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Xue J, Li H, Deng X, Ma Z, Fu Q, Ma S. l-Menthone confers antidepressant-like effects in an unpredictable chronic mild stress mouse model via NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammatory cytokines and central neurotransmitters. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 134:42-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Revised: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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102
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Noto C, Ota VK, Santoro ML, Ortiz BB, Rizzo LB, Higuchi CH, Cordeiro Q, Belangero SI, Bressan RA, Gadelha A, Maes M, Brietzke E. Effects of depression on the cytokine profile in drug naïve first-episode psychosis. Schizophr Res 2015; 164:53-8. [PMID: 25716958 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is accompanied by alterations in immuno-inflammatory pathways, including abnormalities in cytokine profile. The immune assessment of patients in a first episode of psychosis (FEP) and particularly in drug naïve patients is very important to further elucidate this association. The objectives of this study are to delineate the cytokine profile (IL-2, IL-10, IL-4, IL-6, IFNγ, TNFα and IL-17) in FEP patients (n=55) versus healthy controls (n=57) and to examine whether the presence of depressive symptoms in FEP is accompanied by a specific cytokine profile. We found increased levels of IL-6, IL-10 and TNFα in FEP patients when compared to healthy controls. FEP patients with depression showed higher IL-4 and TNFα levels versus those without depression. Cytokine levels were not correlated to the total PANSS and the positive or negative subscale scores. Our results suggest that FEP is accompanied by a cytokine profile indicative of monocytic and T regulatory cell (Treg) activation. Depression in FEP is accompanied by monocytic and Th-2 activation, whereas FEP without depression is characterized by Treg activation only. In conclusion, depression emerged as a key component explaining the cytokines imbalance in FEP that is responsible for a large part of the immune-inflammatory abnormalities described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristiano Noto
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil; First Episode Psychosis Program, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas da Santa Casa de São Paulo (FCMSCSP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Kiyomi Ota
- Genetics Division, Department of Morphology and Genetics, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos Leite Santoro
- Genetics Division, Department of Morphology and Genetics, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bruno B Ortiz
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucas B Rizzo
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cinthia Hiroko Higuchi
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Quirino Cordeiro
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil; First Episode Psychosis Program, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas da Santa Casa de São Paulo (FCMSCSP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sintia Iole Belangero
- Genetics Division, Department of Morphology and Genetics, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Ary Gadelha
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Michael Maes
- Department of Psychiatry, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Health Sciences Graduate Program, Health Sciences Center, State University of Londrina (UEL), Brazil
| | - Elisa Brietzke
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil.
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Zonis S, Pechnick RN, Ljubimov VA, Mahgerefteh M, Wawrowsky K, Michelsen KS, Chesnokova V. Chronic intestinal inflammation alters hippocampal neurogenesis. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:65. [PMID: 25889852 PMCID: PMC4403851 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0281-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adult neurogenesis in the subgranular zone of the hippocampus is involved in learning, memory, and mood control. Decreased hippocampal neurogenesis elicits significant behavioral changes, including cognitive impairment and depression. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of chronic inflammatory conditions of the intestinal tract, and cognitive dysfunction and depression frequently occur in patients suffering from this disorder. We therefore tested the effects of chronic intestinal inflammation on hippocampal neurogenesis. METHODS The dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) mouse model of IBD was used. Mice were treated with multiple-cycle administration of 3% wt/vol DSS in drinking water on days 1 to 5, 8 to 12, 15 to 19, and 22 to 26. Mice were sacrificed on day 7 (acute phase of inflammation) or day 29 (chronic phase of inflammation) after the beginning of the treatment. RESULTS During the acute phase of inflammation, we found increased plasma levels of IL-6 and TNF-α and increased expression of Iba1, a marker of activated microglia, accompanied by induced IL-6 and IL-1β, and the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21(Cip1) (p21) in hippocampus. During the chronic phase of inflammation, plasma levels of IL-6 were elevated. In the hippocampus, p21 protein levels were continued to be induced. Furthermore, markers of stem/early progenitor cells, including nestin and brain lipid binding protein (BLBP), and neuronal marker doublecortin (DCX) were all down-regulated, whereas glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a marker for astroglia, was induced. In addition, the number of proliferating precursors of neuronal lineage assessed by double Ki67 and DCX staining was significantly diminished in the hippocampus of DSS-treated animals, indicating decreased production of new neurons. CONCLUSIONS We show for the first time that chronic intestinal inflammation alters hippocampal neurogenesis. As p21 arrests early neuronal progenitor proliferation, it is likely that p21 induction during acute phase of inflammation resulted in the reduction of hippocampal neurogenesis observed later, on day 29, after the beginning of DSS treatment. The reduction in hippocampal neurogenesis might underlie the behavioral manifestations that occur in patients with IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Zonis
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Davis Bldg., Room 3019, 8700 Beverly Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
| | - Robert N Pechnick
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, 91766, USA.
| | - Vladimir A Ljubimov
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Davis Bldg., Room 3019, 8700 Beverly Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
| | - Michael Mahgerefteh
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Davis Bldg., Room 3019, 8700 Beverly Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
| | - Kolja Wawrowsky
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Davis Bldg., Room 3019, 8700 Beverly Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
| | - Kathrin S Michelsen
- F. Widjaja Foundation Inflammatory Bowel and Immunobiology Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
| | - Vera Chesnokova
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Davis Bldg., Room 3019, 8700 Beverly Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
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Dissociation between sickness behavior and emotionality during lipopolysaccharide challenge in lymphocyte deficient Rag2(-/-) mice. Behav Brain Res 2014; 278:74-82. [PMID: 25257108 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Revised: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory diseases are highly associated with affective disorders including depression and anxiety. While the role of the innate immune system on emotionality has been extensively studied, the role of adaptive immunity is less understood. Considering that chronic inflammatory conditions are mediated largely by maladaptive lymphocyte function, the role of these cells on brain function and behavior during inflammation warrants investigation. In the present study we employed mice deficient in lymphocyte function and studied behavioral and inflammatory responses during challenge with bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Rag2(-/-) mice lacking mature lymphocytes were susceptible to death under sub-septic (5 mg/kg) doses of LPS and survived only to moderate (1 mg/kg) doses of LPS. Under these conditions, they displayed attenuated TNF-alpha responses and behavioral symptoms of sickness when compared with immunocompetent mice. Nevertheless, Rag2(-/-) mice had protracted motivational impairments after recovery from sickness suggesting a specific function for lymphocytes on the re-establishment of motivational states after activation of the innate immune system. The behavioral impairments in Rag2(-/-) mice were paralleled by an elevation in plasma corticosterone after behavioral tests. These results provide evidence that the absence of adaptive immunity may be associated with emotional deficits during inflammation and suggest that depressive states associated with medical illness may be mediated in part by impaired lymphocyte responses.
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105
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Effects of indole-3-carbinol on clonidine-induced neurotoxicity in rats: Impact on oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and monoamine levels. Neurotoxicology 2014; 44:48-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2014.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2013] [Revised: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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106
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Yang SJ, Yu HY, Kang DY, Ma ZQ, Qu R, Fu Q, Ma SP. Antidepressant-like effects of salidroside on olfactory bulbectomy-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine production and hyperactivity of HPA axis in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 124:451-7. [PMID: 25101546 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2014.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Revised: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Salidroside (SA) is the primary bioactive marker compound in the standardized extracts from Rhodiola rosea. Although it has potential antidepressant activity in a rat behavioral despair model, the mechanisms of antidepressant effect for SA remain unclear. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antidepressant effects of SA and to discuss the potential mechanisms in olfactory bulbectomized (OBX) rats. SA of 20, 40 mg/kg (p.o.) for 2 weeks notably alleviated OBX-induced hyperactivity in open field test, decreased immobility time in TST and FST. Chronic treatment with SA could remarkably reduce TNF-α and IL-1β levels in hippocampus. Western blot showed that SA could markedly increase glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the hippocampus. Besides, SA could also attenuate corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) expression in hypothalamus, as well as reducing significantly the levels of serum corticosterone. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that OBX rats treated with SA could significantly improve the depressive-like behaviors. The antidepressant mechanisms of SA might be associated with its anti-inflammatory effects and the regulation of HPA axis activity. Reversal of abnormalities of GR may be partly responsible for those effects. These findings suggested that SA might become a beneficial agent to prevent and treat the depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shui-Jin Yang
- Department of Pharmacology of Chinese Materia Medica, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Hai-Yang Yu
- Department of Pharmacology of Chinese Materia Medica, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Dan-Yu Kang
- Department of Pharmacology of Chinese Materia Medica, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Zhan-Qiang Ma
- Department of Pharmacology of Chinese Materia Medica, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Rong Qu
- Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210046, PR China
| | - Qiang Fu
- Department of Pharmacology of Chinese Materia Medica, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China.
| | - Shi-Ping Ma
- Department of Pharmacology of Chinese Materia Medica, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China.
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Faster, better, stronger: towards new antidepressant therapeutic strategies. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 753:32-50. [PMID: 25092200 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.07.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Major depression is a highly prevalent disorder and is predicted to be the second leading cause of disease burden by 2020. Although many antidepressant drugs are currently available, they are far from optimal. Approximately 50% of patients do not respond to initial first line antidepressant treatment, while approximately one third fail to achieve remission following several pharmacological interventions. Furthermore, several weeks or months of treatment are often required before clinical improvement, if any, is reported. Moreover, most of the commonly used antidepressants have been primarily designed to increase synaptic availability of serotonin and/or noradrenaline and although they are of therapeutic benefit to many patients, it is clear that other therapeutic targets are required if we are going to improve the response and remission rates. It is clear that more effective, rapid-acting antidepressants with novel mechanisms of action are required. The purpose of this review is to outline the current strategies that are being taken in both preclinical and clinical settings for identifying superior antidepressant drugs. The realisation that ketamine has rapid antidepressant-like effects in treatment resistant patients has reenergised the field. Further, developing an understanding of the mechanisms underlying the rapid antidepressant effects in treatment-resistant patients by drugs such as ketamine may uncover novel therapeutic targets that can be exploited to meet the Olympian challenge of developing faster, better and stronger antidepressant drugs.
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108
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O'Leary OF, O'Brien FE, O'Connor RM, Cryan JF. Drugs, genes and the blues: Pharmacogenetics of the antidepressant response from mouse to man. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 123:55-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Joesting JJ, Moon ML, Gainey SJ, Tisza BL, Blevins NA, Freund GG. Fasting Induces IL-1 Resistance and Free-Fatty Acid-Mediated Up-Regulation of IL-1R2 and IL-1RA. Front Immunol 2014; 5:315. [PMID: 25071776 PMCID: PMC4089087 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Weight-loss is a near societal obsession and many diet programs use significant calorie restriction including fasting/short term starvation to generate rapid effects. Fasting is also a well-recognized cause of immunosuppression especially within the innate immune system. In this study, we sought to determine if the IL-1 arm of the neuroimmune system was down-regulated by a 24 h fast and how fasting might generate this effect. DESIGN Mice were allowed ad libitum access to food or had food withheld for 24 h. Expression of the endogenous IL-1 antagonists, IL-1 receptor type 2 (IL-1R2), and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) was determined as were sickness behaviors before and after IL-1β administration. RESULTS Fasting markedly increased gene expression of IL-1R2 (83-fold in adipose tissue, 9.5-fold in liver) and IL-1RA (68-fold in liver). Fasted mice were protected from IL-1β-induced weight-loss, hypoglycemia, loss of locomotor, and social anxiety. These protections were coupled to a large positive interaction of fasting and IL-1β on IL-1R2 gene expression in adipose tissue and liver (2.6- and 1.6-fold, respectively). Fasting not only increased IL-1RA and IL-1R2 protein 2.5- and 3.2-fold, respectively, in liver but also increased IL-1R2 1.8-fold in adipose tissue. Fasting, in turn, triggered a 2.4-fold increase in plasma free-fatty acids (FFAs) and a 2.1-fold increase in plasma corticosterone. Inhibition, of glucocorticoid action with mifepristone did not impact fasting-dependent IL-1R2 or IL-1RA gene expression. Administration of the FFA, palmitate, to mice increased liver IL-1R2 and IL-1RA gene expression by 14- and 11-fold, respectively. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that fasting augments expression of endogenous IL-1 antagonists inducing IL-1 resistance. Fasting-induced increases in plasma FFAs appears to be a signal that drives immunosuppression during fasting/short term starvation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J Joesting
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA ; Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA
| | - Morgan L Moon
- Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA ; Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA
| | - Stephen J Gainey
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA ; Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA
| | - Brittany L Tisza
- Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA
| | - Neil A Blevins
- Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA
| | - Gregory G Freund
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA ; Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA ; Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign , Urbana, IL , USA
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Maes M, Anderson G, Kubera M, Berk M. Targeting classical IL-6 signalling or IL-6 trans-signalling in depression? Expert Opin Ther Targets 2014; 18:495-512. [PMID: 24548241 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2014.888417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Increased IL-6 and soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R) levels in depressed patients was first shown over 20 years ago. The pro-inflammatory effects of IL-6 are predominantly mediated by IL-6 trans-signalling via the sIL-6R, whereas IL-6R membrane signalling has anti-inflammatory effects. AREAS COVERED We review data on IL-6 and sIL-6R in inflammation, depression, animal models of depression and the effects of different classes of antidepressants. The biological context for IL-6 trans-signalling as a pathogenic factor in depression involves its role in the acute phase response, disorders in zinc and the erythron, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation, induction of the tryptophan catabolite pathway, oxidative stress, bacterial translocation, transition towards sensitisation, autoimmune processes and neuroprogression and the multicausal aetiology of depression, considering that psychosocial stressors and comorbid immune-inflammatory diseases are associated with the onset of depression. EXPERT OPINION The homeostatic functions of IL-6 imply that ubiquitous IL-6 inhibitors, for example, tocilizumab, may not be the optimal treatment target in depression. A more promising target may be to increase soluble glycoprotein 130 (sgp130) inhibition of IL-6 trans-signalling, while allowing the maintenance of IL-6R membrane signalling. Future research should delineate the effects of treatments with sgp130Fc in combination with antidepressants in various animal models of chronic depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Maes
- Deakin University, Department of Psychiatry , Geelong , Australia
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Martin C, Tansey KE, Schalkwyk LC, Powell TR. The inflammatory cytokines: molecular biomarkers for major depressive disorder? Biomark Med 2014; 9:169-80. [PMID: 24524646 DOI: 10.2217/bmm.14.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines are pleotropic cell signaling proteins that, in addition to their role as inflammatory mediators, also affect neurotransmitter systems, brain functionality and mood. Here we explore the potential utility of cytokine biomarkers for major depressive disorder. Specifically, we explore how genetic, transcriptomic and proteomic information relating to the cytokines might act as biomarkers, aiding clinical diagnosis and treatment selection processes. We advise future studies to investigate whether cytokine biomarkers might differentiate major depressive disorder patients from other patient groups with overlapping clinical characteristics. Furthermore, we invite future pharmacogenetic studies to investigate whether early antidepressant-induced changes to cytokine mRNA or protein levels precede behavioral changes and act as longer-term predictors of clinical antidepressant response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Martin
- MRC Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry (SGDP) Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, PO 80, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF, UK.
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112
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Neuropeptides and the microbiota-gut-brain axis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2014; 817:195-219. [PMID: 24997035 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0897-4_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptides are important mediators both within the nervous system and between neurons and other cell types. Neuropeptides such as substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide and neuropeptide Y (NPY), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, somatostatin and corticotropin-releasing factor are also likely to play a role in the bidirectional gut-brain communication. In this capacity they may influence the activity of the gastrointestinal microbiota and its interaction with the gut-brain axis. Current efforts in elucidating the implication of neuropeptides in the microbiota-gut-brain axis address four information carriers from the gut to the brain (vagal and spinal afferent neurons; immune mediators such as cytokines; gut hormones; gut microbiota-derived signalling molecules) and four information carriers from the central nervous system to the gut (sympathetic efferent neurons; parasympathetic efferent neurons; neuroendocrine factors involving the adrenal medulla; neuroendocrine factors involving the adrenal cortex). Apart from operating as neurotransmitters, many biologically active peptides also function as gut hormones. Given that neuropeptides and gut hormones target the same cell membrane receptors (typically G protein-coupled receptors), the two messenger roles often converge in the same or similar biological implications. This is exemplified by NPY and peptide YY (PYY), two members of the PP-fold peptide family. While PYY is almost exclusively expressed by enteroendocrine cells, NPY is found at all levels of the gut-brain and brain-gut axis. The function of PYY-releasing enteroendocrine cells is directly influenced by short chain fatty acids generated by the intestinal microbiota from indigestible fibre, while NPY may control the impact of the gut microbiota on inflammatory processes, pain, brain function and behaviour. Although the impact of neuropeptides on the interaction between the gut microbiota and brain awaits to be analysed, biologically active peptides are likely to emerge as neural and endocrine messengers in orchestrating the microbiota-gut-brain axis in health and disease.
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113
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Vaz JS, Kac G, Nardi AE, Hibbeln JR. Omega-6 fatty acids and greater likelihood of suicide risk and major depression in early pregnancy. J Affect Disord 2014; 152-154:76-82. [PMID: 23726775 PMCID: PMC4239694 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To estimate the prevalence of suicide risk (SR) and major depressive episodes (MDEs) in early pregnancy, as well as the relationship of serum fatty acid status to these outcomes. METHODS Cross-sectional analyses were performed on data from 234 pregnant women enrolled in a prospective cohort study in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. SR and MDE were defined according to the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview. Fatty acid compositions were determined for serum samples obtained between the 6th and 13th gestational week. Fatty acid data were expressed as the percent of total fatty acids, converted to Z scores and then entered as continuous variables in logistic regression models. RESULTS The prevalence of SR was 19.6% and that of MDE was 17.0%. In the adjusted logistic regressions, a higher likelihood of SR was observed among women with higher arachidonic acid levels [AA (20:4, n-6): OR=1.45, 95%CI 1.02-2.07] and adrenic acid levels [AdA (22:4, n-6): OR=1.43, 95%CI 1.01-2.04]. A higher likelihood of MDE was also observed among women with higher AA levels [OR=1.47, 95%CI 1.03-2.10] and AdA levels [OR=1.59, 95%CI 1.09-2.32]. CONCLUSION Higher serum levels of AA and AdA were associated with a greater likelihood of SR and MDE among pregnant Brazilian women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana S. Vaz
- Nutritional Epidemiology Observatory, Josué de Castro Nutrition Institute, Rio de Janeiro Federal University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gilberto Kac
- Nutritional Epidemiology Observatory, Josué de Castro Nutrition Institute, Rio de Janeiro Federal University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Antonio E. Nardi
- National Institute for Science and Technology - Translational Medicine, Laboratory of Panic and Respiration, Institute of Psychiatry, Rio de Janeiro Federal University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Joseph R. Hibbeln
- Section of Nutritional Neurosciences, Laboratory of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
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Mota R, Gazal M, Acosta BA, de Leon PB, Jansen K, Pinheiro RT, Souza LD, Silva RA, Oses JP, Quevedo L, Lara DR, Ghisleni G, Kaster MP. Interleukin-1β is associated with depressive episode in major depression but not in bipolar disorder. J Psychiatr Res 2013; 47:2011-4. [PMID: 24074516 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Revised: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Our work was sought to investigate possible changes in peripheral levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) according to the diagnosis of major depression (MD) and bipolar disorder (BD) and in different mood episodes. This is a cross-sectional nested in a population-based study comparing 240 young adults (80 controls, 80 MD and 80 BD), balanced for age and gender. Serum levels of IL-1β were significantly higher in MD when compared to control or BD subjects. In addition, when divided by current mood episode, MD subjects in current depression presented higher IL-1β levels than controls. No differences in IL-1β levels were found between different episodes of BD (euthymic, depressed, mania or mixed). Moreover, the use of psychiatric medication was very low in our sample and not associated with changes in IL-1β levels. In conclusion, increased peripheral IL-1β might be a useful marker associated with a depressive episode in the context of MD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosana Mota
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde e Comportamento, Universidade Católica de Pelotas, Brazil
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Kraneveld AD, de Theije CGM, van Heesch F, Borre Y, de Kivit S, Olivier B, Korte M, Garssen J. The neuro-immune axis: prospect for novel treatments for mental disorders. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2013; 114:128-36. [PMID: 24118847 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.12154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Disturbed bidirectional pathways between the (central) nervous system and immune system have been implicated in various mental disorders, including depressive and neurodevelopmental disorders. In this minireview, the role of the neuro-immune axis and its targetability in relation to major depression and autism spectrum disorder will be discussed. All together, the management of these and possibly other multi-factorial mental disorders needs a new and integrated therapeutic approach. Pharmacologically bioactive molecules as well as medical nutrition targeting the (gut)-immune-brain axis could be such an approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aletta D Kraneveld
- Division of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Ghanizadeh A, Hedayati A. Augmentation of fluoxetine with lovastatin for treating major depressive disorder, a randomized double-blind placebo controlled-clinical trial. Depress Anxiety 2013; 30:1084-8. [PMID: 24115188 DOI: 10.1002/da.22195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS There are contradictory evidence about the effect of statins on depression. This 6-week-randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial assessed the efficacy and safety of lovastatin as an adjuvant agent for treating major depressive disorder (MDD). METHODS The participants were 68 patients with MDD according to DSM-IV diagnostic criteria. The sample was randomly allocated into fluoxetine (up to 40 mg/day) plus lovastatin (30 mg/day) group or fluoxetine plus placebo group. Hamilton Depression Rating scale was used to measure depression score at baseline, week 2, and week 6. RESULTS Both groups showed a significant decrease of depression score on the Hamilton Depression scale. However, the treatment group decreased depression score more than placebo group [12.8(6.3) vs. 8.2(4.0), t = 3.4, df = 60, P < .001]. Any serious adverse effect was not found. DISCUSSION These results suggest that lovastatin as an adjuvant treatment may be effective for treating patients with MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Ghanizadeh
- Department of Psychiatry, Research Center for Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Hafez Hospital, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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Mello BSF, Monte AS, McIntyre RS, Soczynska JK, Custódio CS, Cordeiro RC, Chaves JH, Vasconcelos SMM, Nobre HV, Florenço de Sousa FC, Hyphantis TN, Carvalho AF, Macêdo DS. Effects of doxycycline on depressive-like behavior in mice after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration. J Psychiatr Res 2013; 47:1521-9. [PMID: 23835040 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Current evidences support inflammation, oxidative and nitrogen stress, as well as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling mechanisms as important in depression pathophysiology. Tetracycline antibiotics have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Preliminary evidence indicates that minocycline has antidepressant properties. Doxycycline (DOXY) has favorable pharmacokinetic and safety profiles when compared to other tetracycline congeners. The antidepressant activity of DOXY has not been adequately investigated. This study evaluated the effects of DOXY (25 and 50 mg/kg, i.p.) on LPS-induced (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) depressive-like behavior. Doxycycline was administered 30 min before LPS (pre-LPS) or 1.5 and 23.5 h following LPS (post-LPS) administration in mice. LPS-treated animals presented an increase in immobility time in the forced swimming test (FST) when compared to controls 24 h after endotoxin administration. Similarly to imipramine (IMI-10 mg/kg, i.p.), DOXY at both doses prevented and reversed LPS-induced alterations in the FST. IL-1β content was increased 24 h after LPS administration in striatum, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. IMI and DOXY prevented and reversed LPS-induced increase in IL-1β. IMI and DOXY also prevented and reversed LPS-induced alterations in nitrite content and oxidative stress parameters (lipid peroxidation and reduced glutathione levels). Both DOXY and IMI prevented LPS-induced decrease in hippocampal BDNF levels. Taken together, our results demonstrate that DOXY is comparable to IMI in effectively ameliorate LPS-induced depressive-like behavior, providing a rationale for testing DOXY's antidepressant efficacy in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna Stefânia Ferreira Mello
- Neuropharmacology Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
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Rajkowska G, Stockmeier CA. Astrocyte pathology in major depressive disorder: insights from human postmortem brain tissue. Curr Drug Targets 2013; 14:1225-36. [PMID: 23469922 PMCID: PMC3799810 DOI: 10.2174/13894501113149990156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 400] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The present paper reviews astrocyte pathology in major depressive disorder (MDD) and proposes that reductions in astrocytes and related markers are key features in the pathology of MDD. Astrocytes are the most numerous and versatile of all types of glial cells. They are crucial to the neuronal microenvironment by regulating glucose metabolism, neurotransmitter uptake (particularly for glutamate), synaptic development and maturation and the blood brain barrier. Pathology of astrocytes has been consistently noted in MDD as well as in rodent models of depressive-like behavior. This review summarizes evidence from human postmortem tissue showing alterations in the expression of protein and mRNA for astrocyte markers such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), gap junction proteins (connexin 40 and 43), the water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4), a calcium-binding protein S100B and glutamatergic markers including the excitatory amino acid transporters 1 and 2 (EAAT1, EAAT2) and glutamine synthetase. Moreover, preclinical studies are presented that demonstrate the involvement of GFAP and astrocytes in animal models of stress and depressive-like behavior and the influence of different classes of antidepressant medications on astrocytes. In light of the various astrocyte deficits noted in MDD, astrocytes may be novel targets for the action of antidepressant medications. Possible functional consequences of altered expression of astrocytic markers in MDD are also discussed. Finally, the unique pattern of cell pathology in MDD, characterized by prominent reductions in the density of astrocytes and in the expression of their markers without obvious neuronal loss, is contrasted with that found in other neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazyna Rajkowska
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 N. State St., Box 127, Jackson, MS 39216-4505, USA.
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N-acetyl-cysteine prevents toxic oxidative effects induced by IFN-α in human neurons. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2013; 16:1849-65. [PMID: 23590859 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145713000266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently IFN-α is widely used for effective treatment of viral infections and several malignancies. However, IFN-α can cause neuropsychiatric disturbances and mental impairments, including fatigue, insomnia, depression, irritability and cognitive deficits. Molecular and cellular mechanisms leading to such side-effects are still poorly understood. Neurons seem to be an important target in mediating cellular effects induced by exposure to this cytokine, but so far little is known about IFN-α-induced effects on these cells. We have investigated the ability of IFN-α (2-100 ng/ml) to induce damage and toxicity to the human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line, commonly used for studying such phenomena, and the mechanisms underlying these effects. After 24 h treatment, IFN-α increased mitochondrial activity, whereas cell density was reduced in a dose- and time-dependent manner. This effect did not depend on reduced cell proliferation, but rather the activation of apoptosis, as revealed by an increased Bax:Bcl-2 mRNA ratio after 72-h IFN-α exposure. At this time-point, IFN-α also reduced the expression of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene, and induced an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS). A co-treatment with N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC; 5 mm), a potent antioxidant and mitochondrial modulator, was able to counteract all of these IFN-α-induced effects. These findings demonstrated that IFN-α induces neurotoxicity and apoptosis that is, in part, very likely due to mitochondrial damages and production of ROS. We suggest that NAC, already tested for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, may be useful to prevent IFN-α-induced central side-effects in a safe and effective way.
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Kubera M, Curzytek K, Duda W, Leskiewicz M, Basta-Kaim A, Budziszewska B, Roman A, Zajicova A, Holan V, Szczesny E, Lason W, Maes M. A new animal model of (chronic) depression induced by repeated and intermittent lipopolysaccharide administration for 4 months. Brain Behav Immun 2013; 31:96-104. [PMID: 23313516 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Revised: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic activation of immune-inflammatory and oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS) pathways plays an important role in the pathophysiology of clinical depression. Increased IgA responses directed against LPS of gram-negative bacteria, indicating increased bacterial translocation, may be one of the drivers underpinning these pathways. There is a strong association between signs of bacterial translocation and chronicity of depression and O&NS, but not pro-inflammatory cytokines. The aims of the present study were to: (1) develop a new neurobehavioral model of (chronic) depression (anhedonic behavior) that may reflect chronic LPS stimulation and is associated with increased oxidative stress, and (2) to delineate the effects of fluoxetine on this new depression model. We established that in female mice repeated LPS injections once daily for 5 days (from 750 μg/kg to a maximal dose 1250 μg/kg; increasing doses for the first three days which were then gradually decreased on day 4 and 5) at a one-month interval and this repeated for 4 consecutive months induced chronic anhedonia (estimated by the preference to drink a 1% sucrose) lasting for at least 7 weeks. Chronic LPS administration significantly decreased thymus weight, proliferative activity of splenocytes, production of interferon (IFN)γ and interleukin-(IL)10, and increased superoxide and corticosterone production. Treatment with fluoxetine for 3 weeks abolished the neurobehavioral effects of LPS. The antidepressant effect of fluoxetine was accompanied by increased production of IL-10 and reduced superoxide and corticosterone production. Our results suggest that repeated intermittent LPS injections to female mice may be a useful model of chronic depression and in particular for the depressogenic effects of long standing activation of the toll-like receptor IV complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Kubera
- Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Science, 31-343 Krakow, Poland.
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Lawson MA, McCusker RH, Kelley KW. Interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme is necessary for development of depression-like behavior following intracerebroventricular administration of lipopolysaccharide to mice. J Neuroinflammation 2013; 10:54. [PMID: 23634700 PMCID: PMC3663735 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-10-54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme (ICE, caspase 1) is a cysteine protease that processes immature pro-IL-1β into active mature IL-1β. IL-1β is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that mediates many of the physiological and behavioral responses to inflammation. Genetic deletion of ICE has previously been shown to prevent some negative physiologic responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation. Methods Here we used a preclinical murine model to test the hypothesis that ICE is necessary for development of depression-like behaviors following intracerebroventricular (ICV) treatment with LPS. Adult male ICE knockout (ICE KO) and congenic wild-type C57BL/6 J (WT) mice were administered LPS either ICV at 100 ng/mouse or intraperitoneally (IP) at 830 μg/kg body weight or an equal volume of saline as controls. Mice were monitored up to 48 h after treatment for both sickness and depression-like behaviors. Results LPS given ICV induced a loss of body weight in both WT and ICE KO mice. This sickness response was similar between WT and ICE KO mice. As expected, LPS administered ICV increased immobility in the forced swim test (FST) and decreased sucrose preference in WT mice but no change in either of these two depression-like behaviors was observed in ICE KO mice. Expression of TNF-α and CD11b in brain was lower in ICE-KO mice at 24 h following ICV administration of LPS compared to WT mice. In contrast, when LPS was given systemically, sickness response, depression-like behaviors, and expression of these genes were similar between the two strains of mice. Conclusions These findings indicate that ICE plays a specific role in depression-like behavior induced by a central inflammatory stimuli even though it is not required when LPS is administered systemically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus A Lawson
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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Ghasemi R, Dargahi L, Haeri A, Moosavi M, Mohamed Z, Ahmadiani A. Brain insulin dysregulation: implication for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 47:1045-65. [PMID: 23335160 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8404-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Arduous efforts have been made in the last three decades to elucidate the role of insulin in the brain. A growing number of evidences show that insulin is involved in several physiological function of the brain such as food intake and weight control, reproduction, learning and memory, neuromodulation and neuroprotection. In addition, it is now clear that insulin and insulin disturbances particularly diabetes mellitus may contribute or in some cases play the main role in development and progression of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. Focusing on the molecular mechanisms, this review summarizes the recent findings on the involvement of insulin dysfunction in neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease and also mental disorders like depression and psychosis sharing features of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rasoul Ghasemi
- Neuroscience Research Center and Department of Physiology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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