Structural, electrochemical and photochemical investigation of the water-soluble tin(IV) tetrakis(2-N-hydroxyethyl-4-pyridinium)porphyrin photocatalyst

The water-soluble tin(IV) tetrakis(2-N-hydroxyethyl-4-pyridinium)porphyrin 1 photocatalyst was synthesized in good yield and its structure determined by single crystal X-ray crystallography. Electrochemical measurements on tin(IV) porphyrin 1 reveal a range of complex redox processes that are highly dependent on the pH and electrode used. The cathodic processes at ca. -0.6 to -0.8 V were assigned to electrochemical processes on the pyridyl moiety following differential pulse voltammetry and spectroelectrochemical investigation into the electrochemical properties of tin(IV) porphyrin. Photocatalytic experiment on tin(IV) porphyrin 1 under anaerobic conditions using triethanolamine (TEAO) as a sacrifical donor reveal a phlorin species as the main product which rapidly disappears upon exposure to oxygen. These results suggest that tin(IV) porphyrin π-radical anion is perhaps not the species responsible for the apparent ability tin(IV) porphyrins to photocatalytically reduce various substrates, including water to hydrogen.

Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Using 9-Phenyl-10-methyl-acridinium Ion Derivatives as Efficient Electron Mediators and Ru-Based Catalysts

Photocatalytic hydrogen evolution has been performed by photoirradiation (λ > 420 nm) of a mixed solution of a phthalate buffer and acetonitrile (MeCN) (1 : 1 (v/v)) containing EDTA disodium salt (EDTA), [RuII(bpy)3]2+ (bpy = 2,2′-bipyiridine), 9-phenyl-10-methylacridinium ion (Ph–Acr+–Me), and Pt nanoparticles (PtNPs) as a sacrificial electron donor, a photosensitiser, an electron mediator, and a hydrogen-evolution catalyst, respectively. The hydrogen-evolution rate of the reaction system employing Ph–Acr+–Me as an electron mediator was more than 10 times higher than that employing a conventional electron mediator of methyl viologen. In this reaction system, ruthenium nanoparticles (RuNPs) also act as a hydrogen-evolution catalyst as well as the PtNPs. The immobilization of the efficient electron mediator on the surface of a hydrogen-evolution catalyst is expected to enhance the hydrogen-evolution rate. The methyl group of Ph–Acr+–Me was chemically modified with a carboxy group (Ph–Acr+–CH2COOH) to interact with metal oxide surfaces. In the photocatalytic hydrogen-evolution system using Ph–Acr+–CH2COOH and Pt-loaded ruthenium oxide nanoparticles (Pt/RuO2NPs) as electron donor and hydrogen-evolution catalyst, respectively, the hydrogen-evolution rate was 1.5–2 times faster than the reaction system using Ph–Acr+–Me as an electron mediator. On the other hand, no enhancement in the hydrogen-evolution rate was observed in the reaction system using Ph–Acr+–CH2COOH with PtNPs. Thus, the enhancement of hydrogen-evolution rate originated from the favourable interaction between Ph–Acr+–CH2COOH and RuO2NPs. These results suggest that the use of Ph–Acr+–Me as an electron mediator enables the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution using PtNPs and RuNPs as hydrogen-evolution catalysts, and the chemical modification of Ph–Acr+–Me with a carboxy group paves the way to utilise a supporting catalyst, Pt loaded on a metal oxide, as a hydrogen-evolution catalyst.

Transformation of carbon dioxide with homogeneous transition-metal catalysts: a molecular solution to a global challenge?

A plethora of methods have been developed over the years so that carbon dioxide can be used as a reactant in organic synthesis. Given the abundance of this compound, its utilization in synthetic chemistry, particularly on an industrial scale, is still at a rather low level. In the last 35 years, considerable research has been performed to find catalytic routes to transform CO(2) into carboxylic acids, esters, lactones, and polymers in an economic way. This Review presents an overview of the available homogeneous catalytic routes that use carbon dioxide as a C(1) carbon source for the synthesis of industrial products as well as fine chemicals.

High turnover in a photocatalytic system for water reduction to produce hydrogen using a Ru, Rh, Ru photoinitiated electron collector

Covalent coupling of Ru(II) light absorbers to a Rh(III) electron collecting site through polyazine bridging ligands affords photocatalytic production of H(2) in the presence of visible light and a sacrificial electron donor. A robust photocatalytic system displaying a high turnover of the photocatalyst has been developed using the photoinitiated electron collector [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)RhBr(2)](5+) (bpy=2,2'-bipyridine; dpp=2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine) and N,N-dimethylaniline in DMF/H(2)O. Studies have shown that increased [DMA], the headspace volume, and the use of DMF solvent improves the systems performance and stability providing mechanistic insight into the deactivation routes of the photocatalytic system. Photolysis of the system at 460 nm generates 20 mL of H(2) in 19.5 h with a maximum Φ=0.023 based on H(2) produced and an overall Φ=0.014 and 280 turnovers of the photocatalyst. The photocatalytic system also displays long-term photostability with 30 mL of H(2) generated and 420 turnovers in 50 h under the same conditions. Prolonged photolysis provides 820 mol H(2) per mole of catalyst.

A structurally diverse Ru(II),Pt(II) tetrametallic motif for photoinitiated electron collection and photocatalytic hydrogen production

Coupling a reactive metal to light absorbers affords molecular devices for photoinitiated electron collection and photocatalytic conversion of substrates to fuels. A new Ru(II),Pt(II) tetrametallic supramolecule, [{(phen)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)Ru(dpq)PtCl(2)](PF(6))(6), and the trimetallic precursors, [{(phen)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)RuCl(2)](PF(6))(4) and [{(phen)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)Ru(dpq)](PF(6))(6), have been synthesized, and their redox, spectroscopic, spectroelectrochemical, photophysical and photocatalytic properties studied. They efficiently absorb UV and visible light. The electrochemistry of [{(phen)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)Ru(dpq)PtCl(2)](PF(6))(6) suggests a lowest-lying terminal Ru→dpq charge-separated state that quenches the emission of the parent complex with non-unity population of the emissive (3)MLCT excited state. Photolysis of [{(phen)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)Ru(dpq)PtCl(2)](6+) at 470 nm with DMA gives multielectron reduction, storing electrons in a new manner on the central (dpp)(2)Ru(II)(dpq) moiety. Addition of H(2)O to the photolysis system produces 21 μmol of H(2) in 5 h, with 115 turnovers of the tetrametallic photocatalyst.