α-SMA expression on HELF cells treated with A-exosome was significantly higher than that treated with E-exosome. The ability of A-exosome to promote the migration of A549 cells was better than E-exosome. Furthermore, small RNA sequence showed that only 3 of the 171 detected-small RNAs were expressed simultaneously in both exosomes. These findings proved that there are significant differences in inclusions and functions between the early and late exosomes of the same tumor. The study highlights the importance of exosomes in cancer metastasis, and might suggest exosomes can be used as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhou
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
| | - Fan Chen
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
| | - Xiaodong Xie
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
| | - Huifang Nie
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
| | - Shu Lian
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
| | - Chunlian Zhong
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Chengbin Fu
- Department of Breast Surgery, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Weiyu Shen
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
| | - Bifei Li
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
| | - Yongqing Ye
- Fujian Sanyi Hematopoietic Technology Co. Ltd., Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Yusheng Lu
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
| | - Lee Jia
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, and Biopharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350116, China
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Ubiquinone Metabolism and Transcription HIF-1 Targets Pathway Are Toxicity Signature Pathways Present in Extracellular Vesicles of Paraquat-Exposed Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105065. [PMID: 34064677 PMCID: PMC8150401 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last decade, the knowledge in extracellular vesicles (EVs) biogenesis and modulation has increasingly grown. As their content reflects the physiological state of their donor cells, these “intercellular messengers” progressively became a potential source of biomarker reflecting the host cell state. However, little is known about EVs released from the human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs). The current study aimed to isolate and characterize EVs from HBMECs and to analyze their EVs proteome modulation after paraquat (PQ) stimulation, a widely used herbicide known for its neurotoxic effect. Size distribution, concentration and presence of well-known EV markers were assessed. Identification and quantification of PQ-exposed EV proteins was conducted by data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry (DIA-MS). Signature pathways of PQ-treated EVs were analyzed by gene ontology terms and pathway enrichment. Results highlighted that EVs exposed to PQ have modulated pathways, namely the ubiquinone metabolism and the transcription HIF-1 targets. These pathways may be potential molecular signatures of the PQ-induced toxicity carried by EVs that are reflecting their cell of origin by transporting with them irreversible functional changes.
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111
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The mantle exosome proteins of Hyriopsis cumingii participate in shell and nacre color formation. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2021; 39:100844. [PMID: 33971400 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2021.100844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pearl color is closely related to the nacre color of shell in Hyriopsis cumingii, and pearl color has a huge impact on its price. The nacre is an important part of the shell, and studies have suggested that mantle exosomes participated in shell formation. Exosomes contain many different proteins that are involved in different biological processes. In this study, exosomes were extracted from mantles of mussels with different nacre color. TMT quantitative proteome sequencing analysis was performed on purple and white mussel mantle exosomes, and 4861 proteins were obtained. Based on the standard of (|log2 (Fold change)| ≥ 1.2 or ≤ 0.83 and p-value ≤ 0.05), a total of 758 differentially expressed proteins were found. Some proteins involved in shell and nacre color formation were predicted with the proteins annotate, GO classification system. Moreover, 14 differentially expressed proteins (including eight up-regulated proteins and six down-regulated proteins) were validated using parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) assays. Overall, this information will be useful to improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of shell and nacre color formation in H. cumingii.
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112
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Su H, Rustam YH, Masters CL, Makalic E, McLean CA, Hill AF, Barnham KJ, Reid GE, Vella LJ. Characterization of brain-derived extracellular vesicle lipids in Alzheimer's disease. J Extracell Vesicles 2021; 10:e12089. [PMID: 34012516 PMCID: PMC8111496 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid dyshomeostasis is associated with the most common form of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD). Substantial progress has been made in identifying positron emission tomography and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for AD, but they have limited use as front-line diagnostic tools. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released by all cells and contain a subset of their parental cell composition, including lipids. EVs are released from the brain into the periphery, providing a potential source of tissue and disease specific lipid biomarkers. However, the EV lipidome of the central nervous system is currently unknown and the potential of brain-derived EVs (BDEVs) to inform on lipid dyshomeostasis in AD remains unclear. The aim of this study was to reveal the lipid composition of BDEVs in human frontal cortex, and to determine whether BDEVs have an altered lipid profile in AD. Using semi-quantitative mass spectrometry, we describe the BDEV lipidome, covering four lipid categories, 17 lipid classes and 692 lipid molecules. BDEVs were enriched in glycerophosphoserine (PS) lipids, a characteristic of small EVs. Here we further report that BDEVs are enriched in ether-containing PS lipids, a finding that further establishes ether lipids as a feature of EVs. BDEVs in the AD frontal cortex offered improved detection of dysregulated lipids in AD over global lipid profiling of this brain region. AD BDEVs had significantly altered glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid levels, specifically increased plasmalogen glycerophosphoethanolamine and decreased polyunsaturated fatty acyl containing lipids, and altered amide-linked acyl chain content in sphingomyelin and ceramide lipids relative to CTL. The most prominent alteration was a two-fold decrease in lipid species containing anti-inflammatory/pro-resolving docosahexaenoic acid. The in-depth lipidome analysis provided in this study highlights the advantage of EVs over more complex tissues for improved detection of dysregulated lipids that may serve as potential biomarkers in the periphery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaqi Su
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
- Department of Biochemistry and PharmacologyThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Yepy H. Rustam
- Department of Biochemistry and PharmacologyThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Colin L. Masters
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Enes Makalic
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global HealthThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Catriona A. McLean
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Andrew F. Hill
- Department of Biochemistry and GeneticsLa Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe UniversityBundooraVictoriaAustralia
| | - Kevin J. Barnham
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Gavin E. Reid
- Department of Biochemistry and PharmacologyThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
- School of Chemistry, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology InstituteThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Laura J. Vella
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
- Department of Surgery, The Royal Melbourne HospitalThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
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113
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Immune-Associated Proteins Are Enriched in Lung Tissue-Derived Extracellular Vesicles during Allergen-Induced Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094718. [PMID: 33946872 PMCID: PMC8125637 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Studying the proteomes of tissue-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) can lead to the identification of biomarkers of disease and can provide a better understanding of cell-to-cell communication in both healthy and diseased tissue. The aim of this study was to apply our previously established tissue-derived EV isolation protocol to mouse lungs in order to determine the changes in the proteomes of lung tissue-derived EVs during allergen-induced eosinophilic airway inflammation. A mouse model for allergic airway inflammation was used by sensitizing the mice intraperitoneal with ovalbumin (OVA), and one week after the final sensitization, the mice were challenged intranasal with OVA or PBS. The animals were sacrificed 24 h after the final challenge, and their lungs were removed and sliced into smaller pieces that were incubated in culture media with DNase I and Collagenase D for 30 min at 37 °C. Vesicles were isolated from the medium by ultracentrifugation and bottom-loaded iodixanol density cushions, and the proteomes were determined using quantitative mass spectrometry. More EVs were present in the lungs of the OVA-challenged mice compared to the PBS-challenged control mice. In total, 4510 proteins were quantified in all samples. Among them, over 1000 proteins were significantly altered (fold change >2), with 614 proteins being increased and 425 proteins being decreased in the EVs from OVA-challenged mice compared to EVs from PBS-challenged animals. The associated cellular components and biological processes were analyzed for the altered EV proteins, and the proteins enriched during allergen-induced airway inflammation were mainly associated with gene ontology (GO) terms related to immune responses. In conclusion, EVs can be isolated from mouse lung tissue, and the EVs’ proteomes undergo changes in response to allergen-induced airway inflammation. This suggests that the composition of lung-derived EVs is altered in diseases associated with inflammation of the lung, which may have implications in type-2 driven eosinophilic asthma pathogenesis.
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114
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Delgado-Peraza F, Nogueras-Ortiz CJ, Volpert O, Liu D, Goetzl EJ, Mattson MP, Greig NH, Eitan E, Kapogiannis D. Neuronal and Astrocytic Extracellular Vesicle Biomarkers in Blood Reflect Brain Pathology in Mouse Models of Alzheimer's Disease. Cells 2021; 10:cells10050993. [PMID: 33922642 PMCID: PMC8146429 DOI: 10.3390/cells10050993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Circulating neuronal extracellular vesicles (NEVs) of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients show high Tau and β-amyloid (Aβ) levels, whereas their astrocytic EVs (AEVs) contain high complement levels. To validate EV proteins as AD biomarkers, we immunocaptured NEVs and AEVs from plasma collected from fifteen wild type (WT), four 2xTg-AD, nine 5xFAD, and fifteen 3xTg-AD mice and assessed biomarker relationships with brain tissue levels. NEVs from 3xTg-AD mice had higher total Tau (p = 0.03) and p181-Tau (p = 0.0004) compared to WT mice. There were moderately strong correlations between biomarkers in NEVs and cerebral cortex and hippocampus (total Tau: cortex, r = 0.4, p = 0.009; p181-Tau: cortex, r = 0.7, p < 0.0001; hippocampus, r = 0.6, p < 0.0001). NEVs from 5xFAD compared to other mice had higher Aβ42 (p < 0.005). NEV Aβ42 had moderately strong correlations with Aβ42 in cortex (r = 0.6, p = 0.001) and hippocampus (r = 0.7, p < 0.0001). AEV C1q was elevated in 3xTg-AD compared to WT mice (p = 0.005); AEV C1q had moderate-strong correlations with C1q in cortex (r = 0.9, p < 0.0001) and hippocampus (r = 0.7, p < 0.0001). Biomarkers in circulating NEVs and AEVs reflect their brain levels across multiple AD mouse models supporting their potential use as a “liquid biopsy” for neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francheska Delgado-Peraza
- Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 212241, USA; (F.D.-P.); (C.J.N.-O.)
| | - Carlos J. Nogueras-Ortiz
- Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 212241, USA; (F.D.-P.); (C.J.N.-O.)
| | - Olga Volpert
- NeuroDex Inc., Natick, MA 01760, USA; (O.V.); (E.E.)
| | - Dong Liu
- Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA; (D.L.); (N.H.G.)
| | - Edward J. Goetzl
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA;
- San Francisco Campus for Jewish Living, San Francisco, CA 94112, USA
| | - Mark P. Mattson
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA;
| | - Nigel H. Greig
- Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA; (D.L.); (N.H.G.)
| | - Erez Eitan
- NeuroDex Inc., Natick, MA 01760, USA; (O.V.); (E.E.)
| | - Dimitrios Kapogiannis
- Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 212241, USA; (F.D.-P.); (C.J.N.-O.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-410-454-8393
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115
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Zhu C, Bilousova T, Focht S, Jun M, Elias CJ, Melnik M, Chandra S, Campagna J, Cohn W, Hatami A, Spilman P, Gylys KH, John V. Pharmacological inhibition of nSMase2 reduces brain exosome release and α-synuclein pathology in a Parkinson's disease model. Mol Brain 2021; 14:70. [PMID: 33875010 PMCID: PMC8056538 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-021-00776-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim We have previously reported that cambinol (DDL-112), a known inhibitor of neutral sphingomyelinase-2 (nSMase2), suppressed extracellular vesicle (EV)/exosome production in vitro in a cell model and reduced tau seed propagation. The enzyme nSMase2 is involved in the production of exosomes carrying proteopathic seeds and could contribute to cell-to-cell transmission of pathological protein aggregates implicated in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease (PD). Here, we performed in vivo studies to determine if DDL-112 can reduce brain EV/exosome production and proteopathic alpha synuclein (αSyn) spread in a PD mouse model. Methods The acute effects of single-dose treatment with DDL-112 on interleukin-1β-induced extracellular vesicle (EV) release in brain tissue of Thy1-αSyn PD model mice and chronic effects of 5 week DDL-112 treatment on behavioral/motor function and proteinase K-resistant αSyn aggregates in the PD model were determined. Results/discussion In the acute study, pre-treatment with DDL-112 reduced EV/exosome biogenesis and in the chronic study, treatment with DDL-112 was associated with a reduction in αSyn aggregates in the substantia nigra and improvement in motor function. Inhibition of nSMase2 thus offers a new approach to therapeutic development for neurodegenerative diseases with the potential to reduce the spread of disease-specific proteopathic proteins. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13041-021-00776-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunni Zhu
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Tina Bilousova
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.,School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Samantha Focht
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Michael Jun
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Chris Jean Elias
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Mikhail Melnik
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Sujyoti Chandra
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jesus Campagna
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Whitaker Cohn
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Asa Hatami
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Patricia Spilman
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | | | - Varghese John
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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116
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Sahoo S, Adamiak M, Mathiyalagan P, Kenneweg F, Kafert-Kasting S, Thum T. Therapeutic and Diagnostic Translation of Extracellular Vesicles in Cardiovascular Diseases: Roadmap to the Clinic. Circulation 2021; 143:1426-1449. [PMID: 33819075 PMCID: PMC8021236 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.120.049254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are small membrane-bound vesicles of endocytic origin that are actively secreted. The potential of exosomes as effective communicators of biological signaling in myocardial function has previously been investigated, and a recent explosion in exosome research not only underscores their significance in cardiac physiology and pathology, but also draws attention to methodological limitations of studying these extracellular vesicles. In this review, we discuss recent advances and challenges in exosome research with an emphasis on scientific innovations in isolation, identification, and characterization methodologies, and we provide a comprehensive summary of web-based resources available in the field. Importantly, we focus on the biology and function of exosomes, highlighting their fundamental role in cardiovascular pathophysiology to further support potential applications of exosomes as biomarkers and therapeutics for cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Sahoo
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York (S.S., M.A., P.M.)
| | - Marta Adamiak
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York (S.S., M.A., P.M.)
| | - Prabhu Mathiyalagan
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York (S.S., M.A., P.M.)
| | - Franziska Kenneweg
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Therapeutic Strategies (IMTTS) (F.K., S.K-K., T.T.), Hannover Medical School, Germany
| | - Sabine Kafert-Kasting
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Therapeutic Strategies (IMTTS) (F.K., S.K-K., T.T.), Hannover Medical School, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Hannover, Germany (S.K-K., T.T.)
| | - Thomas Thum
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Therapeutic Strategies (IMTTS) (F.K., S.K-K., T.T.), Hannover Medical School, Germany
- REBIRTH Center for Translational Regenerative Medicine (T.T.), Hannover Medical School, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Hannover, Germany (S.K-K., T.T.)
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117
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Bongiovanni L, Andriessen A, Wauben MHM, Hoen ENMN', de Bruin A. Extracellular Vesicles: Novel Opportunities to Understand and Detect Neoplastic Diseases. Vet Pathol 2021; 58:453-471. [PMID: 33813952 PMCID: PMC8064535 DOI: 10.1177/0300985821999328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
With a size range from 30 to 1000 nm, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are one of the smallest cell components able to transport biologically active molecules. They mediate intercellular communications and play a fundamental role in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and pathogenesis in several types of diseases. In particular, EVs actively contribute to cancer initiation and progression, and there is emerging understanding of their role in creation of the metastatic niche. This fact underlies the recent exponential growth in EV research, which has improved our understanding of their specific roles in disease and their potential applications in diagnosis and therapy. EVs and their biomolecular cargo reflect the state of the diseased donor cells, and can be detected in body fluids and exploited as biomarkers in cancer and other diseases. Relatively few studies have been published on EVs in the veterinary field. This review provides an overview of the features and biology of EVs as well as recent developments in EV research including techniques for isolation and analysis, and will address the way in which the EVs released by diseased tissues can be studied and exploited in the field of veterinary pathology. Uniquely, this review emphasizes the important contribution that pathologists can make to the field of EV research: pathologists can help EV scientists in studying and confirming the role of EVs and their molecular cargo in diseased tissues and as biomarkers in liquid biopsies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Bongiovanni
- 90051Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.,Present address: Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Alain de Bruin
- 90051Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
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118
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Beltraminelli T, Perez CR, De Palma M. Disentangling the complexity of tumor-derived extracellular vesicles. Cell Rep 2021; 35:108960. [PMID: 33826890 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment encompasses an intertwined ensemble of both transformed cancer cells and non-transformed host cells, which together establish a signaling network that regulates tumor progression. By conveying both homo- and heterotypic cell-to-cell communication cues, tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (tEVs) modulate several cancer-associated processes, such as immunosuppression, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Herein we discuss how recent methodological advances in the isolation and characterization of tEVs may help to broaden our understanding of their functions in tumor biology and, potentially, establish their utility as cancer biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Beltraminelli
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; Swiss Cancer Center Léman (SCCL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Caleb R Perez
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; Swiss Cancer Center Léman (SCCL), Lausanne, Switzerland; Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Cambridge, MA, USA; Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Michele De Palma
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; Swiss Cancer Center Léman (SCCL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
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119
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Exosomal miR-4443 promotes cisplatin resistance in non-small cell lung carcinoma by regulating FSP1 m6A modification-mediated ferroptosis. Life Sci 2021; 276:119399. [PMID: 33781830 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Exosomal transfer of miRNAs affects recipient cell proliferation and chemoresistance. Here, we aimed to investigate the role of exosomal miRNAs in controlling cisplatin resistance in non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). MAIN METHODS Paired tumor and normal tissue-derived exosomes were collected from NSCLC patients with low or high responsiveness to cisplatin treatment. The results showed that the microRNA-4443 (miR-4443) level was upregulated in cisplatin-resistant NSCLC tumor tissue-derived exosomes compared with cisplatin-sensitive tissue-derived exosomes. Cisplatin-resistant cells (A549-R) were generated from the parental cells (A549-S). Resistant exosomes conferred cisplatin resistance by transferring miR-4443 to sensitive cells. Moreover, overexpression of miR-4443 inhibited FSP1-mediated ferroptosis induced by cisplatin treatment in vitro and enhanced tumor growth in vivo. KEY FINDINGS Through bioinformatics analysis and luciferase assays, METTL3 was confirmed as a direct target gene of miR-4443. Further mechanistic analysis showed that miR-4443 regulated the expression of FSP1 in an m6A manner via METLL3. SIGNIFICANCE Our findings provide more in-depth insight into the chemoresistance of NSCLC and support the therapeutic potential of targeting ferroptosis.
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120
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Koopaei NN, Chowdhury EA, Jiang J, Noorani B, da Silva L, Bulut G, Hakimjavadi H, Chamala S, Bickel U, Schmittgen TD. Enrichment of the erythrocyte miR-451a in brain extracellular vesicles following impairment of the blood-brain barrier. Neurosci Lett 2021; 751:135829. [PMID: 33727125 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2021.135829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular RNAs (exRNAs) are present in all biofluids and incorporate many types of RNAs including miRNA. To enhance their stability outside of the cell, exRNAs are bound within ribonucleoprotein complexes or packaged into extracellular vesicles (EVs). The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a dynamic interface between the systemic circulation and the CNS and is responsible for maintaining a stable extracellular environment for CNS cells. The intent of this study was to determine if EVs and their contents are transferred from the peripheral circulation to the CNS under conditions of an impaired BBB. The BBB of mice was disrupted by unilateral intracarotid artery infusion with hyperosmolar mannitol solution. To validate barrier opening, the uptake clearance of [13C12]-sucrose in the left forebrain (i.e. the ipsilateral, mannitol injected hemisphere) was quantified and revealed a 14-fold increase in the mannitol perfused hemisphere compared to sham treated mice. EVs were isolated from the extracellular spaces of the left forebrain following gentle tissue lysis and differential ultracentrifugation. EVs were confirmed using nanotracking analysis, electron microscopy and western blotting. qRT-PCR showed that the erythrocyte-enriched miR-451a in brain tissue EVs increased with mannitol treatment by 24-fold. Small RNA sequencing performed on the EVs isolated from the sham and mannitol treated mice showed that miR-9-5p was the most abundant miRNA contained within the brain EVs. qRT-PCR analysis of plasma EVs did not produce a statistically significant difference in the expression of the CNS-enriched miR-9-5p or miR-9-3p, suggesting that transfer of CNS EVs to the peripheral circulation did not occur under the conditions of our experiment. We demonstrate that EVs containing miR-451a, a highly abundant miRNA present within erythrocytes and erythrocyte EVs, are enhanced in the CNS upon BBB disruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasser Nassiri Koopaei
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Ekram Ahmed Chowdhury
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Blood-Brain Barrier Research, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Jinmai Jiang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Behnam Noorani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Blood-Brain Barrier Research, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Lais da Silva
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Gamze Bulut
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Hesamedin Hakimjavadi
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Srikar Chamala
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Ulrich Bickel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Blood-Brain Barrier Research, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Thomas D Schmittgen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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121
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Isolation and characterization of extracellular vesicle subpopulations from tissues. Nat Protoc 2021; 16:1548-1580. [PMID: 33495626 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-020-00466-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayered membrane structures released by all cells. Most EV studies have been performed by using cell lines or body fluids, but the number of studies on tissue-derived EVs is still limited. Here, we present a protocol to isolate up to six different EV subpopulations directly from tissues. The approach includes enzymatic treatment of dissociated tissues followed by differential ultracentrifugation and density separation. The isolated EV subpopulations are characterized by electron microscopy and RNA profiling. In addition, their protein cargo can be determined with mass spectrometry, western blot and ExoView. Tissue-EV isolation can be performed in 22 h, but a simplified version can be completed in 8 h. Most experiments with the protocol have used human melanoma metastases, but the protocol can be applied to other cancer and non-cancer tissues. The procedure can be adopted by researchers experienced with cell culture and EV isolation.
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Matejovič A, Wakao S, Kitada M, Kushida Y, Dezawa M. Comparison of separation methods for tissue-derived extracellular vesicles in the liver, heart, and skeletal muscle. FEBS Open Bio 2021; 11:482-493. [PMID: 33410274 PMCID: PMC7876503 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are nanosized vesicles released by cells as intracellular messengers, have high potential as biomarkers. EVs are usually collected from in vitro sources, such as cell culture media or biofluids, and not from tissues. Techniques enabling direct collection of EVs from tissues will extend the applications of EVs. We compared methods for separating EVs from solid liver, heart, and skeletal muscle. Compared with a precipitation method, an ultracentrifugation-based method for collection of EVs from solid tissues yielded a higher proportion of EVs positive for EV-related markers, with minimum levels of intracellular organelle-related markers. Some tissue-specific modifications, such as a sucrose cushion step, may improve the yield and purity of the collected EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Matejovič
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and HistologyTohoku University Graduate School of MedicineSendaiJapan
- Department of VirologyTohoku University Graduate School of MedicineSendaiJapan
| | - Shohei Wakao
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and HistologyTohoku University Graduate School of MedicineSendaiJapan
| | - Masaaki Kitada
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and HistologyTohoku University Graduate School of MedicineSendaiJapan
- Department of AnatomyKansai Medical UniversityOsakaJapan
| | - Yoshihiro Kushida
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and HistologyTohoku University Graduate School of MedicineSendaiJapan
| | - Mari Dezawa
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and HistologyTohoku University Graduate School of MedicineSendaiJapan
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123
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Spinal cord injury alters microRNA and CD81+ exosome levels in plasma extracellular nanoparticles with neuroinflammatory potential. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 92:165-183. [PMID: 33307173 PMCID: PMC7897251 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been implicated mechanistically in the pathobiology of neurodegenerative disorders, including central nervous system injury. However, the role of EVs in spinal cord injury (SCI) has received limited attention to date. Moreover, technical limitations related to EV isolation and characterization methods can lead to misleading or contradictory findings. Here, we examined changes in plasma EVs after mouse SCI at multiple timepoints (1d, 3d, 7d, 14d) using complementary measurement techniques. Plasma EVs isolated by ultracentrifugation (UC) were decreased at 1d post-injury, as shown by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), and paralleled an overall reduction in total plasma extracellular nanoparticles. Western blot (WB) analysis of UC-derived plasma EVs revealed increased expression of the tetraspanin exosome marker, CD81, between 1d and 7d post-injury. To substantiate these findings, we performed interferometric and fluorescence imaging of single, tetraspanin EVs captured directly from plasma with ExoView®. Consistent with WB, we observed significantly increased plasma CD81+ EV count and cargo at 1d post-injury. The majority of these tetraspanin EVs were smaller than 50 nm based on interferometry and were insufficiently resolved by flow cytometry-based detection. At the injury site, there was enhanced expression of EV biogenesis proteins that were also detected in EVs directly isolated from spinal cord tissue by WB. Surface expression of tetraspanins CD9 and CD63 increased in multiple cell types at the injury site; however, astrocyte CD81 expression uniquely decreased, as demonstrated by flow cytometry. UC-isolated plasma EV microRNA cargo was also significantly altered at 1d post-injury with changes similar to that reported in EVs released by astrocytes after inflammatory stimulation. When injected into the lateral ventricle, plasma EVs from SCI mice increased both pro- and anti-inflammatory gene as well as reactive astrocyte gene expression in the brain cortex. These studies provide the first detailed characterization of plasma EV dynamics after SCI and suggest that plasma EVs may be involved in posttraumatic brain inflammation.
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124
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Kahmini FR, Shahgaldi S. Therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles as novel cell-free therapy for treatment of autoimmune disorders. Exp Mol Pathol 2021; 118:104566. [PMID: 33160961 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2020.104566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Revised: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decades, new light has been shed on the efficiency of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. The therapeutic functions of MSCs partly stem from their well-recognized ability to efficiently modulate immune responses and it is well substantiated that MSC secretory components, in particular extracellular vesicles (EVs), play a critical role in this immunomodulation. In fact, almost any cell type can generate and release EVs under both pathological and physiological conditions and these nano-sized particles are believed to greatly contribute to homeostasis and cell-cell communication through transportation of a wide variety of biomolecules including nucleic acid, signaling lipids, regulatory proteins, transcription factors, cytokines, and growth factors. Lamentably, despite exhibiting promising results in both animal experiments and clinical trials, MSC therapy is still largely restricted to the experimental stage due to its critical pitfalls and drawbacks such as safety issues, poor cell survival, immune rejection and high cost. On the other hand, MSC-derived EVs, which ideally reflect the exact biophysical features of MSCs, are considered to be much safer and more effective than MSCs themselves. Therefore, introducing alternative approaches based on MSC-derived EVs can offer appreciable promise in overcoming the limitations and practical challenges observed in cell-based therapy and thus the extracellular vesicles of MSCs may also provide a far more potent therapeutic strategy for immune-related disorders. In this review, we first focus on the properties of MSC-derived EVs and then we shall provide valuable insight regarding their beneficial therapeutic opportunities to further compare this alternative approach with conventional MSC therapy. Finally, we will attempt to summarize the current findings on the influences of MSC-derived EVs on autoimmune disorders, offering a potential alternative avenue towards treatment of autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Rezaei Kahmini
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Shahab Shahgaldi
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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125
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Brain-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Health and Disease: A Methodological Perspective. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22031365. [PMID: 33573018 PMCID: PMC7866382 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are double membrane structures released by presumably all cell types that transport and deliver lipids, proteins, and genetic material to near or distant recipient cells, thereby affecting their phenotype. The basic knowledge of their functions in healthy and diseased brain is still murky and many questions about their biology are unsolved. In neurological diseases, EVs are regarded as attractive biomarkers and as therapeutic tools due to their ability to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB). EVs have been successfully isolated from conditioned media of primary brain cells and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), but protocols allowing for the direct study of pathophysiological events mediated or influenced by EVs isolated from brain have only recently been published. This review aims to give a brief overview of the current knowledge of EVs’ functions in the central nervous system (CNS) and the current protocols to isolate brain-derived EVs (BDEVs) used in different publications. By comparing the proteomic analysis of some of these publications, we also assess the influence of the isolation method on the protein content of BDEVs.
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126
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Cheng X, Li W, Zhao R, Li H, Qin J, Tian M, Zhang X, Jin G. The role of hippocampal niche exosomes in rat hippocampal neurogenesis after fimbria-fornix transection. J Biol Chem 2021; 296:100188. [PMID: 33334882 PMCID: PMC7948408 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.015561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes transfer signaling molecules such as proteins, lipids, and RNAs to facilitate cell–cell communication and play an important role in the stem cell microenvironment. In previous work, we demonstrated that rat fimbria–fornix transection (FFT) enhances neurogenesis from neural stem cells (NSCs) in the subgranular zone (SGZ). However, how neurogenesis is modulated after denervation remains unknown. Here, we investigated whether exosomes in a denervated hippocampal niche may affect neurogenesis. Using the FFT rat model, we extracted hippocampal exosomes and identified them using western blots, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and nanoparticle size measurement. We also used RNA sequencing and bioinformatic analysis of exosomes to identify noncoding RNA expression profiles and neurogenesis-related miRNAs, respectively. RNA sequencing analysis demonstrated 9 upregulated and 15 downregulated miRNAs. miR-3559-3P and miR-6324 increased gradually after FFT. Thus, we investigated the function of miR-3559-3P and miR-6324 with NSC proliferation and differentiation assays. Transfection of miR-3559-3p and miR-6324 mimics inhibited the proliferation of NSCs and promoted the differentiation of NSCs into neurons, while miR-3559-3p and miR-6324 inhibitors promoted NSC proliferation and inhibited neuronal differentiation. Additionally, the exosome marker molecules CD9, CD63, and Alix were expressed in exosomes extracted from the hippocampal niche. Finally, TEM showed that exosomes were ∼100 nm in diameter and had a “saucer-like” bilayer membrane structure. Taken together, these findings suggest that differentially expressed exosomes and their related miRNAs in the denervated hippocampal niche can promote differentiation of NSCs into neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Cheng
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institue of Neurobiology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institue of Neurobiology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Rongzhen Zhao
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institue of Neurobiology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Haoming Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institue of Neurobiology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Jianbing Qin
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institue of Neurobiology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Meiling Tian
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institue of Neurobiology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Xinhua Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institue of Neurobiology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Guohua Jin
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institue of Neurobiology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China; Key Laboratory Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China.
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127
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Cohn W, Melnik M, Huang C, Teter B, Chandra S, Zhu C, McIntire LB, John V, Gylys KH, Bilousova T. Multi-Omics Analysis of Microglial Extracellular Vesicles From Human Alzheimer's Disease Brain Tissue Reveals Disease-Associated Signatures. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:766082. [PMID: 34925024 PMCID: PMC8675946 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.766082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, yet there is no cure or diagnostics available prior to the onset of clinical symptoms. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-delimited particles that are released from almost all types of cell. Genome-wide association studies have linked multiple AD genetic risk factors to microglia-specific pathways. It is plausible that microglia-derived EVs may play a role in the progression of AD by contributing to the dissemination of insoluble pathogenic proteins, such as tau and Aβ. Despite the potential utility of EVs as a diagnostic tool, our knowledge of human brain EV subpopulations is limited. Here we present a method for isolating microglial CD11b-positive small EVs from cryopreserved human brain tissue, as well as an integrated multiomics analysis of microglial EVs enriched from the parietal cortex of four late-stage AD (Braak V-VI) and three age-matched normal/low pathology (NL) cases. This integrated analysis revealed 1,000 proteins, 594 lipids, and 105 miRNAs using shotgun proteomics, targeted lipidomics, and NanoString nCounter technology, respectively. The results showed a significant reduction in the abundance of homeostatic microglia markers P2RY12 and TMEM119, and increased levels of disease-associated microglia markers FTH1 and TREM2, in CD11b-positive EVs from AD brain compared to NL cases. Tau abundance was significantly higher in AD brain-derived microglial EVs. These changes were accompanied by the upregulation of synaptic and neuron-specific proteins in the AD group. Levels of free cholesterol were elevated in microglial EVs from the AD brain. Lipidomic analysis also revealed a proinflammatory lipid profile, endolysosomal dysfunction, and a significant AD-associated decrease in levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-containing polyunsaturated lipids, suggesting a potential defect in acyl-chain remodeling. Additionally, four miRNAs associated with immune and cellular senescence signaling pathways were significantly upregulated in the AD group. Our data suggest that loss of the homeostatic microglia signature in late AD stages may be accompanied by endolysosomal impairment and the release of undigested neuronal and myelin debris, including tau, through extracellular vesicles. We suggest that the analysis of microglia-derived EVs has merit for identifying novel EV-associated biomarkers and providing a framework for future larger-scale multiomics studies on patient-derived cell-type-specific EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Whitaker Cohn
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Mikhail Melnik
- School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Calvin Huang
- School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Bruce Teter
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Sujyoti Chandra
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Chunni Zhu
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Laura Beth McIntire
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Varghese John
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Karen H Gylys
- School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Tina Bilousova
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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128
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Exosomal tau with seeding activity is released from Alzheimer's disease synapses, and seeding potential is associated with amyloid beta. J Transl Med 2021; 101:1605-1617. [PMID: 34462532 PMCID: PMC8590975 DOI: 10.1038/s41374-021-00644-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Synaptic transfer of tau has long been hypothesized from the human pathology pattern and has been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo, but the precise mechanisms remain unclear. Extracellular vesicles such as exosomes have been suggested as a mechanism, but not all tau is exosomal. The present experiments use a novel flow cytometry assay to quantify depolarization of synaptosomes by KCl after loading with FM2-10, which induces a fluorescence reduction associated with synaptic vesicle release; the degree of reduction in cryopreserved human samples equaled that seen in fresh mouse synaptosomes. Depolarization induced the release of vesicles in the size range of exosomes, along with tetraspanin markers of extracellular vesicles. A number of tau peptides were released, including tau oligomers; released tau was primarily unphosphorylated and C-terminal truncated, with Aβ release just above background. When exosomes were immunopurified from release supernatants, a prominent tau band showed a dark smeared appearance of SDS-stable oligomers along with the exosomal marker syntenin-1, and these exosomes induced aggregation in the HEK tau biosensor assay. However, the flow-through did not seed aggregation. Size exclusion chromatography of purified released exosomes shows faint signals from tau in the same fractions that show a CD63 band, an exosomal size signal, and seeding activity. Crude synaptosomes from control, tauopathy, and AD cases demonstrated lower seeding in tauopathy compared to AD that is correlated with the measured Aβ42 level. These results show that AD synapses release exosomal tau that is C-terminal-truncated, oligomeric, and with seeding activity that is enhanced by Aβ. Taken together with previous findings, these results are consistent with a direct prion-like heterotypic seeding of tau by Aβ within synaptic terminals, with subsequent loading of aggregated tau onto exosomes that are released and competent for tau seeding activity.
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129
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Quiroz-Baez R, Hernández-Ortega K, Martínez-Martínez E. Insights Into the Proteomic Profiling of Extracellular Vesicles for the Identification of Early Biomarkers of Neurodegeneration. Front Neurol 2020; 11:580030. [PMID: 33362690 PMCID: PMC7759525 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.580030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Moreover, EVs have the capacity to modify the physiology of neuronal circuits by transferring proteins, RNA, lipids, and metabolites. The proteomic characterization of EVs (exosomes and microvesicles) from preclinical models and patient samples has the potential to reveal new proteins and molecular networks that affect the normal physiology prior to the appearance of traditional biomarkers of neurodegeneration. Noteworthy, many of the genetic risks associated to the development of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease affect the crosstalk between mitochondria, endosomes, and lysosomes. Recent research has focused on determining the role of endolysosomal trafficking in the onset of neurodegenerative diseases. Proteomic studies indicate an alteration of biogenesis and molecular content of EVs as a result of endolysosomal and autophagic dysfunction. In this review, we discuss the status of EV proteomic characterization and their usefulness in discovering new biomarkers for the differential diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the challenges related to the failure to follow a standard isolation protocol and their implementation for a clinical setting, the analysis of EV proteomes has revealed the presence of key proteins with post-translational modifications that can be measured in peripheral fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Quiroz-Baez
- Departamento de Investigación Básica, Dirección de Investigación, Instituto Nacional de Geriatría, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Karina Hernández-Ortega
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - Eduardo Martínez-Martínez
- Laboratory of Cell Communication & Extracellular Vesicles, Division of Basic Science, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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Himbert D, Zeuschner P, Ayoubian H, Heinzelmann J, Stöckle M, Junker K. Characterization of CD147, CA9, and CD70 as Tumor-Specific Markers on Extracellular Vesicles in Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:diagnostics10121034. [PMID: 33276608 PMCID: PMC7761541 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10121034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted by healthy and tumor cells and are involved in cell–cell communication. Tumor-released EVs could represent a new class of biomarkers from liquid biopsies. The aim of this study was to identify tumor-specific EV markers in clear cell renal carcinoma (ccRCC) using cell lines and patient-derived tissue samples. EVs from ccRCC cell lines (786-O, RCC53, Caki1, and Caki2) and patient tissues were isolated via ultracentrifugation. EVs were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and Western blotting using exosome and putative tumor markers (epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM), carbonic anhydrase 9 (CA9), CD70, CD147). The tumor markers were verified using immunohistochemistry. CA9 was expressed in Caki2 cells and EVs, and CD147 was found in the cells and EVs of all tested ccRCC cell lines. In tumor tissues, we found an increased expression of CA9, CD70, and CD147 were increased in cell lysates and EV fractions compared to normal tissues. In contrast, EpCAM was heterogeneously expressed in tumor samples and positive in normal tissue. To conclude, we developed an effective technique to isolate EVs directly from human tissue samples with high purity and high concentration. In contrast to EpCAM, CA9, CD70, and CD147 could represent promising markers to identify tumor-specific EVs in ccRCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Himbert
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany; (D.H.); (P.Z.); (H.A.); (J.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Philip Zeuschner
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany; (D.H.); (P.Z.); (H.A.); (J.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Hiresh Ayoubian
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany; (D.H.); (P.Z.); (H.A.); (J.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Joana Heinzelmann
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany; (D.H.); (P.Z.); (H.A.); (J.H.); (M.S.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Halle (Saale), Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, 06108 Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - Michael Stöckle
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany; (D.H.); (P.Z.); (H.A.); (J.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Kerstin Junker
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany; (D.H.); (P.Z.); (H.A.); (J.H.); (M.S.)
- Correspondence:
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131
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Blood Exosomes Have Neuroprotective Effects in a Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:3807476. [PMID: 33294121 PMCID: PMC7714585 DOI: 10.1155/2020/3807476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common and complex neurodegenerative disease; the pathogenesis of which is still uncertain. Exosomes, nanosized extracellular vesicles, have been suggested to participate in the pathogenesis of PD, but their role is unknown. Here, a metabolomic analysis of serum and brain exosomes showed differentially expressed metabolites between 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine hydrochloride- (MPTP-) induced PD mice and control mice, such as oxidized lipids, vitamins, and cholesterol. These metabolites were enriched in coenzyme, nicotinamide, and amino acid pathways related to PD, and they could be served as preclinical biomarkers. We further found that blood-derived exosomes from healthy volunteers alleviated impaired motor coordination in MPTP-treated mice. Results from immunohistochemistry and western blotting indicated that the loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra and striatum of PD model mice was rescued by the exosome treatment. The exosome treatment also restored the homeostasis of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and cell apoptosis in the model mice. These results suggest that exosomes are important mediators for PD pathogenesis, and exosomes are promising targets for the diagnosis and treatment of PD.
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132
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Arrant AE, Davis SE, Vollmer RM, Murchison CF, Mobley JA, Nana AL, Spina S, Grinberg LT, Karydas AM, Miller BL, Seeley WW, Roberson ED. Elevated levels of extracellular vesicles in progranulin-deficient mice and FTD-GRN Patients. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2020; 7:2433-2449. [PMID: 33197149 PMCID: PMC7732244 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.51242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of progranulin insufficiency on extracellular vesicles (EVs), a heterogeneous population of vesicles that may contribute to progression of neurodegenerative disease. Loss‐of‐function mutations in progranulin (GRN) are a major cause of frontotemporal dementia (FTD), and brains from GRN carriers with FTD (FTD‐GRN) exhibit signs of lysosomal dysfunction. Lysosomal dysfunction may induce compensatory increases in secretion of exosomes, EVs secreted from the endolysosomal system, so we hypothesized that progranulin insufficiency would increase EV levels in the brain. Methods We analyzed levels and protein contents of brain EVs from Grn–/– mice, which model the lysosomal abnormalities of FTD‐GRN patients. We then measured brain EVs in FTD‐GRN patients. To assess the relationship of EVs with symptomatic disease, we measured plasma EVs in presymptomatic and symptomatic GRN mutation carriers. Results Grn–/– mice had elevated brain EV levels and altered EV protein contents relative to wild‐type mice. These changes were age‐dependent, occurring only after the emergence of pathology in Grn–/– mice. FTD‐GRN patients (n = 13) had elevated brain EV levels relative to controls (n = 5). Symptomatic (n = 12), but not presymptomatic (n = 7), GRN carriers had elevated plasma EV levels relative to controls (n = 8). Interpretation These data show that symptomatic FTD‐GRN patients have elevated levels of brain and plasma EVs, and that this effect is modeled in the brain of Grn–/– mice after the onset of pathology. This increase in EVs could influence FTD disease progression, and provides further support for EVs as potential FTD biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew E Arrant
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Skylar E Davis
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Rachael M Vollmer
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Charles F Murchison
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - James A Mobley
- Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Alissa L Nana
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Salvatore Spina
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Lea T Grinberg
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Anna M Karydas
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Bruce L Miller
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Erik D Roberson
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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133
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Weghorst F, Mirzakhanyan Y, Samimi K, Dhillon M, Barzik M, Cunningham LL, Gershon PD, Cramer KS. Caspase-3 Cleaves Extracellular Vesicle Proteins During Auditory Brainstem Development. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:573345. [PMID: 33281555 PMCID: PMC7689216 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.573345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Sound localization requires extremely precise development of auditory brainstem circuits, the molecular mechanisms of which are largely unknown. We previously demonstrated a novel requirement for non-apoptotic activity of the protease caspase-3 in chick auditory brainstem development. Here, we used mass spectrometry to identify proteolytic substrates of caspase-3 during chick auditory brainstem development. These auditory brainstem caspase-3 substrates were enriched for proteins previously shown to be cleaved by caspase-3, especially in non-apoptotic contexts. Functional annotation analysis revealed that our caspase-3 substrates were also enriched for proteins associated with several protein categories, including proteins found in extracellular vesicles (EVs), membrane-bound nanoparticles that function in intercellular communication. The proteome of EVs isolated from the auditory brainstem was highly enriched for our caspase-3 substrates. Additionally, we identified two caspase-3 substrates with known functions in axon guidance, namely Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (NCAM) and Neuronal-glial Cell Adhesion Molecule (Ng-CAM), that were found in auditory brainstem EVs and expressed in the auditory pathway alongside cleaved caspase-3. Taken together, these data suggest a novel developmental mechanism whereby caspase-3 influences auditory brainstem circuit formation through the proteolytic cleavage of extracellular vesicle (EV) proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Forrest Weghorst
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Yeva Mirzakhanyan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Kian Samimi
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Mehron Dhillon
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Melanie Barzik
- Section on Sensory Cell Biology, NIDCD, NIH, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Lisa L. Cunningham
- Section on Sensory Cell Biology, NIDCD, NIH, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Paul D. Gershon
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Karina S. Cramer
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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134
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La Salvia S, Musante L, Lannigan J, Gigliotti JC, Le TH, Erdbrügger U. T cell-derived extracellular vesicles are elevated in essential HTN. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2020; 319:F868-F875. [PMID: 33017187 PMCID: PMC7789979 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00433.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are novel mediators of cell-to-cell communication and appear to mediate the pathogenesis of hypertension (HTN). However, the mechanisms underlying the involvement of EVs in HTN remain unclear. The adaptive and innate immune systems play an important role affecting the kidney and vasculature in animal models of HTN. Evolving evidence shows that immune cell-derived EVs can modulate the immune system in a paracrine fashion and therefore may mediate the effects of inflammation in the pathogenesis of HTN. Therefore, we aimed to understand if specific subtypes of leukocyte/immune cell-derived EVs are altered in essential HTN using an in vivo model of angiotensin II (ANG II)-induced HTN. After 4 wk of ANG II treatment, EVs were isolated from the blood and kidney. EV origin and counts were characterized with Imaging Flow Cytometry, antibody panels targeting platelets, endothelial cells, and leukocytes including B and T cells, monocytes, and neutrophils. Leukocyte-derived EVs (CD45+) were elevated in the circulation and kidney tissue in ANG II-induced HTN. Subgroup analysis depicted T cell-derived EVs (CD3+) to be significantly elevated in ANG II-induced HTN (3.50e+5 particles/mL) compared with control groups (9.16e+4 particles/mL, P = 0.0106). T cell-derived EVs also significantly correlated with systolic blood pressure levels (r2 = 0.898, P = 0.0012). In summary, leukocyte-derived EVs, and more specifically T cell-derived EVs (CD3+), are elevated in ANG II-induced HTN in the circulation and kidney tissue and correlate well with blood pressure severity. EVs from the circulation and kidney may be sensitive biomarkers for HTN and end-organ damage and may lead to new mechanistic insights in this silent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina La Salvia
- Division of Nephrology and Center for Immunity, Inflammation, and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Luca Musante
- Division of Nephrology and Center for Immunity, Inflammation, and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Joanne Lannigan
- School of Medicine, Flow Cytometry Core, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Joseph Christopher Gigliotti
- Department of Integrated Physiology and Pharmacology, Liberty University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lynchburg, Virginia
| | - Thu H Le
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York
| | - Uta Erdbrügger
- Division of Nephrology and Center for Immunity, Inflammation, and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
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135
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Witwer KW, Languino LR, Weaver AM, Wauben MH. Announcing the ISEV2020 special achievement award recipients: Andrew Hill and Edit Buzás; and the recipient of the ISEV2020 special education award: Carolina Soekmadji. J Extracell Vesicles 2020; 10:e12021. [PMID: 33304475 PMCID: PMC7710126 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W. Witwer
- Department of Molecular and Comparative PathobiologyThe Johns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- Department of NeurologyThe Johns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Lucia R. Languino
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer CenterProstate Cancer Discovery and Development ProgramThomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
- Department of Cancer BiologySidney Kimmel Cancer CenterThomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Alissa M. Weaver
- Department of Cell and Developmental BiologyVanderbilt University School of MedicineNashvilleTennesseeUSA
- Program in Cancer BiologyVanderbilt University School of MedicineNashvilleTennesseeUSA
- Department of PathologyMicrobiology and ImmunologyVanderbilt University Medical CenterNashvilleTennesseeUSA
| | - Marca H. Wauben
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
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136
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Chand S, Jo A, Vellichirammal NN, Gowen A, Guda C, Schaal V, Odegaard K, Lee H, Pendyala G, Yelamanchili SV. Comprehensive Characterization of Nanosized Extracellular Vesicles from Central and Peripheral Organs : Implications for Preclinical and Clinical Applications. ACS APPLIED NANO MATERIALS 2020; 3:8906-8919. [PMID: 33385108 PMCID: PMC7771629 DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.0c01654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EV) are nano-sized vesicles that have been garnering a lot of attention for their valuable role as potential diagnostic markers and therapeutic vehicles for a plethora of pathologies. Whilst EV markers from biofluids such as plasma, serum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid and in vitro cell culture based platforms have been extensively studied, a significant knowledge gap that remains is the characterization of specific organ derived EVs (ODE). Here, we present a standardized protocol for isolation and characterization of purified EV isolated from brain, heart, lung, kidney and liver from rat and postmortem human tissue. Next, using quantitative mass spectrometry based proteomics, we characterized the respective tissue EV proteomes that identified synaptophysin (SYP), caveolin-3 (CAV3), solute carrier family 22 member 2 (SLC22A2), surfactant protein B (SP-B), and fatty acid-binding protein 1 (FABP1) as potential markers for the brain, heart, kidney, lung, and liver-EV, respectively. These respective tissue specific markers were further validated using both immunoblotting and a nanoplasmonic platform- single EV imaging analysis in the two species. To summarize, our study for the first time using traditional biochemical and high precision technology platforms provide a valuable proof of concept approach in defining specific ODE markers which further could be developed as potential therapeutic candidates for respective end-organ associated pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhash Chand
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Ala Jo
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | | | - Austin Gowen
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Chittibabu Guda
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Victoria Schaal
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Katherine Odegaard
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Hakho Lee
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Gurudutt Pendyala
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Sowmya V. Yelamanchili
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
- Address for correspondence: Dr. Sowmya V. Yelamanchili, Lied Transplant Center 10736, 984455 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-4455, Telephone: 402-559-5348,
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137
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Soekmadji C, Li B, Huang Y, Wang H, An T, Liu C, Pan W, Chen J, Cheung L, Falcon-Perez JM, Gho YS, Holthofer HB, Le MTN, Marcilla A, O'Driscoll L, Shekari F, Shen TL, Torrecilhas AC, Yan X, Yang F, Yin H, Xiao Y, Zhao Z, Zou X, Wang Q, Zheng L. The future of Extracellular Vesicles as Theranostics - an ISEV meeting report. J Extracell Vesicles 2020; 9:1809766. [PMID: 33144926 PMCID: PMC7580849 DOI: 10.1080/20013078.2020.1809766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The utilization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in clinical theranostics has rapidly advanced in the past decade. In November 2018, the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) held a workshop on “EVs in Clinical Theranostic”. Here, we report the conclusions of roundtable discussions on the current advancement in the analysis technologies and we provide some guidelines to researchers in the field to consider the use of EVs in clinical application. The main challenges and the requirements for EV separation and characterization strategies, quality control and clinical investigation were discussed to promote the application of EVs in future clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Soekmadji
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Bo Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yiyao Huang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Haifang Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Taixue An
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Chunchen Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Weilun Pan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lesley Cheung
- The Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Juan Manuel Falcon-Perez
- Exosomes Laboratory and Metabolomics Platform, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Derio, Spain.,Centro De Investigación Biomédica En Red De Enfermedades Hepáticas Y Digestivas (Ciberehd), Madrid, Spain.,IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Yong Song Gho
- Laboratory of Intercellular Communication, Department of Life Science, POSTECH, South Korea
| | - Harry B Holthofer
- Medical Department, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Minh T N Le
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Antonio Marcilla
- Àrea De Parasitologia, Departament De Farmàcia I Tecnologia Farmacèutica I Parasitologia, Universitat De València, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.,Joint Research Unit on Endocrinology, Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics, Health Research Institute La Fe-Universitat De Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lorraine O'Driscoll
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Panoz Institute & Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.,Trinity St. James's Cancer Institute (TSJCI), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Faezeh Shekari
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental BiologyCell Science, Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Tang Long Shen
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology & Center for Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Xiaomei Yan
- Department of Chemical Biology, the MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, the Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Fuquan Yang
- Laboratory of Proteomics, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hang Yin
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Xiao
- Laboratory of Medicine Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zezhou Zhao
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Xue Zou
- Center for Public Health Research, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Laboratory of Medicine Center, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lei Zheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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138
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Rapid isolation and proteome analysis of urinary exosome based on double interactions of Fe 3O 4@TiO 2-DNA aptamer. Talanta 2020; 221:121571. [PMID: 33076118 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
There are accumulating evidence that proteins carried by exosomes in urine are most possibly used as biomarkers or therapeutic carriers for certain diseases. The isolation of exosomes is therefore highly desirable for aiding the downstream protein analysis. Particularly, urine is a dynamic biological fluid changing within a short time, resulting in that the separation of urinary exosome requires more efficient technology. Here, a new biocompatible material (denoted as Fe3O4@TiO2-CD63 aptamer) is designed and synthesized for rapid exosome isolation from human urine, depending on the double interactions of TiO2 with phosphate groups as well as aptamers with specific exosome proteins. Moreover, within 10 min, 92.6% exosomes with intact structure are captured from urine by Fe3O4@TiO2-CD63 aptamers, from which 999 proteins are detected through LC-MS/MS.
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139
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Bernardi S, Balbi C. Extracellular Vesicles: From Biomarkers to Therapeutic Tools. BIOLOGY 2020; 9:biology9090258. [PMID: 32878063 PMCID: PMC7564466 DOI: 10.3390/biology9090258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Intercellular communication is an essential hallmark of multicellular organisms and can be mediated through direct cell–cell contact or transfer of secreted molecules. In the last two decades, a third mechanism for intercellular communication has emerged that involves intercellular transfer of extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are membranous vesicles of 30–5000 nm in size. Based on their dimension and biogenesis, EVs can be divided into different categories, such as microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, ectosomes, and exosomes. It has already been demonstrated that protein changes, expressed on the surfaces or in the content of these vesicles, may reflect the status of producing cells. For this reason, EVs, and exosomes in particular, are considered ideal biomarkers in several types of disease—from cancer diagnosis to heart rejection. This aspect opens different opportunities in EVs clinical application, considering the importance given to liquid biopsy in the recent years. Furthermore, extracellular vesicles can be natural or engineered carriers of cytoprotective or cytotoxic factors and applied, as a therapeutic tool, from regenerative medicine to target cancer therapy. This is of pivotal importance in the so called “era of the 4P medicine”. This Editorial focuses on recent findings pertaining to EVs in different medical areas, from biomarkers to therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Bernardi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Bone Marrow Transplant Unit, ASST Spedali Civili, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Centro di Ricerca Emato-Oncologica AIL (CREA), ASST Spedali Civili, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-003-9030-399-8464
| | - Carolina Balbi
- Cellular & Molecular Cardiology Laboratory, Cardiocentro Ticino, Associated Institute of University of Zurich, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland;
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140
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Brenna S, Altmeppen HC, Mohammadi B, Rissiek B, Schlink F, Ludewig P, Krisp C, Schlüter H, Failla AV, Schneider C, Glatzel M, Puig B, Magnus T. Characterization of brain-derived extracellular vesicles reveals changes in cellular origin after stroke and enrichment of the prion protein with a potential role in cellular uptake. J Extracell Vesicles 2020; 9:1809065. [PMID: 32944194 PMCID: PMC7480459 DOI: 10.1080/20013078.2020.1809065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important means of intercellular communication and a potent tool for regenerative therapy. In ischaemic stroke, transient blockage of a brain artery leads to a lack of glucose and oxygen in the affected brain tissue, provoking neuronal death by necrosis in the core of the ischaemic region. The fate of neurons in the surrounding penumbra region depends on the stimuli, including EVs, received during the following hours. A detailed characterization of such stimuli is crucial not only for understanding stroke pathophysiology but also for new therapeutic interventions. In the present study, we characterize the EVs in mouse brain under physiological conditions and 24 h after induction of transient ischaemia in mice. We show that, in steady-state conditions, microglia are the main source of small EVs (sEVs), whereas after ischaemia the main sEV population originates from astrocytes. Brain sEVs presented high amounts of the prion protein (PrP), which were further increased after stroke. Moreover, EVs were enriched in a proteolytically truncated PrP fragment (PrP-C1). Because of similarities between PrP-C1 and certain viral surface proteins, we studied the cellular uptake of brain-derived sEVs from mice lacking (PrP-KO) or expressing PrP (WT). We show that PrP-KO-sEVs are taken up significantly faster and more efficiently than WT-EVs by primary neurons. Furthermore, microglia and astrocytes engulf PrP-KO-sEVs more readily than WT-sEVs. Our results provide novel information on the relative contribution of brain cell types to the sEV pool in murine brain and indicate that increased release of sEVs by astrocytes together with elevated levels of PrP in sEVs may play a role in intercellular communication at early stages after stroke. In addition, amounts of PrP (and probably PrP-C1) in brain sEVs seem to contribute to regulating their cellular uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santra Brenna
- Neurology Department, Experimental Research in Stroke and Inflammation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hermann C. Altmeppen
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Behnam Mohammadi
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Björn Rissiek
- Neurology Department, Experimental Research in Stroke and Inflammation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Florence Schlink
- Neurology Department, Experimental Research in Stroke and Inflammation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Peter Ludewig
- Neurology Department, Experimental Research in Stroke and Inflammation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Krisp
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Mass Spectrometric Proteomics University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hartmut Schlüter
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Mass Spectrometric Proteomics University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Antonio Virgilio Failla
- UKE Microscopy Imaging Facility, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Carola Schneider
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Markus Glatzel
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Berta Puig
- Neurology Department, Experimental Research in Stroke and Inflammation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tim Magnus
- Neurology Department, Experimental Research in Stroke and Inflammation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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141
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Lin Z, Gu Y, Zhou R, Wang M, Guo Y, Chen Y, Ma J, Xiao F, Wang X, Tian X. Serum Exosomal Proteins F9 and TSP-1 as Potential Diagnostic Biomarkers for Newly Diagnosed Epilepsy. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:737. [PMID: 32848539 PMCID: PMC7417627 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy is one of the most common chronic neurological diseases in the world, with a high incidence, a high risk of sudden unexplained death, and diagnostic challenges. Exosomes are nanosized extracellular vesicles that are released into physical environments and carry a variety of biological information. Moreover, exosomes can also be synthesized and released from brain cells, passing through the blood-brain barrier, and can be detected in peripheral blood or cerebrospinal fluid. Our study using the tandem mass tag (TMT) approach showed that a total of 76 proteins were differentially expressed in serum exosomes between epilepsy patients and healthy controls, with 6 proteins increasing and 70 proteins decreasing. Analysis of large clinical samples and two mouse models of chronic epilepsy indicated that two significantly differentially expressed serum exosomal proteins, coagulation factor IX (F9) and thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), represent promising biomarkers for the diagnosis of epilepsy, with area under the curve (AUC) values of up to 0.7776 (95% CI, 0.7306–0.8246) and 0.8534 (95% CI, 0.8152–0.8916), respectively. This is the first study of exosomal proteins in epilepsy, and it suggests that exosomes are promising new tools for the diagnosis of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijun Lin
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
| | - Yixue Gu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
| | - Ruijiao Zhou
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
| | - Meiling Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
| | - Yi Guo
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
| | - Junhong Ma
- Center of Epilepsy, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Xiao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuefeng Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
| | - Xin Tian
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurology, Chongqing, China
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142
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Sultana H, Neelakanta G. Arthropod exosomes as bubbles with message(s) to transmit vector-borne diseases. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2020; 40:39-47. [PMID: 32590312 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2020.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ticks and mosquitoes are medically important vectors that transmit several pathogens, including arboviruses, to humans. Understanding how these blood-feeding arthropods transmit pathogens to humans requires knowledge on the molecular and cellular interplay at vector-host interface. Recent studies have highlighted the role of tick and mosquito small extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, facilitating arbovirus transmission within arthropod cells and from arthropod to mammalian cells. In this review, we summarize this emerging line of investigation in understanding the role of tick and mosquito exosomes in vector-pathogen-host tripartite interactions. Understanding the role of arthropod exosomes in pathogen interactions could lead to the discovery of novel therapeutic targets to interfere with the life cycle of several pathogens transmitted by vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hameeda Sultana
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA.
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA.
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143
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Zhang M, Vojtech L, Ye Z, Hladik F, Nance E. Quantum Dot Labeling and Visualization of Extracellular Vesicles. ACS APPLIED NANO MATERIALS 2020; 3:7211-7222. [PMID: 34568770 PMCID: PMC8460064 DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.0c01553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important mediators of intercellular communication. Their role in disease processes, uncovered mostly over the last two decades, makes them potential biomarkers, leading to a need to fundamentally understand EV biology. Direct visualization of EVs can provide insights into EV behavior, but current labeling techniques are often restricted by false-positive signals and rapid photobleaching. Hence, we developed a method of labeling EVs through conjugation with quantum dots (QDs)-high photoluminescent nanosized semi-conductors-using click chemistry. We showed that QD-EV conjugation could be tailored by altering QD to EV ratio or by using a catalyst. This conjugation chemistry was stable in a biological environment and upon storage for up to a week. Using size-exclusion chromatography, QD-EV conjugates could be separated from unconjugated QDs, enabling EV-specific signal detection. We demonstrate that these QD-EV conjugates can be live- and fixed-imaged in high resolution on cells and in tissue sheets, and the conjugates have better photostability compared with the commonly used EV dye DiI. We labeled two distinct EV populations: human semen EVs (sEVs) from fresh semen samples donated by healthy volunteers and brain EVs (bEVs) from excised rat brain tissues. We visualized QD-sEVs in epithelial sheets isolated from human vaginal mucosa and time-lapse imaged QD-bEV interactions with microglial BV-2 cells. The development of the QD-EV conjugate will benefit the study of EV localization, movement, and function and accelerate their potential use as biomarkers, therapeutic agents, or drug-delivery vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengying Zhang
- Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1652, United States
| | - Lucia Vojtech
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-6460, United States
| | - Ziming Ye
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1750, United States
| | - Florian Hladik
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-6460, United States
| | - Elizabeth Nance
- Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, Department of Chemical Engineering, Center on Human Development and Disability, and Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1652, United States
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144
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The Emerging Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Glioma Microenvironment: Biogenesis and Clinical Relevance. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12071964. [PMID: 32707733 PMCID: PMC7409063 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12071964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Gliomas are a diverse group of brain tumors comprised of malignant cells ('tumor' cells) and non-malignant 'normal' cells, including neural (neurons, glia), inflammatory (microglia, macrophage) and vascular cells. Tumor heterogeneity arises in part because, within the glioma mass, both 'tumor' and 'normal' cells secrete factors that form a unique microenvironment to influence tumor progression. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are critical mediators of intercellular communication between immediate cellular neighbors and distantly located cells in healthy tissues/organs and in tumors, including gliomas. EVs mediate cell-cell signaling as carriers of nucleic acid, lipid and protein cargo, and their content is unique to cell types and physiological states. EVs secreted by non-malignant neural cells have important physiological roles in the healthy brain, which can be altered or co-opted to promote tumor progression and metastasis, acting in combination with glioma-secreted EVs. The cell-type specificity of EV content means that 'vesiculome' data can potentially be used to trace the cell of origin. EVs may also serve as biomarkers to be exploited for disease diagnosis and to assess therapeutic progress. In this review, we discuss how EVs mediate intercellular communication in glioma, and their potential role as biomarkers and readouts of a therapeutic response.
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145
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Revealing the Proteome of Motor Cortex Derived Extracellular Vesicles Isolated from Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Human Postmortem Tissues. Cells 2020; 9:cells9071709. [PMID: 32708779 PMCID: PMC7407138 DOI: 10.3390/cells9071709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the deposition of misfolded proteins in the motor cortex and motor neurons. Although a multitude of ALS-associated mutated proteins have been identified, several have been linked to small extracellular vesicles such as exosomes involved in cell-cell communication. This study aims to determine the proteome of extracellular vesicles isolated from the motor cortex of ALS subjects and to identify novel ALS-associated deregulated proteins. Motor cortex extracellular vesicles (MCEVs) were isolated from human postmortem ALS (n = 10) and neurological control (NC, n = 5) motor cortex brain tissues and the MCEVs protein content subsequently underwent mass spectrometry analysis, allowing for a panel of ALS-associated proteins to be identified. This panel consists of 16 statistically significant differentially packaged proteins identified in the ALS MCEVs. This includes several upregulated RNA-binding proteins which were determined through pathway analysis to be associated with stress granule dynamics. The identification of these RNA-binding proteins in the ALS MCEVs suggests there may be a relationship between ALS-associated stress granules and ALS MCEV packaging, highlighting a potential role for small extracellular vesicles such as exosomes in the pathogenesis of ALS and as potential peripheral biomarkers for ALS.
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146
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Zhou W, Tahir F, Wang JCY, Woodson M, Sherman MB, Karim S, Neelakanta G, Sultana H. Discovery of Exosomes From Tick Saliva and Salivary Glands Reveals Therapeutic Roles for CXCL12 and IL-8 in Wound Healing at the Tick-Human Skin Interface. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:554. [PMID: 32766239 PMCID: PMC7378379 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks secrete various anti-coagulatory, anti-vasoconstrictory, anti-inflammatory, and anti-platelet aggregation factors in their saliva at the bite site during feeding to evade host immunological surveillance and responses. For the first time, we report successful isolation of exosomes (small membrane-bound extracellular signaling vesicles) from saliva and salivary glands of partially fed or unfed ixodid ticks. Our data showed a novel role of these in vivo exosomes in the inhibition of wound healing via downregulation of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) and upregulation of interleukin-8 (IL-8). Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) analysis revealed that tick saliva and salivary glands are composed of heterogeneous populations of in vivo exosomes with sizes ranging from 30 to 200 nm. Enriched amounts of tick CD63 ortholog protein and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) were evident in these exosomes. Treatment of human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) with exosomes derived from tick saliva/salivary glands or ISE6 cells dramatically delayed cell migration, wound healing, and repair process. Wound healing is a highly dynamic process with several individualized processes including secretion of cytokines. Cytokine array profiling followed by immunoblotting and quantitative-PCR analysis revealed that HaCaT cells treated with exosomes derived from tick saliva/salivary glands or ISE6 cells showed enhanced IL-8 levels and reduced CXCL12 loads. Inhibition of IL-8 or CXCL12 further delayed exosome-mediated cell migration, wound healing, and repair process, suggesting a skin barrier protection role for these chemokines at the tick bite site. In contrast, exogenous treatment of CXCL12 protein completely restored this delay and enhanced the repair process. Taken together, our study provides novel insights on how tick salivary exosomes secreted in saliva can delay wound healing at the bite site to facilitate successful blood feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenshuo Zhou
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Faizan Tahir
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States
| | - Joseph Che-Yen Wang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States.,Electron Microscopy Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Michael Woodson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Michael B Sherman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States.,Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Shahid Karim
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Hameeda Sultana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, United States
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147
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Extracellular Vesicles and Neurodegenerative Diseases. J Neurosci 2020; 39:9269-9273. [PMID: 31748282 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0147-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) include exosomes and microvesicles and have been shown to have roles in the CNS ranging from the removal of unwanted biomolecules to intercellular communication to the spread of pathogenic proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases. EVs carry protein, lipid, and genetic cargo, and research over more than a decade has shown that they contain the misfolded forms of proteins associated with Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and the prion diseases. Altered genetic cargo, usually in the form of miRNAs, have also been identified in EVs patients with these diseases, suggesting that EVs may be a source of disease biomarkers. Whether EVs play a key role in the pathogenesis of neurological diseases remains to be firmly established because most current research is performed using cell culture and transgenic animal models. If EVs are identified as a key pathological contributor to neurological conditions, they will form a novel target for therapeutic intervention. This Dual Perspectives article will discuss the current understanding of the role of EVs in neurological diseases and raise some of the limitations of our current understandings of this field.
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148
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NeuroEVs: Characterizing Extracellular Vesicles Generated in the Neural Domain. J Neurosci 2020; 39:9262-9268. [PMID: 31748281 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0146-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Intercellular communication has recently been shown to occur via transfer of cargo loaded within extracellular vesicles (EVs). Present within all biofluids of the body, EVs can contain various signaling factors, including coding and noncoding RNAs (e.g., mRNA, miRNA, lncRNA, snRNA, tRNA, yRNA), DNA, proteins, and enzymes. Multiple types of cells appear to be capable of releasing EVs, including cancer, stem, epithelial, immune, glial, and neuronal cells. However, the functional impact of these circulating signals among neural networks within the brain has been difficult to establish given the complexity of cellular populations involved in release and uptake, as well as inherent limitations of examining a biofluid. In this brief commentary, we provide an analysis of the conceptual and technical considerations that limit our current understanding of signaling mediated by circulating EVs relative to their impact on neural function.
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149
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Huang Y, Cheng L, Turchinovich A, Mahairaki V, Troncoso JC, Pletniková O, Haughey NJ, Vella LJ, Hill AF, Zheng L, Witwer KW. Influence of species and processing parameters on recovery and content of brain tissue-derived extracellular vesicles. J Extracell Vesicles 2020; 9:1785746. [PMID: 32944174 PMCID: PMC7480582 DOI: 10.1080/20013078.2020.1785746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes by shuttling material out of and between cells. Tissue EVs may thus lend insights into disease mechanisms and also betray disease when released into easily accessed biological fluids. Since brain-derived EVs (bdEVs) and their cargo may serve as biomarkers of neurodegenerative diseases, we evaluated modifications to a published, rigorous protocol for separation of EVs from brain tissue and studied effects of processing variables on quantitative and qualitative outcomes. To this end, size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation were compared as final separation steps in protocols involving stepped ultracentrifugation. bdEVs were separated from brain tissues of human, macaque, and mouse. Effects of tissue perfusion and a model of post-mortem interval (PMI) before final bdEV separation were probed. MISEV2018-compliant EV characterization was performed, and both small RNA and protein profiling were done. We conclude that the modified, SEC-employing protocol achieves EV separation efficiency roughly similar to a protocol using gradient density ultracentrifugation, while decreasing operator time and, potentially, variability. The protocol appears to yield bdEVs of higher purity for human tissues compared with those of macaque and, especially, mouse, suggesting opportunities for optimization. Where possible, perfusion should be performed in animal models. The interval between death/tissue storage/processing and final bdEV separation can also affect bdEV populations and composition and should thus be recorded for rigorous reporting. Finally, different populations of EVs obtained through the modified method reported herein display characteristic RNA and protein content that hint at biomarker potential. To conclude, this study finds that the automatable and increasingly employed technique of SEC can be applied to tissue EV separation, and also reveals more about the importance of species-specific and technical considerations when working with tissue EVs. These results are expected to enhance the use of bdEVs in revealing and understanding brain disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyao Huang
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lesley Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Andrey Turchinovich
- Molecular Epidemiology, German Cancer Research Center DKFZ, Heidelberg, Germany.,SciBerg e.Kfm, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Vasiliki Mahairaki
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Juan C Troncoso
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Olga Pletniková
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Norman J Haughey
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Laura J Vella
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia.,Department of Surgery, The University of Melbourne, the Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, Australia
| | - Andrew F Hill
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Lei Zheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Kenneth W Witwer
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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150
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Wooff Y, Cioanca AV, Chu-Tan JA, Aggio-Bruce R, Schumann U, Natoli R. Small-Medium Extracellular Vesicles and Their miRNA Cargo in Retinal Health and Degeneration: Mediators of Homeostasis, and Vehicles for Targeted Gene Therapy. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:160. [PMID: 32670023 PMCID: PMC7330137 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Photoreceptor cell death and inflammation are known to occur progressively in retinal degenerative diseases such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these biological processes are largely unknown. Extracellular vesicles (EV) are essential mediators of cell-to-cell communication with emerging roles in the modulation of immune responses. EVs, including exosomes, encapsulate and transfer microRNA (miRNA) to recipient cells and in this way can modulate the environment of recipient cells. Dysregulation of EVs however is correlated to a loss of cellular homeostasis and increased inflammation. In this work we investigated the role of isolated retinal small-medium sized EV (s-mEV) which includes exosomes in both the healthy and degenerating retina. Isolated s-mEV from normal retinas were characterized using dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy and western blotting, and quantified across 5 days of photo-oxidative damage-induced degeneration using nanotracking analysis. Small RNAseq was used to characterize the miRNA cargo of retinal s-mEV isolated from healthy and damaged retinas. Finally, the effect of exosome inhibition on cell-to-cell miRNA transfer and immune modulation was conducted using systemic daily administration of exosome inhibitor GW4869 and in situ hybridization of s-mEV-abundant miRNA, miR-124-3p. Electroretinography and immunohistochemistry was performed to assess functional and morphological changes to the retina as a result of GW4869-induced exosome depletion. Results demonstrated an inverse correlation between s-mEV concentration and photoreceptor survivability, with a decrease in s-mEV numbers following degeneration. Small RNAseq revealed that s-mEVs contained uniquely enriched miRNAs in comparison to in whole retinal tissue, however, there was no differential change in the s-mEV miRNAnome following photo-oxidative damage. Exosome inhibition via the use of GW4869 was also found to exacerbate retinal degeneration, with reduced retinal function and increased levels of inflammation and cell death demonstrated following photo-oxidative damage in exosome-inhibited mice. Further, GW4869-treated mice displayed impaired translocation of photoreceptor-derived miR-124-3p to the inner retina during damage. Taken together, we propose that retinal s-mEV and their miRNA cargo play an essential role in maintaining retinal homeostasis through immune-modulation, and have the potential to be used in targeted gene therapy for retinal degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvette Wooff
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,The ANU Medical School, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Adrian V Cioanca
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Joshua A Chu-Tan
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,The ANU Medical School, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Riemke Aggio-Bruce
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,The ANU Medical School, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Ulrike Schumann
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Riccardo Natoli
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,The ANU Medical School, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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