Leptin directly depolarizes preproglucagon neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarius: electrical properties of glucagon-like Peptide 1 neurons

Leptin in nucleus of the solitary tract alters the cardiovascular responses to aortic baroreceptor activation

Recent data suggests that neurons expressing the long form of the leptin receptor form at least two distinct groups within the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS): a group within the lateral NTS (Slt) and one within the medial (Sm) and gelantinosa (Sg) NTS. Discrete injections of leptin into Sm and Sg, a region that receives chemoreceptor input, elicit increases in arterial pressure (AP) and renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA). However, the effect of microinjections of leptin into Slt, a region that receives baroreceptor input is unknown. Experiments were done in the urethane-chloralose anesthetized, paralyzed and artificially ventilated Wistar or Zucker obese rat to determine leptin's effect in Slt on heart rate (HR), AP and RSNA during electrical stimulation of the aortic depressor nerve (ADN). Depressor sites within Slt were first identified by the microinjection of l-glutamate (Glu; 0.25M; 10nl) followed by leptin microinjections. In the Wistar rat leptin microinjection (50ng; 20nl) into depressor sites within the lateral Slt elicited increases in HR and RSNA, but no changes in AP. Additionally, leptin injections into Slt prior to Glu injections at the same site or to stimulation of the ADN were found to attenuate the decreases in HR, AP and RSNA to both the Glu injection and ADN stimulation. In Zucker obese rats, leptin injections into NTS depressor sites did not elicit cardiovascular responses, nor altered the cardiovascular responses elicited by stimulation of ADN. Those data suggest that leptin acts at the level of NTS to alter the activity of neurons that mediate the cardiovascular responses to activation of the aortic baroreceptor reflex.

Satiation and stress-induced hypophagia: examining the role of hindbrain neurons expressing prolactin-releasing Peptide or glucagon-like Peptide 1

Neural circuits distributed within the brainstem, hypothalamus, and limbic forebrain interact to control food intake and energy balance under normal day-to-day conditions, and in response to stressful conditions under which homeostasis is threatened. Experimental studies using rats and mice have generated a voluminous literature regarding the functional organization of circuits that inhibit food intake in response to satiety signals, and in response to stress. Although the central neural bases of satiation and stress-induced hypophagia often are studied and discussed as if they were distinct, we propose that both behavioral states are generated, at least in part, by recruitment of two separate but intermingled groups of caudal hindbrain neurons. One group comprises a subpopulation of noradrenergic (NA) neurons within the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract (cNST; A2 cell group) that is immunopositive for prolactin-releasing peptide (PrRP). The second group comprises non-adrenergic neurons within the cNST and nearby reticular formation that synthesize glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1). Axonal projections from PrRP and GLP-1 neurons target distributed brainstem and forebrain regions that shape behavioral, autonomic, and endocrine responses to actual or anticipated homeostatic challenge, including the challenge of food intake. Evidence reviewed in this article supports the view that hindbrain PrRP and GLP-1 neurons contribute importantly to satiation and stress-induced hypophagia by modulating the activity of caudal brainstem circuits that control food intake. Hindbrain PrRP and GLP-1 neurons also engage hypothalamic and limbic forebrain networks that drive parallel behavioral and endocrine functions related to food intake and homeostatic challenge, and modulate conditioned and motivational aspects of food intake.

Systemic administration of leptin potentiates the response of neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract to chemoreceptor activation in the rat

Leptin microinjections into the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) have been shown to elicit sympathoexcitatory responses, and potentiate the cardiovascular responses to activation of the chemoreflex. In this study, experiments were done in Sprague-Dawley rats initially to provide a detailed mapping within the NTS complex of cells containing immunoreactivity to the long form of the leptin receptor (Ob-Rb). In a second series, this NTS region containing Ob-Rb immunoreactive cells was explored for single units antidromically activated by stimulation of pressor sites in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM). These antidromically identified neurons were then tested for their response to intra-carotid injections of leptin (50-100 ng/0.1 ml), and to activation of peripheral chemoreceptors following an injection of potassium cyanide (KCN) (80 μg/0.1 ml) into the carotid artery. Cells containing Ob-Rb-like immunoreactivity were found predominantly in the caudal NTS: within the medial, commissural and gelatinous (sub-postremal area) subnuclei of the NTS complex. Of 73 single units tested in these NTS regions, 48 were antidromically activated by stimulation of RVLM pressor sites and 25 of these single units responded with an increase in discharge rate after intra-carotid injections of leptin. In addition, 17 of these leptin responsive neurons were excited by the intra-carotid injections of KCN (80 μg/0.1 ml). Furthermore, the excitatory response of these single units to KCN was potentiated (59-83%) immediately following the leptin injection. These data indicate that leptin responsive neurons in NTS mediate chemoreceptor afferent information to pressor sites in the RVLM, and suggest that leptin may act as a facilitator on neuronal circuits within the NTS that potentiates the sympathoexcitatory responses elicited during the reflex activation of arterial chemoreceptors.

Preproglucagon (PPG) neurons innervate neurochemically identified autonomic neurons in the mouse brainstem

Preproglucagon (PPG) neurons produce glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and occur primarily in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). GLP-1 affects a variety of central autonomic circuits, including those controlling the cardiovascular system, thermogenesis, and most notably energy balance. Our immunohistochemical studies in transgenic mice expressing YFP under the control of the PPG promoter showed that PPG neurons project widely to central autonomic regions, including brainstem nuclei. Functional studies have highlighted the importance of hindbrain receptors for the anorexic effects of GLP-1. In this study, we assessed YFP innervation of neurochemically identified brainstem neurons in transgenic YFP-PPG mice. Immunoreactivity for YFP plus choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and/or serotonin (5-HT) was visualised with two- or three-colour immunoperoxidase labelling using black (YFP), brown and blue-grey reaction products. In the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV), terminals from fine YFP-immunoreactive axons closely apposed a small proportion of ChAT-positive and rare TH-positive/ChAT-positive motor neurons, mostly ventral to AP. YFP-immunoreactive innervation was virtually absent from the compact and loose formations of the nucleus ambiguus. In the NTS, some TH-immunoreactive neurons were closely apposed by YFP-containing axons. In the A1/C1 column in the ventrolateral medulla, close appositions on TH-positive neurons were more common, particularly in the caudal portion of the column. A single YFP-immunoreactive axon usually provided 1-3 close appositions on individual ChAT- or TH-positive neurons. Serotonin-immunoreactive neurons were most heavily innervated, with the majority of raphé pallidus, raphé obscurus and parapyramidal neurons receiving several close appositions from large varicosities of YFP-immunoreactive axons. These results indicate that GLP-1 neurons innervate various populations of brainstem autonomic neurons. These include vagal efferent neurons and catecholamine neurons in areas linked with cardiovascular control. Our data also indicate a synaptic connection between GLP-1 neurons and 5-HT neurons, some of which might contribute to the regulation of appetite.

Neurochemical characterization of body weight-regulating leptin receptor neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract

The action of peripherally released leptin at long-form leptin receptors (LepRb) within the brain represents a fundamental axis in the regulation of energy homeostasis and body weight. Efforts to delineate the neuronal mediators of leptin action have recently focused on extrahypothalamic populations and have revealed that leptin action within the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) is critical for normal appetite and body weight regulation. To elucidate the neuronal circuits that mediate leptin action within the NTS, we employed multiple transgenic reporter lines to characterize the neurochemical identity of LepRb-expressing NTS neurons. LepRb expression was not detected in energy balance-associated NTS neurons that express cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neuropeptide Y, nesfatin, catecholamines, γ-aminobutyric acid, prolactin-releasing peptide, or nitric oxide synthase. The population of LepRb-expressing NTS neurons was comprised of subpopulations marked by a proopiomelanocortin-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) transgene and distinct populations that express proglucagon and/or cholecystokinin. The significance of leptin action on these three populations of NTS neurons was assessed in leptin-deficient Ob/Ob mice, revealing increased NTS proglucagon and cholecystokinin, but not proopiomelanocortin, expression. These data provide new insight into the appetitive brainstem circuits engaged by leptin.

5-hydroxytryptamine 2C receptors tonically augment synaptic currents in the nucleus tractus solitarii

The nucleus tractus solitarii (nTS) is the primary termination and integration point for visceral afferents in the brain stem. Afferent glutamate release and its efficacy on postsynaptic activity within this nucleus are modulated by additional neuromodulators and transmitters, including serotonin (5-HT) acting through its receptors. The 5-HT(2) receptors in the medulla modulate the cardiorespiratory system and autonomic reflexes, but the distribution of the 5-HT(2C) receptor and the role of these receptors during synaptic transmission in the nTS remain largely unknown. In the present study, we examined the distribution of 5-HT(2C) receptors in the nTS and their role in modulating excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in monosynaptic nTS neurons in the horizontal brain stem slice. Real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry identified 5-HT(2C) receptor message and protein in the nTS and suggested postsynaptic localization. In nTS neurons innervated by general visceral afferents, 5-HT(2C) receptor activation increased solitary tract (TS)-EPSC amplitude and input resistance and depolarized membrane potential. Conversely, 5-HT(2C) receptor blockade reduced TS-EPSC and miniature EPSC amplitude, as well as input resistance, and hyperpolarized membrane potential. Synaptic parameters in nTS neurons that receive sensory input from carotid body chemoafferents were also attenuated by 5-HT(2C) receptor blockade. Taken together, these data suggest that 5-HT(2C) receptors in the nTS are located postsynaptically and augment excitatory neurotransmission.

Hindbrain neurons as an essential hub in the neuroanatomically distributed control of energy balance

This Review highlights the processing and integration performed by hindbrain nuclei, focusing on the inputs received by nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) neurons. These inputs include vagally mediated gastrointestinal satiation signals, blood-borne energy-related hormonal and nutrient signals, and descending neural signals from the forebrain. We propose that NTS (and hindbrain neurons, more broadly) integrate these multiple energy status signals and issue-output commands controlling the behavioral, autonomic, and endocrine responses that collectively govern energy balance. These hindbrain-mediated controls are neuroanatomically distributed; they involve endemic hindbrain neurons and circuits, hindbrain projections to peripheral circuits, and projections to and from midbrain and forebrain nuclei.

Leptin signaling in the nucleus of the solitary tract alters the cardiovascular responses to activation of the chemoreceptor reflex

Circulating levels of leptin are elevated in individuals suffering from chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH). Systemic and central administration of leptin elicits increases in sympathetic nervous activity (SNA), arterial pressure (AP), and heart rate (HR), and it attenuates the baroreceptor reflex, cardiovascular responses that are similar to those observed during CIH as a result of activation of chemoreceptors by the systemic hypoxia. Therefore, experiments were done in anesthetized Wistar rats to investigate the effects of leptin in nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) on AP and HR responses, and renal SNA (RSNA) responses during activation of NTS neurons and the chemoreceptor reflex. Microinjection of leptin (5-100 ng; 20 nl) into caudal NTS pressor sites (l-glutamate; l-Glu; 0.25 M; 10 nl) elicited dose-related increases in AP, HR, and RSNA. Leptin microinjections (5 ng; 20 nl) into these sites potentiated the increase in AP and HR elicited by l-Glu. Additionally, bilateral injections of leptin (5 ng; 100 nl) into NTS potentiated the increase in AP and attenuated the bradycardia to systemic activation of the chemoreflex. In the Zucker obese rat, leptin injections into NTS neither elicited cardiovascular responses nor altered the cardiovascular responses to activation of the chemoreflex. Taken together, these data indicate that leptin exerts a modulatory effect on neuronal circuits within NTS that control cardiovascular responses elicited during the reflex activation of arterial chemoreceptors and suggest that increased AP and SNA observed in individuals with CIH may be due, in part, by leptin's effects on the chemoreflex at the level of NTS.

Leptin increases temperature-dependent chorda tympani nerve responses to sucrose in mice

Leptin receptors are present in taste buds and previous research indicates that leptin administration modified electrophysiological and behavioral responses to sweet taste. It is now known that sweet taste is temperature dependent. We examined the influence of (1) stimulus temperature on chorda tympani (CT) nerve responses to sucrose, saccharin and NH(4)Cl; and (2) leptin administration on CT nerve responses to sucrose, saccharin and other basic taste stimuli at 35°C that maximized sweet-taste sensitivity in C57BL/6 mice. We found that the CT nerve responded with greater magnitude to sucrose and saccharin as stimulus temperature increased from 23 to 35°C and then declined at higher temperatures. In contrast, the CT nerve responses to NH(4)Cl increased in magnitude as temperature increased from 23 to 44°C. We also showed that leptin selectively increased the CT nerve responses to sucrose at 35°C in both fasted and free-fed mice. The responses of mice treated with the saline vehicle did not change. Our findings are consistent with the notion that leptin binds with its receptors in fungiform taste buds and alters the message conveyed by sugar-responsive neurons to the brain.

Structural and molecular conservation of glucagon-like Peptide-1 and its receptor confers selective ligand-receptor interaction

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a major player in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. It acts on pancreatic beta cells to stimulate insulin secretion and on the brain to inhibit appetite. Thus, it may be a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. Despite the physiological and clinical importance of GLP-1, molecular interaction with the GLP-1 receptor (GLP1R) is not well understood. Particularly, the specific amino acid residues within the transmembrane helices and extracellular loops of the receptor that may confer ligand-induced receptor activation have been poorly investigated. Amino acid sequence comparisons of GLP-1 and GLP1R with their orthologs and paralogs in vertebrates, combined with biochemical approaches, are useful to determine which amino acid residues in the peptide and the receptor confer selective ligand-receptor interaction. This article reviews how the molecular evolution of GLP-1 and GLP1R contributes to the selective interaction between this ligand-receptor pair, providing critical clues for the development of potent agonists for the treatment of diabetes mellitus and obesity.

CCK stimulation of GLP-1 neurons involves α1-adrenoceptor-mediated increase in glutamatergic synaptic inputs

OBJECTIVE

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is involved in the central regulation of food intake. It is produced within the brain by preproglucagon (PPG) neurons, which are located primarily within the brain stem. These neurons project widely throughout the brain, including to the appetite centers in the hypothalamus, and are believed to convey signals related to satiety. Previous work demonstrated that they are directly activated by leptin and electrical activity of the afferent vagus. Another satiety hormone, cholecystokinin (CCK), has also been linked to activation of brain stem neurons, suggesting that it might act partially via centrally projecting neurons from the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). The aim of this study was to investigate the neuronal circuitry linking CCK to the population of NTS-PPG neurons.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Transgenic mice expressing yellow fluorescent protein (Venus) under the control of the PPG promoter were used to identify PPG neurons in vitro and to record their electrical and pharmacological profile.

RESULTS

PPG neurons in the NTS were excited by CCK and epinephrine, but not by the melanocortin receptor agonist melanotan II. Both CCK and epinephrine acted to increase glutamatergic transmission to the PPG neurons, and this involved activation of α(1)-adrenergic receptors. Inhibition of adrenergic signaling abolished the excitatory action of CCK.

CONCLUSIONS

CCK activates NTS-PPG cells by a circuit involving adrenergic and glutamatergic neurons. NTS-PPG neurons integrate a variety of peripheral signals that indicate both long-term energy balance and short-term nutritional and digestional status to produce an output signal to feeding and autonomic circuits.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptors in nucleus accumbens affect food intake

Central glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) stimulation suppresses food intake, and hindbrain GLP-1 neurons project to numerous feeding-relevant brain regions. One such region is the nucleus accumbens (NAc), which plays a role in reward and motivated behavior. Using immunohistochemical and retrograde tracing techniques in rats, we identified a robust projection from GLP-1 neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract to the NAc. We hypothesized that activation of NAc GLP-1Rs suppresses feeding. When injected into the NAc core of rats at doses subthreshold for effect when administered to the lateral ventricle, GLP-1 significantly reduced food intake relative to vehicle at 1, 2, and 24 h posttreatment. The same doses had no effect when injected into the NAc shell. NAc core treatment with ventricle-subthreshold doses of the GLP-1R antagonist exendin (9-39) caused significant hyperphagia at 2 h posttreatment, suggesting that endogenous stimulation of NAc core GLP-1Rs plays a role in limiting food intake. It has been suggested that GLP-1 can cause nausea, but we found that NAc core administration of GLP-1 did not cause a conditioned taste aversion to saccharin, suggesting that the anorexic effect of NAc core GLP-1 is not caused by malaise. Finally, we observed that NAc core injection of GLP-1 significantly increased c-Fos expression in the NAc core. We conclude that that GLP-1Rs in the NAc play a physiologic role in food intake control, and suggest that the GLP-1 projection to NAc core may link satiation signal processing in the hindbrain with forebrain processing of food reward.

The contribution of serotonin 5-HT2C and melanocortin-4 receptors to the satiety signaling of glucagon-like peptide 1 and liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist, in mice

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), an insulinotropic gastrointestinal peptide produced mainly from intestinal endocrine L-cells, and liraglutide, a GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist, induce satiety. The serotonin 5-HT2C receptor (5-HT2CR) and melanoroctin-4 receptor (MC4R) are involved in the regulation of food intake. Here we show that systemic administration of GLP-1 (50 and 200μg/kg)-induced anorexia was blunted in mice with a 5HT2CR null mutation, and was attenuated in mice with a heterozygous MC4R mutation. On the other hand, systemic administration of liraglutide (50 and 100μg/kg) suppressed food intake in mice lacking 5-HT2CR, mice with a heterozygous mutation of MC4R and wild-type mice matched for age. Moreover, once-daily consecutive intraperitoneal administration of liraglutide (100μg/kg) over 3days significantly suppressed daily food intake and body weight in mice with a heterozygous mutation of MC4R as well as wild-type mice. These findings suggest that GLP-1 and liraglutide induce anorexia via different central pathways.

GLP-1 and energy balance: an integrated model of short-term and long-term control

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), a peptide secreted from the intestine in response to nutrient ingestion, is perhaps best known for its effect on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. GLP-1 is also secreted from neurons in the caudal brainstem, and it is well-established that, in rodents, central administration of GLP-1 potently reduces food intake. Over the past decade, GLP-1 has emerged not only as an essential component of the system that regulates blood glucose levels but also as a viable therapeutic target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, although GLP-1 receptor agonists are known to produce modest but statistically significant weight loss in patients with diabetes mellitus, our knowledge of how endogenous GLP-1 regulates food intake and body weight remains limited. The purpose of this Review is to discuss the evolution of our understanding of how endogenous GLP-1 modulates energy balance. Specifically, we consider contributions of both central and peripheral GLP-1 and propose an integrated model of short-term and long-term control of energy balance. Finally, we discuss this model with respect to current GLP-1-based therapies and suggest ongoing research in order to maximize the effectiveness of GLP-1-based treatment of obesity.

The brainstem preproglucagon system in a non-human primate (Macaca mulatta)

The nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) contains a small population of neurons expressing preproglucagon. In these neurons preproglucagon is processed to the glucagon-like-peptides 1 and 2 (GLP-1 and GLP-2) and oxyntomodulin. Whereas the neuroanatomy of these neurons is well characterized in rodents the location and projection of preproglucagon neurons have never been described in primates. The purpose of the present study was to characterize the location of preproglucagon neurons and their projections in the non-human primate using radioactive in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. In situ hybridization revealed preproglucagon mRNA expressing neurons in the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract extending laterally through the intermediate reticular nucleus into the A1 area. Using an antibody raised against rat GLP-2, GLP-2-immunoreactive (-ir) cell bodies were found in the same areas as the preproglucagon mRNA. Only very few GLP-2-ir nerve fibers were observed in the caudal brainstem and mostly in the same areas as the GLP-2-ir cell bodies. The most prominent GLP-2-ir terminal fields were detected in the hypothalamus and rostrally in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis complex. In the hypothalamus, GLP-2-ir fibers arborized extensively in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) and the arcuate nucleus (Arc), the latter containing the densest fiber-plexus. The findings indicate that the brainstem preproglucagon neuronal system is highly conserved between rat and non-human primate with the exception of a much denser innervation of the mediobasal hypothalamus in the primate brain.

Preproglucagon neurons project widely to autonomic control areas in the mouse brain

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and its analogue exendin-4 inhibit food intake, reduce blood glucose levels and increase blood pressure and heart rate by acting on GLP-1 receptors in many brain regions. Within the CNS, GLP-1 is produced only by preproglucagon (PPG) neurons. We suggest that PPG neurons mediate the central effects of GLP-1 by modulating sympathetic and vagal outflow. We therefore analysed the projections of PPG neurons to brain sites involved in autonomic control. In transgenic mice expressing yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) under the control of the PPG promoter, we assessed YFP-immunoreactive innervation using an anti-GFP antiserum and avidin-biotin-peroxidase. PPG neurons were intensely YFP-immunoreactive and axons could be easily discriminated from dendrites. YFP-immunoreactive cell bodies occurred primarily within the caudal nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) with additional somata ventral to the hypoglossal nucleus, in raphé obscurus and in the intermediate reticular nucleus. The caudal NTS contained a dense network of dendrites, some of which extended into the area postrema. Immunoreactive axons were widespread throughout NTS, dorsal vagal nucleus and reticular nucleus with few in the hypoglossal nucleus and pyramids. The dorsomedial and paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei, ventrolateral periaqueductal grey and thalamic paraventricular nucleus exhibited heavy innervation. The area postrema, rostral ventrolateral medulla, pontine central grey, locus coeruleus/Barrington's nucleus, arcuate nucleus and the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis were moderately innervated. Only a few axons occurred in the amygdala and subfornical organ. Our results demonstrate that PPG neurons innervate primarily brain regions involved in autonomic control. Thus, central PPG neurons are ideally situated to modulate sympathetic and parasympathetic outflow through input at a variety of central sites. Our data also highlight that immunohistochemistry improves detection of neurons expressing YFP. Hence, animals in which specific populations of neurons have been genetically-modified to express fluorescent proteins are likely to prove ideal for anatomical studies.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 and the brain: central actions-central sources?

Glucagon-like peptide 1(GLP-1) is both an incretin released postprandially from the gut and a neuropeptide produced by select brainstem neurons. Its principal role is in the control of metabolic and cardiovascular functions, acting both in the periphery and within the central nervous system (CNS). Specifically, GLP-1 functions that involve the CNS include the suppression of food intake, the regulation of glucose homeostasis and the modulation of heart rate and blood pressure. Thus far, relatively little is known about the exact interplay between gut-derived and neuronally-produced GLP-1. This is partially due to the difficulty of identifying and targeting GLP-1 producing cells in vitro. This obstacle has recently been overcome by the generation of transgenic mice with fluorescently-tagged GLP-1 cells (mGLU-YFP mice). This review revisits what has been discovered about the central actions of GLP-1 during the past decade and puts it into context of the emerging findings from the mGLU-YFP mice.