Molecular enzymology of carnitine transfer and transport

Putative irreversible inhibitors of the human sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (hASBT; SLC10A2) support the role of transmembrane domain 7 in substrate binding/translocation

PURPOSE

To explore the involvement of transmembrane domain (TM) 7 of the human apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (hASBT) on bile acid (BA) binding/translocation, using two electrophilic BA derivatives as molecular probes.

METHODS

Two electrophilic derivatives of chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) were designed, synthesized and evaluated for their ability to inactivate hASBT, and the human organic cation/carnitine transporter (hOCTN2) as a control (i.e. a non-BA transporting model). The ability of electrophilic derivatives to interact with hASBT was evaluated by 2-aminoethyl-methanethiosulfonate (MTSEA)-biotin labeling of thiol groups in TM7 cysteine mutants.

RESULTS

Unlike native BAs, the electrophilic CDCA derivatives specifically inactivated hASBT, but not hOCTN2, and inhibited hASBT in a time- and concentration-dependent fashion. Preincubation of hASBT Cys-mutants in the exofacial half of TM7 with reactive electrophilic probes blocked transporter biotinylation by MTSEA-biotin, similar to 2-(trimethylammonium)ethyl-methanethiosulfonate (MTSET) blocking. This blocking pattern differed from that produced by native BAs, which exposed exofacial TM7 residues, thereby increasing staining.

CONCLUSION

Kinetic and biochemical data indicate these novel electrophilic BAs are potent and specific irreversible inhibitors of hASBT and offer new evidence about the role of TM7 in binding/translocation of bile acids.

Acetyl-L-carnitine supplementation reverses the age-related decline in carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1) activity in interfibrillar mitochondria without changing the L-carnitine content in the rat heart

The aging heart displays a loss of bioenergetic reserve capacity partially mediated through lower fatty acid utilization. We investigated whether the age-related impairment of cardiac fatty acid catabolism occurs, at least partially, through diminished levels of L-carnitine, which would adversely affect carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1), the rate-limiting enzyme for fatty acyl-CoA uptake into mitochondria for β-oxidation. Old (24-28 mos) Fischer 344 rats were fed±acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR; 1.5% [w/v]) for up to four weeks prior to sacrifice and isolation of cardiac interfibrillar (IFM) and subsarcolemmal (SSM) mitochondria. IFM displayed a 28% (p<0.05) age-related loss of CPT1 activity, which correlated with a decline (41%, p<0.05) in palmitoyl-CoA-driven state 3 respiration. Interestingly, SSM had preserved enzyme function and efficiently utilized palmitate. Analysis of IFM CPT1 kinetics showed both diminished V(max) and K(m) (60% and 49% respectively, p<0.05) when palmitoyl-CoA was the substrate. However, no age-related changes in enzyme kinetics were evident with respect to L-carnitine. ALCAR supplementation restored CPT1 activity in heart IFM, but not apparently through remediation of L-carnitine levels. Rather, ALCAR influenced enzyme activity over time, potentially by modulating conditions in the aging heart that ultimately affect palmitoyl-CoA binding and CPT1 kinetics.

The effect of carnitine on Arabidopsis development and recovery in salt stress conditions

Carnitine exists in all living organisms where it plays diverse roles. In animals and yeast, it is implicated in lipid metabolism and is also associated with oxidative stress tolerance. In bacteria, it is a major player in osmotic stress tolerance. We investigate the carnitine function in plants and our present work shows that carnitine enhances the development and recovery of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings subjected to salt stress. Biological data show that exogenous carnitine supplies improve the germination and survival rates of seedlings grown on salt-enriched medium, in a manner comparable to proline. Both compounds are shown to improve seedling survival under oxidative constraint meaning that they may act on salt stress through antioxidant properties. A transcriptome analysis of seedlings treated with exogenous carnitine reveals that it modulates the expression of genes involved in water stress and abscisic acid responses. Analyses of the abscisic acid mutants, aba1-1 and abi1-1, indicate that carnitine and proline may act through a modulation of the ABA pathway.

Safety, efficacy and physiological actions of a lysine-free, arginine-rich formula to treat glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency: focus on cerebral amino acid influx

Striatal degeneration from glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (glutaric aciduria type 1, GA1) is associated with cerebral formation and entrapment of glutaryl-CoA and its derivatives that depend on cerebral lysine influx. In 2006 we designed a lysine-free study formula enriched with arginine to selectively block lysine transport across cerebral endothelia and thereby limit glutaryl-CoA production by brain. Between 2006 and present, we treated twelve consecutive children with study formula (LYSx group) while holding all other treatment practices constant. Clinical and biochemical outcomes were compared to 25 GA1 patients (PROx group) treated between 1995 and 2005 with natural protein restriction (dietary lysine/arginine ratio of 1.7±0.3 mg:mg). We used published kinetic parameters of the y+and LAT1 blood-brain barrier transporters to model the influx of amino acids into the brain. Arginine fortification to achieve a mean dietary lysine/arginine ratio of 0.7±0.2 mg:mg was neuroprotective. All 12 LYSx patients are physically and neurologically healthy after 28 aggregate patient-years of follow up (current ages 28±21 months) and there were no adverse events related to formula use. This represents a 36% reduction of neurological risk (95% confidence interval 14-52%, p=0.018) that we can directly attribute to altered amino acid intake. During the first year of life, 20% lower lysine intake and two-fold higher arginine intake by LYSx patients were associated with 50% lower plasma lysine, 3-fold lower plasma lysine/arginine concentration ratio, 42% lower mean calculated cerebral lysine influx, 54% higher calculated cerebral arginine influx, 15-26% higher calculated cerebral influx of several anaplerotic precursors (isoleucine, threonine, methionine, and leucine), 50% less 3-hydroxyglutarate excretion, and a 3-fold lower hospitalization rate (0.8 versus 2.3 hospitalizations per patient per year). The relationship between arginine fortification and plasma lysine indicates that transport competition exists at both cerebrovascular and gastrointestinal barriers, suggesting their co-administration is key to efficacy. Monitoring the ratio between lysine and arginine in diet and plasma may prove a useful strategy for treating children with GA1.

A combination of (ω-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols and L-carnitine reduces the plasma lipid levels and increases the expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and HepG2 cells

BACKGROUND

Hyperlipidemia and obesity are associated with metabolic syndrome and increased risk in developing diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Nutritional supplements, e.g. L-carnitine and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), exert lipid-lowering effects. Hence, the hypothesis that dietetic intervention reduces plasma lipid levels and metabolic enzymes in overweight hyperlipidemic subjects was tested.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

In a prospective placebo-controlled double-blind study in 22 moderately hyperlipidemic obese humans consuming low-fat yoghurt enriched with a combination of low-dose PUFAs, polyphenols and L-carnitine (PPC) twice a day for 12 weeks were compared to 20 matching participants ingesting low-fat yoghurt. The effects on plasma lipids and expression of enzymes involved in regulation of fatty acid oxidation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and HepG2 cells were evaluated.

RESULTS

PPC consumption led to significantly reduced plasma free fatty acid (-29%) and triglyceride (-24%) concentrations (each p < 0.05). PPC application increased significantly peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) mRNA abundances and those of PPARα target genes (carnitine palmitoyltransferases-1, CPT1A and CPT1B, carnitine acetyltransferase and organic cation transporter 2; each p < 0.05) in PBMCs. In controls, plasma lipid levels and PBMC gene expression did not change. These findings were substantiated by the results of cell culture experiments in HepG2 cells.

CONCLUSION

Supplementation of PPC had marked lipid-lowering effects and PBMC gene expression profiles seemed to reflect nutrition-related metabolic changes.

L-Carnitine induces recovery of liver lipid metabolism in cancer cachexia

Cancer cachexia causes metabolic alterations with a marked effect on hepatic lipid metabolism. L-Carnitine modulates lipid metabolism and its supplementation has been proposed as a therapeutic strategy in many diseases. In the present study, the effects of L-carnitine supplementation on gene expression and on liver lipid metabolism-related proteins was investigated in cachectic tumour-bearing rats. Wistar rats were assigned to receive 1 g/kg of L-carnitine or saline. After 14 days, supplemented and control animals were assigned to a control (N), control supplemented with L-carnitine (CN), tumour-bearing Walker 256 carcinosarcoma (TB) and tumour-bearing supplemented with L-carnitine (CTB) group. The mRNA expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I and II (CPT I and II), microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP), liver fatty acid-binding protein (L-FABP), fatty acid translocase (FAT/CD36), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) and organic cation transporter 2 (OCTN2) was assessed, and the maximal activity of CPT I and II in the liver measured, along with plasma and liver triacylglycerol content. The gene expression of MTP, and CPT I catalytic activity were reduced in TB, who also showed increased liver (150%) and plasma (3.3-fold) triacylglycerol content. L-Carnitine supplementation was able to restore these parameters back to control values (p<0.05). These data show that L-carnitine preserves hepatic lipid metabolism in tumour-bearing animals, suggesting its supplementation to be of potential interest in cachexia.

The effects of long- or medium-chain fat diets on glucose tolerance and myocellular content of lipid intermediates in rats

Accumulation of triacylglycerols (TAGs) and acylcarnitines in skeletal muscle upon high-fat (HF) feeding is the resultant of fatty acid uptake and oxidation and is associated with insulin resistance. As medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) are preferentially β-oxidized over long-chain fatty acids, we examined the effects of medium-chain TAGs (MCTs) and long-chain TAGs (LCTs) on muscle lipid storage and whole-body glucose tolerance. Rats fed a low-fat (LF), HFLCT, or an isocaloric HFMCT diet displayed a similar body weight gain over 8 weeks of treatment. Only HFLCT increased myocellular TAG (42.3 ± 4.9, 71.9 ± 6.7, and 48.5 ± 6.5 µmol/g for LF, HFLCT, and HFMCT, respectively, P < 0.05) and long-chain acylcarnitine content (P < 0.05). Neither HF diet increased myocellular diacylglycerol (DAG) content. Intraperitoneal (IP) glucose tolerance tests (1.5 g/kg) revealed a significantly decreased glucose tolerance in the HFMCT compared to the HFLCT-fed rats (802 ± 40, 772 ± 18, and 886 ± 18 area under the curve for LF, HFLCT, and HFMCT, respectively, P < 0.05). Finally, no differences in myocellular insulin signaling after bolus insulin injection (10 U/kg) were observed between LF, HFLCT, or HFMCT-fed rats. These results show that accumulation of TAGs and acylcarnitines in skeletal muscle in the absence of body weight gain do not impede myocellular insulin signaling or whole-body glucose intolerance.

Long-term effects of neonatal treatment with dexamethasone, L-carnitine, and combinations thereof in rats

Because L-carnitine (L-CAR) is a potential substitute for neonatal dexamethasone (DEX) with respect to the prevention of long-term side effects, rats were treated on d 1, 2, and 3 after birth with saline, DEX, L-CAR, half the dose of DEX, and L-CAR + half DEX. DEX led to growth retardation, increased mortality, and severe kidney damage at 50 wk of age. L-CAR had no negative effects on growth, kidney function at 50 wk, and survival at 101 wk. Growth retardation was induced transiently by half DEX and permanently by L-CAR + half DEX, slightly reduced kidney function but no reduced life span was found in both these groups. Except for the DEX group, blood glucose levels were normal at 50 wk in all groups. A serendipitous finding was that L-CAR treatment caused one-third less food intake; however, these rats maintained normal body weight. In conclusion, L-CAR, a lower dose of DEX, and their combination caused less negative effects in later life. Because L-CAR + half DEX had a negative effect on growth, attention to monitor L-CAR levels during DEX treatment of preterm newborns seems to be justified. The finding that neonatal L-CAR caused reduced food intake in later life warrants further investigation.

Mechanism for the inhibition of the carboxyltransferase domain of acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase by pinoxaden

Acetyl-CoA carboxylases (ACCs) are crucial metabolic enzymes and have been targeted for drug development against obesity, diabetes, and other diseases. The carboxyltransferase (CT) domain of this enzyme is the site of action for three different classes of herbicides, as represented by haloxyfop, tepraloxydim, and pinoxaden. Our earlier studies have demonstrated that haloxyfop and tepraloxydim bind in the CT active site at the interface of its dimer. However, the two compounds probe distinct regions of the dimer interface, sharing primarily only two common anchoring points of interaction with the enzyme. We report here the crystal structure of the CT domain of yeast ACC in complex with pinoxaden at 2.8-Å resolution. Despite their chemical diversity, pinoxaden has a similar binding mode as tepraloxydim and requires a small conformational change in the dimer interface for binding. Crystal structures of the CT domain in complex with all three classes of herbicides confirm the importance of the two anchoring points for herbicide binding. The structures also provide a foundation for understanding the molecular basis of the herbicide resistance mutations and cross resistance among the herbicides, as well as for the design and development of new inhibitors against plant and human ACCs.

A general introduction to the biochemistry of mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation

Over the years, the mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation (FAO) pathway has been characterised at the biochemical level as well as the molecular biological level. FAO plays a pivotal role in energy homoeostasis, but it competes with glucose as the primary oxidative substrate. The mechanisms behind this so-called glucose-fatty acid cycle operate at the hormonal, transcriptional and biochemical levels. Inherited defects for most of the FAO enzymes have been identified and characterised and are currently included in neonatal screening programmes. Symptoms range from hypoketotic hypoglycaemia to skeletal and cardiac myopathies. The pathophysiology of these diseases is still not completely understood, hampering optimal treatment. Studies of patients and mouse models will contribute to our understanding of the pathogenesis and will ultimately lead to better treatment.

Cysteine supplementation reverses methionine restriction effects on rat adiposity: significance of stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase

Stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1) is a key enzyme in fatty acid and energy metabolism, but little is known about its nutritional regulation. Dietary methionine restriction in rats decreases hepatic Scd1 mRNA and protein, increases energy expenditure, and decreases fat-pad mass/body-weight% (FM/BW%). In humans, plasma concentrations of the methionine product, cysteine, are associated with obesity. To determine which consequences of methionine-restriction are mediated by decreased cysteine availability, we monitored obesity-related variables in 4 dietary groups for 12 weeks: control-fed (CF), methionine-restricted (MR), MR supplemented with 0.5% l-cysteine (MR+Cys) and CF+Cys rats. MR lowered weight gain and FM/BW% despite higher food intake/weight than CF, and lowered serum cysteine. Hepatic Scd1 expression was decreased, with decreased serum SCD1 activity indices (calculated from serum fatty acid profile), decreased serum insulin, leptin and triglycerides, and higher adiponectin. Cysteine supplementation (MR+Cys) essentially reversed all these phenotypes and raised serum cysteine but not methionine to CF levels. Adding extra cysteine to control diet (CF+Cys) increased serum taurine but did not affect serum cysteine, lipids, proteins, or total weight gain. FM/BW% and serum leptin were modestly decreased. Our results indicate that anti-obesity effects of MR are caused by low cysteine and that dietary sulfur amino acid composition contributes to SCD1 regulation.

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2: New insights on the substrate specificity and implications for acylcarnitine profiling

Over the last years acylcarnitines have emerged as important biomarkers for the diagnosis of mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation (mFAO) and branched-chain amino acid oxidation disorders assuming they reflect the potentially toxic acyl-CoA species, accumulating intramitochondrially upstream of the enzyme block. However, the origin of these intermediates still remains poorly understood. A possibility exists that carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2 (CPT2), member of the carnitine shuttle, is involved in the intramitochondrial synthesis of acylcarnitines from accumulated acyl-CoA metabolites. To address this issue, the substrate specificity profile of CPT2 was herein investigated. Saccharomyces cerevisiae homogenates expressing human CPT2 were incubated with saturated and unsaturated C2-C26 acyl-CoAs and branched-chain amino acid oxidation intermediates. The produced acylcarnitines were quantified by ESI-MS/MS. We show that CPT2 is active with medium (C8-C12) and long-chain (C14-C18) acyl-CoA esters, whereas virtually no activity was found with short- and very long-chain acyl-CoAs or with branched-chain amino acid oxidation intermediates. Trans-2-enoyl-CoA intermediates were also found to be poor substrates for CPT2. Inhibition studies performed revealed that trans-2-C16:1-CoA may act as a competitive inhibitor of CPT2 (K(i) of 18.8 microM). The results obtained clearly demonstrate that CPT2 is able to reverse its physiological mechanism for medium and long-chain acyl-CoAs contributing to the abnormal acylcarnitines profiles characteristic of most mFAO disorders. The finding that trans-2-enoyl-CoAs are poorly handled by CPT2 may explain the absence of trans-2-enoyl-carnitines in the profiles of mitochondrial trifunctional protein deficient patients, the only defect where they accumulate, and the discrepancy between the clinical features of this and other long-chain mFAO disorders such as very long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency.

Metabolism of acetyl-L-carnitine for energy and neurotransmitter synthesis in the immature rat brain

Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) is an endogenous metabolic intermediate that facilitates the influx and efflux of acetyl groups across the mitochondrial inner membrane. Exogenously administered ALCAR has been used as a nutritional supplement and also as an experimental drug with reported neuroprotective properties and effects on brain metabolism. The aim of this study was to determine oxidative metabolism of ALCAR in the immature rat forebrain. Metabolism was studied in 21-22 day-old rat brain at 15, 60 and 120 min after an intraperitoneal injection of [2-(13)C]acetyl-L-carnitine. The amount, pattern, and fractional enrichment of (13)C-labeled metabolites were determined by ex vivo(13)C-NMR spectroscopy. Metabolism of the acetyl moiety from [2-(13)C]ALCAR via the tricarboxylic acid cycle led to incorporation of label into the C4, C3 and C2 positions of glutamate (GLU), glutamine (GLN) and GABA. Labeling patterns indicated that [2-(13)C]ALCAR was metabolized by both neurons and glia; however, the percent enrichment was higher in GLN and GABA than in GLU, demonstrating high metabolism in astrocytes and GABAergic neurons. Incorporation of label into the C3 position of alanine, both C3 and C2 positions of lactate, and the C1 and C5 positions of glutamate and glutamine demonstrated that [2-(13)C]ALCAR was actively metabolized via the pyruvate recycling pathway. The enrichment of metabolites with (13)C from metabolism of ALCAR was highest in alanine C3 (11%) and lactate C3 (10%), with considerable enrichment in GABA C4 (8%), GLN C3 (approximately 4%) and GLN C5 (5%). Overall, our (13)C-NMR studies reveal that the acetyl moiety of ALCAR is metabolized for energy in both astrocytes and neurons and the label incorporated into the neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA. Cycling ratios showed prolonged cycling of carbon from the acetyl moiety of ALCAR in the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Labeling of compounds formed from metabolism of [2-(13)C]ALCAR via the pyruvate recycling pathway was higher than values reported for other precursors and may reflect high activity of this pathway in the developing brain. This is, to our knowledge, the first study to determine the extent and pathways of ALCAR metabolism for energy and neurotransmitter biosynthesis in the brain.

Regulatory enzymes of mitochondrial beta-oxidation as targets for treatment of the metabolic syndrome

Insulin sensitizers like metformin generally act through pathways triggered by adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase. Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1) controls mitochondrial beta-oxidation and is inhibited by malonyl-CoA, the product of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC). The adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase-ACC-CPT1 axis tightly regulates mitochondrial long-chain fatty acid oxidation. Evidence indicates that ACC2, the isoform located in close proximity to CPT1, is the major regulator of CPT1 activity. ACC2 as well as CPT1 are therefore potential targets to treat components of the metabolic syndrome such as obesity and insulin resistance. Reversible inhibitors of the liver isoform of CPT1, developed to prevent ketoacidosis and hyperglycemia, have been found to be associated with side effects like hepatic steatosis. However, stimulation of systemic CPT1 activity may be an attractive means to accelerate peripheral fatty acid oxidation and hence improve insulin sensitivity. Stimulation of CPT1 can be achieved by elimination or inhibition of ACC2 activity and through activating transcription factors like peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and their protein partners. The latter leads to enhanced CPT1 gene expression. Recent developments are discussed, including a recently identified CPT1 isoform, i.e. CPT1C. This protein is highly expressed in the brain and may provide a target for new tools to prevent obesity.

Hypolipidemic effects of proanthocyanidins and their underlying biochemical and molecular mechanisms

Proanthocyanidins are the most abundant polyphenols in human diets. Epidemiological studies strongly suggest that proanthocyanidins protect against cardiovascular diseases. Despite the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of these flavonoids, one of the mechanisms by which proanthocyanidins exert their cardiovascular protection is improving lipid homeostasis. Animal studies demonstrate that proanthocyanidins reduce the plasma levels of atherogenic apolipoprotein B-triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and LDL-cholesterol but increase antiatherogenic HDL-cholesterol. The results in humans, however, are less clear. This review summarizes the results that have been published on plasma triglyceride, apolipoprotein B, HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels in humans and animal models in response to proanthocyanidin extracts and proanthocyanidin-rich foods. The physiological processes and biochemical pathways that are related to lipid homeostasis and affected by proanthocyanidin consumption are also discussed. Intestinal lipid absorption, chylomicron secretion by the intestine and VLDL secretion by the liver are the processes that are most repressed by proanthocyanidins, which, therefore, induce hypolipidemic effects.

Serum carnitine levels in childhood leukemia

In patients with malignancies, the system of carnitine seems abnormally expressed. The serum total, free, and acyl carnitine levels in 40 children and adolescents with acute leukemia were determined using electrospray tandem mass spectrometry in 4 different phases of the disease: at the diagnosis, 1 year after the initiation of chemotherapy, at the end of treatment, and 2.4+/-1.668 years after the completion of chemotherapy. The age, sex, hemoglobin values, serum biochemistry, somatometric features of the patients, and the risk group of the disease were examined. Although the carnitine levels were found higher in patients compared with the control group from diagnosis to treatment completion, statistically significant decrease in carnitine levels was observed in patients within different phases of the disease especially during induction and consolidation treatment (phase A to B) for both free and total (P=0.023) carnitine. In addition, a statistically significant recovery in carnitine levels was observed between phase B (end of intensive chemotherapy) and D (some years after the completion of treatment) for free and total carnitine (P=0.054 and 0.035, respectively). No statistical correlation was documented between the carnitine levels and somatometric parameters or other variables studied. In conclusion, a significant transient decrease in the levels of carnitine during the treatment was observed in children with acute leukemia. Further studies are required to clarify the role of carnitine status in patients with malignancies and possibly the necessity of carnitine supplementation during chemotherapy administration.

Cerebral haemodynamics in patients with glutaryl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency

In glutaric aciduria type 1, glutaryl-coenzyme A and its derivatives are produced from intracerebral lysine and entrapped at high concentrations within the brain, where they interfere with energy metabolism. Biochemical toxicity is thought to trigger stroke-like striatal degeneration in susceptible children under 2 years of age. Here, we explore vascular derangements that might also contribute to brain damage. We studied injured and non-injured Amish glutaric aciduria type 1 patients using magnetic resonance imaging (n = 26), transcranial Doppler ultrasound (n = 35) and perfusion computed tomography (n = 6). All glutaric aciduria type 1 patients had wide middle cerebral, internal carotid and basilar arteries. In non-injured patients, middle cerebral artery velocities were 18-26% below control values throughout late infancy and early childhood, whereas brain-injured children had an early velocity peak (18 months) and low values thereafter. Perfusion scans from six patients showed that tissue blood flow did not undergo a normal developmental surge. We observed four different perfusion patterns. (i) Three children (two non-injured) had low cerebral blood flow, prolonged mean transit time, elevated cerebral blood volume and high mean transit time/cerebral blood flow and cerebral blood volume/cerebral blood flow ratios. This pattern optimizes substrate extraction at any given flow rate but indicates low perfusion pressure and limited autoregulatory reserve. (ii) Ten hours after the onset of striatal necrosis in an 8-month-old infant, mean transit time and cerebral blood volume were low relative to cerebral blood flow, which varied markedly from region to region. This pattern indicates disturbed autoregulation, regional perfusion pressure gradients, or redistribution of flow from functional capillaries to non-exchanging vessels. (iii) In an infant with atrophic putaminal lesions, striatal flow was normal but mean transit time and cerebral blood volume were low, consistent with perfusion in excess of metabolic demand. (iv) Finally, a brain-injured adult with glutaric aciduria type 1 had regional perfusion values within the normal range, but the putamina, which normally have the highest regional perfusion, had cerebral blood flow values 24% below cortical grey matter. Although metabolic toxicity appears central to the pathophysiology of striatal necrosis, cerebrovascular changes probably also contribute to the process. These changes may be the primary cause of expanded cerebrospinal fluid volume in newborns, intracranial and retinal haemorrhages in infants and interstitial white matter oedema in children and adults. This pilot study suggests important new areas for clinical investigation.

Computational simulations of the interactions between acetyl-coenzyme-A carboxylase and clodinafop: resistance mechanism due to active and nonactive site mutations

Grass weed populations resistant to acetyl-CoA carboxylase-inhibiting (ACCase; EC 6.4.1.2) herbicides represent a major problem for the sustainable development of modern agriculture. In the present study, extensive computational simulations, including homology modeling, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and molecular mechanics-Poisson-Boltzmann surface area (MM/PBSA) calculations, have been carried out to uncover the detailed molecular mechanism of Alopecurus myosuroides resistance to clodinafop, a commercial herbicide targeting ACCase. All the computational model and energetic results indicated that W374C, I388N, D425G, and G443A mutations have great effects on the conformational change of the binding pocket and the hydrogen-bonding interactions. The pi-pi interaction between ligand and the residue of Phe377 and Tyr161', playing an important contribution to the binding affinity, were decreased after mutations. In addition, the hydrogen-bonding interactions between clodinafop and the residues (Ile158' and Ala54') disappeared or decreased significantly upon mutation. As a result, the mutant-type ACCase has a lower affinity for the inhibitor binding than the wild-type enzyme, which accounts for the molecular basis of herbicidal resistance. The structural and mechanistic insights obtained from the present study will provide a valuable clue for future designing of a promising inhibitor to reduce drug resistance associated with both active and nonactive site mutations.

Hepatic uptake of gamma-butyrobetaine, a precursor of carnitine biosynthesis, in rats

Gamma-butyrobetaine (GBB) is a precursor in the biosynthesis of carnitine, which plays an important role in the beta-oxidation of fatty acids, and is converted to carnitine by gamma-butyrobetaine dioxygenase (BBD) predominantly in liver. We investigated the molecular mechanism of hepatic uptake of GBB in rat hepatocytes. Cellular localization of rat Octn2 (rOctn2:Slc22A5) was studied by Western blot analysis. Uptake of deuterated GBB (d(3)-GBB) was examined in HEK293 cells expressing rOctn2 (HEK293/rOctn2) and freshly isolated rat hepatocytes. d(3)-GBB was quantified by use of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Western blot analysis demonstrated an expression of OCTN2 protein in hepatic basolateral membrane but not in bile canalicular membrane fraction. Furthermore, we found that d(3)-GBB was taken up by rOctn2 in an Na(+)-dependent manner with K(m) value of 13 microM. The apparent K(m) value for d(3)-GBB transport in freshly isolated rat hepatocytes was 9 microM. d(3)-GBB uptake by the rat hepatocytes was inhibited by gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to 30% of the control, whereas it was inhibited by carnitine to 62% of the control, even at 500 microM. Furthermore, d(3)-GBB uptake by rat hepatocytes was decreased by 45% with rat Gat2 (Slc6A13, a major liver GABA transporter) silenced by the microRNA method. Accordingly, the present study clearly demonstrates that GBB is taken up by hepatocytes for carnitine biosynthesis not only via Octn2 but also via the GABA transporter, possibly Gat2.

Effects of long-term mildronate treatment on cardiac and liver functions in rats

Mildronate is a cardioprotective drug that improves cardiac function during ischaemia and functions by lowering l-carnitine concentration in body tissues and modulating myocardial energy metabolism. The aim of the present study was to characterise cardiovascular function and liver condition after long-term mildronate treatment in rats. In addition, changes in the plasma lipid profile, along with changes in the concentration of mildronate, l-carnitine and gamma-butyrobetaine were monitored in the rat tissues. Wistar rats were perorally treated daily with a mildronate dose of either 100, 200 or 400 mg/kg for 4, 8 or 12 weeks. The l-carnitine-lowering effect of mildronate was dose-dependent. However, the carnitine levels reached a plateau after about four weeks of treatment. During the additional weeks of treatment, the carnitine levels were not considerably changed. The obtained results provide evidence that even a high dose of mildronate does not alter cardiovascular parameters and the function of isolated rat hearts. Furthermore, the histological evaluation of liver tissue cryosections and measurement of biochemical markers of hepatic toxicity showed that all the measured values were within the normal reference range. Our results provide evidence that long-term mildronate administration induces significant changes in carnitine homeostasis, but it is not associated with cardiac impairment or disturbances in liver function.

Association of the CPT1B gene with skeletal muscle fat infiltration in Afro-Caribbean men

Skeletal muscle fat is greater in African ancestry individuals compared with whites, is associated with diabetes, and is a heritable polygenic trait. However, specific genetic factors contributing to skeletal muscle fat in humans remain to be defined. Muscle carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1B (CPT1B) is a key enzyme in the regulation of skeletal muscle mitochondrial beta-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids, and as such is a reasonable biological candidate gene for skeletal muscle fat accumulation. Therefore, we examined the association of three nonsynonymous coding variants in CPT1B (G531L, I66V, and S427C; a fourth, A320G, could not be genotyped) and quantitative computed tomography measured tibia skeletal muscle composition and BMI among 1,774 Afro-Caribbean men aged > or =40, participants of the population-based Tobago Health Study. For all variants, no significant differences were observed for BMI or total adipose tissue. Among individuals who were homozygous for the minor allele at G531L or I66V, intermuscular adipose tissue (IMAT) was 87% (P = 0.03) and 54% lower (P = 0.03), respectively. In contrast, subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) was 11% (P = 0.017) and 7% (P = 0.049) higher, respectively, than among individuals without these genotypes. These associations were independent of age, body size, and muscle area. Finally, no individuals with type 2 diabetes were found among those who were homozygous for the minor allele of either at G531L and I66V whereas 14-18% of men with the major alleles had type 2 diabetes (P = 0.03 and 0.007, respectively). Our results suggest a novel association between common nonsynonymous coding variants in CPT1B and ectopic skeletal muscle fat among middle-aged and older African ancestry men.

Muscle acylcarnitines during short-term fasting in lean healthy men

The transition from the fed to the fasted resting state is characterized by, among other things, changes in lipid metabolism and peripheral insulin resistance. Acylcarnitines have been suggested to play a role in insulin resistance, as well as other long-chain fatty acid metabolites. Plasma levels of long-chain acylcarnitines increase during fasting, but this is unknown for muscle long-chain acylcarnitines. In the present study we investigated whether muscle long-chain acylcarnitines increase during fasting and we investigated their relationship with glucose/fat oxidation and insulin sensitivity in lean healthy humans. After 14 h and 62 h of fasting, glucose fluxes, substrate oxidation, and plasma and muscle acylcarnitines were measured before and during a hyperinsulinaemic–euglycaemic clamp. Hyperinsulinaemia decreased long-chain muscle acylcarnitines after 14 h of fasting, but not after 62 h of fasting. In both the basal state and during the clamp, glucose oxidation was lower and fatty acid oxidation was higher after 62 h compared with 14 h of fasting. Absolute changes in glucose and fatty acid oxidation in the basal compared with hyperinsulinaemic state were not different. Muscle long-chain acylcarnitines did not correlate with glucose oxidation, fatty acid oxidation or insulin-mediated peripheral glucose uptake. After 62 h of fasting, the suppression of muscle long-chain acylcarnitines by insulin was attenuated compared with 14 h of fasting. Muscle long-chain acylcarnitines do not unconditionally reflect fatty acid oxidation. The higher fatty acid oxidation during hyperinsulinaemia after 62 h compared with 14 h of fasting, although the absolute decrease in fatty acid oxidation was not different, suggests a different set point.

Metabolic profiling of PPARalpha-/- mice reveals defects in carnitine and amino acid homeostasis that are partially reversed by oral carnitine supplementation

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARalpha) is a master transcriptional regulator of beta-oxidation and a prominent target of hypolipidemic drugs. To gain deeper insights into the systemic consequences of impaired fat catabolism, we used quantitative, mass spectrometry-based metabolic profiling to investigate the fed-to-fasted transition in PPARalpha(+/+) and PPARalpha(-/-) mice. Compared to PPARalpha(+/+) animals, acylcarnitine profiles of PPARalpha(-/-) mice revealed 2- to 4-fold accumulation of long-chain species in the plasma, whereas short-chain species were reduced by as much as 69% in plasma, liver, and skeletal muscle. These results reflect a metabolic bottleneck downstream of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1, a mitochondrial enzyme that catalyzes the first step in beta-oxidation. Organic and amino acid profiles of starved PPARalpha(-/-) mice suggested compromised citric acid cycle flux, enhanced urea cycle activity, and increased amino acid catabolism. PPARalpha(-/-) mice had 40-50% lower plasma and tissue levels of free carnitine, corresponding with diminished hepatic expression of genes involved in carnitine biosynthesis and transport. One week of oral carnitine supplementation conferred partial metabolic recovery in the PPARalpha(-/-) mice. In summary, comprehensive metabolic profiling revealed novel biomarkers of defective fat oxidation, while also highlighting the potential value of supplemental carnitine as a therapy and diagnostic tool for metabolic disorders.

Acute administration of cefepime lowers L-carnitine concentrations in early lactation stage rat milk

Our study investigated the potential for important in vivo drug-nutrient transport interactions at the lactating mammary gland using the L-carnitine transporter substrates, cefepime and L-carnitine, as proof-of-concept. On d 4 (n = 6/treatment) and d 10 (n = 6/treatment) of lactation, rats were administered cefepime (250 mg/h) or saline by continuous i.v. infusion (4 h). Serum and milk L-carnitine and cefepime concentrations were quantified by HPLC-UV. In whole mammary gland, organic cation/carnitine transporter (OCTN)1, OCTN2, OCTN3, amino acid transporter B(0,+) (ATB(0,+)), and L-carnitine transporter 2 expression were determined by quantitative RT-PCR and by western blot and immunohistochemistry when possible. Cefepime caused a 56% decrease in milk L-carnitine concentrations on lactation d 4 (P = 0.0048) but did not affect milk L-carnitine at lactation d 10 or serum L-carnitine concentrations at either time. The mean L-carnitine and cefepime milk:serum ratios (M/S) decreased from 9.1 +/- 0.4 to 4.9 +/- 0.6 (P < 0.0001) and 0.89 +/- 0.3 to 0.12 +/- 0.02 (P = 0.0473), respectively, between d 4 and d 10 of lactation. In both groups, OCTN2 (P < 0.0001), OCTN3 (P = 0.0039), and ATB(0,+) (P = 0.004) mRNA expression and OCTN2 protein (P < 0.0001) were higher in mammary glands at d 4 of lactation compared with d 10. Immunohistochemistry revealed OCTN1 and OCTN2 localization in the mammary alveolar epithelium and OCTN3 expression in the interstitial space and blood vessel endothelium. In conclusion, cefepime significantly decreased milk L-carnitine concentrations only at d 4 of lactation. Relative to d 10, enhanced expression of OCTN2 and ATB(0,+) in mammary glands at d 4 of lactation and higher M/S (L-carnitine and cefepime) suggests cefepime competes with L-carnitine for L-carnitine transporters expressed in the lactating mammary gland to adversely affect L-carnitine milk concentrations and these effects depend upon lactation stage.

Effect of dietary epigallocatechin-3-gallate on cytochrome P450 2E1-dependent alcoholic liver damage: enhancement of fatty acid oxidation

This study was designed to determine whether dietary epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the most abundant catechin polyphenol in green tea, can protect the liver from cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1)-dependent alcoholic liver damage. Compared with an ethanol group, when EGCG was present in the ethanol diet, the formation of a fatty liver was significantly reduced and the serum aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) levels were much lower. Ethanol treatment significantly elevated hepatic CYP2E1 expression while simultaneously reducing hepatic phospho-acetyl CoA carboxylase (p-ACC) and carnitine palmitoyl-transferase 1 (CPT-1) levels. While EGCG markedly reversed the effect of ethanol on hepatic p-ACC and CPT-1 levels, it had no effect on the ethanol-induced elevation in CYP2E1 expression. EGCG prevents ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity and inhibits the development of a fatty liver. These effects were associated with improvements in p-ACC and CPT-1 levels. The use of EGCG might be useful in treating patients with an alcoholic fatty liver.

Carnitine is associated with fatty acid metabolism in plants

The finding of acylcarnitines alongside free carnitine in Arabidopsis thaliana and other plant species, using tandem mass spectrometry coupled to liquid chromatography shows a link between carnitine and plant fatty acid metabolism. Moreover the occurrence of both medium- and long-chain acylcarnitines suggests that carnitine is connected to diverse fatty acid metabolic pathways in plant tissues. The carnitine and acylcarnitine contents in plant tissues are respectively a hundred and a thousand times lower than in animal tissues, and acylcarnitines represent less than 2% of the total carnitine pool whereas this percentage reaches 30% in animal tissues. These results suggest that carnitine plays a lesser role in lipid metabolism in plants than it does in animals.

Substitutions of three amino acids in human heart/muscle type carnitine palmitoyltransferase I caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms

Heart/muscle type carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (M-CPTI) catalyzes the rate-limiting step of mitochondrial long-chain fatty acid (LCFA) oxidation in muscle and adipose tissue. Three replacements of nucleotides resulting in missense mutations of I66V, S427C, and E531K were observed in the M-CPTI gene of patients showing abnormal fatty acid metabolism. These nucleotide replacements were found to be common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of this gene and not specific to patients. The question of whether these missense mutations caused by SNPs alter the functional properties of M-CPTI remains unanswered. Thus, we examined whether these missense mutations are associated with any changes in the enzymatic properties of M-CPTI. None of these mutations was found to cause remarkable alteration of its enzymatic properties. Based on the comparison of amino acid sequences of M-CPTI among different animal species, the roles of these amino acids in the enzyme are discussed.

Clinical features and new molecular findings in Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase II (CPT II) deficiency

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II (CPT II) deficiency is the most common inherited disorder of lipid metabolism characterized in its adult form by attacks of myalgia and myoglobinuria. We analyzed a cohort of 22 CPT II-deficient patients (representing 20 independent probands) to correlate clinical presentation and molecular data. The common p.Ser113Leu mutation was detected with an allelic frequency of 67.5% (27/40), in association with mild adult-onset phenotype. In addition to the p.Ser113Leu mutation, other 10 disease-causing mutations were identified, 5 of which were novel. They are a micro-insertion within exon 5, three aminoacid substitutions within the coding region, namely p.Arg151Trp, p.Asp576Gly, p.Arg247Trp and a truncating stop codon mutation (p.Arg554Ter). Our data expand the spectrum of CPT II mutations and help to evaluate possible correlations between genotypes and phenotypes.

Gene expression profiling in livers of mice after acute inhibition of beta-oxidation

Inborn errors of mitochondrial beta-oxidation cause ectopic fat accumulation, particularly in the liver. Fatty liver is associated with insulin resistance and predisposes to hepatic fibrosis. The factors underlying the pathophysiological consequences of hepatic fat accumulation have remained poorly defined. Gene expression profiling in a model of acute fatty liver disease induced by blocking long-chain fatty acid beta-oxidation was performed to study the early effects of steatosis on the transcriptome. Tetradecylglycidic acid (TDGA) was used to irreversibly inhibit carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1, a key enzyme in the control of mitochondrial beta-oxidation. TDGA treatment induced massive microvesicular hepatic steatosis within a 12-h time frame in male C57BL6/J mice. Increased hepatic long-chain acyl-CoA content, particularly of C16:0, C16:1 and C18:1, was associated with profound effects on the transcriptome as revealed by unbiased gene expression profiling and quantitative real-time PCR. The results indicate drastic changes in the expression of genes encoding proteins involved in lipid, carbohydrate, and amino acid metabolism. Pathway analysis identified transcription factors and coregulators such as hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 (HNF4), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha), and PPAR gamma coactivator 1alpha (PGC-1alpha ) as key players in these metabolic adaptations. Apoptotic and profibrotic responses were also affected. Surprisingly, a strong reduction in the expression of genes involved in hepatic bile salt metabolism and transport was observed. Therefore, this transcriptome analysis opens new avenues for research.

Characteristics of L-carnitine import into heart cells

L-carnitine is an essential cofactor for the transport of fatty acids across the mitochondrial membranes. L-carnitine can be provided by food products or biosynthesized in the liver. After intestinal absorption or hepatic biosynthesis, L-carnitine is transferred to organs whose metabolism is dependent upon fatty acid oxidation, such as the skeletal muscle and the heart. The intracellular transport of L-carnitine into the cell requires specific transporters and today, several of these have been characterized. Most of them belong to the solute carrier family. Heart is one of the major target for carnitine transport and use, however basic properties of carnitine uptake by heart cells have never been studied. In this paper, the transport of L-carnitine by rat heart explants has been examined and the kinetic properties of this transport determined and compared to data obtained in skeletal muscle explants. As in muscle, L-carnitine uptake by heart cells was shown to be dependent on sodium and was inhibited by L-carnitine analogues. Molecules known to interact with the skeletal muscle L-carnitine transport were studied in the heart. While trimethyl hydrazinium propionate (THP) was shown to fully inhibit the L-carnitine uptake by muscle cells, it remained inefficient in inhibiting the L-carnitine uptake by heart cells. On the other hand, compounds such as verapamil and AZT were both able to inhibit both the skeletal muscle and the cardiac uptake of L-carnitine. These data suggested that the muscle and heart systems for L-carnitine uptake exhibited different systems of regulation and these results have to be taken in consideration while administrating those compounds that can alter l-carnitine uptake in the muscle and the heart and can lead to damage to these tissues.

Rat Liver Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase 1 Forms an Oligomeric Complex within the Outer Mitochondrial Membrane

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT) 1A catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the transport of long chain acyl-CoAs from cytoplasm to the mitochondrial matrix by converting them to acylcarnitines. Located within the outer mitochondrial membrane, CPT1A activity is inhibited by malonyl-CoA, its allosteric inhibitor. In this study, we investigate for the first time the quaternary structure of rat CPT1A. Chemical cross-linking studies using intact mitochondria isolated from fed rat liver or from Saccharomyces cerevisiae expressing CPT1A show that CPT1A self-assembles into an oligomeric complex. Size exclusion chromatography experiments using solubilized mitochondrial extracts suggest that the fundamental unit of its quaternary structure is a trimer. When studied in blue native-PAGE, the CPT1A hexamer could be observed, however, suggesting that under these native conditions CPT1A trimers might be arranged as dimers. Moreover, the oligomeric state of CPT1A was found unchanged by starvation and by streptozotocin-induced diabetes, conditions characterized by changes in malonyl-CoA sensitivity of CPT1A. Finally, gel filtration analysis of several yeast-expressed chimeric CPTs demonstrates that the first 147 N-terminal residues of CPT1A, encompassing its two transmembrane segments, trigger trimerization independently of its catalytic C-terminal domain. Deletion of residues 1-82, including transmembrane 1, did not abrogate oligomerization, but the latter is limited to a trimer by the presence of the large catalytic C-terminal domain on the cytosolic face of mitochondria. Based on these findings, we proposed that the oligomeric structure of CPT1A would allow the newly formed acylcarnitines to gain direct access into the intermembrane space, hence facilitating substrate channeling.

PPAR alpha-activation results in enhanced carnitine biosynthesis and OCTN2-mediated hepatic carnitine accumulation

In fasted rodents hepatic carnitine concentration increases considerably which is not observed in PPAR alpha-/- mice, indicating that PPAR alpha is involved in carnitine homeostasis. To investigate the mechanisms underlying the PPAR alpha-dependent hepatic carnitine accumulation we measured carnitine biosynthesis enzyme activities, levels of carnitine biosynthesis intermediates, acyl-carnitines and OCTN2 mRNA levels in tissues of untreated, fasted or Wy-14643-treated wild type and PPAR alpha-/- mice. Here we show that both enhancement of carnitine biosynthesis (due to increased gamma-butyrobetaine dioxygenase activity), extra-hepatic gamma-butyrobetaine synthesis and increased hepatic carnitine import (OCTN2 expression) contributes to the increased hepatic carnitine levels after fasting and that these processes are PPAR alpha-dependent.

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2: analysis of membrane association and complex structure with a substrate analog

The mitochondrial membrane-associated carnitine palmitoyltransferase system is a validated target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. To further facilitate structure-based drug discovery, we determined the crystal structure of rat CPT-2 (rCPT-2) in complex with the substrate analogue palmitoyl-aminocarnitine at 1.8A resolution. Biochemical analyses revealed a strong effect of this compound on rCPT-2 activity and stability. Using a computational approach we examined the membrane association of rCPT-2. The protein interacts with the membrane as a functional monomer and the calculations confirm the presence of a membrane association domain that consists of layers of hydrophobic and positively charged residues.

Goat acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase alpha: molecular characterization, polymorphism, and association with milk traits

Acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase alpha (ACACA), the major regulatory enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis, catalyzes the conversion of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA. We have sequenced 5.5 kb of the goat ACACA cDNA in 18 individuals. The translated cDNA sequence encodes 1,832 AA and shares a high AA identity (99%) with the ovine and bovine ACACA orthologous sequences. One silent single nucleotide polymorphism was identified at exon 45 (C5493T). The genotyping of this polymorphism in 4 goat breeds, Murciano-Granadina, Teramana, Majorera, and Malagueña, showed that it was segregating in all 4 breeds at variable frequencies. In addition, a mixed animal model was used to evaluate the association of C5493T genotypes with milk traits. Results from this study show that the C5493T mutation was suggestively associated with fat yield, lactose content, and somatic cell count.

Transcriptomic characterization of the long-term dihydrotestosterone effects in adipose tissue

OBJECTIVE

To study the long-term transcriptomic effects of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in adipose tissue. Fat distribution is regulated by sexual hormones. It is still unclear if androgens are promoting or reducing intra-abdominal fat accumulation.

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Retroperitoneal adipose tissue were isolated from each group of gonadectomized (GDX) C57BL6 male mice treated with vehicle or DHT for 21 days. Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) was performed to generate approximately 150,000 SAGE tags from each sample.

RESULTS

Among the numerous genes regulated by DHT, transcripts involved in glycolysis, such as aldolase 1 A isoform and pyruvate kinase muscle as well as lipogenic transcripts, such as malic enzyme supernatant and ELOVL family member 6 elongation of long chain fatty acids were down-regulated by androgen supplementation. In contrast, transcripts involved in lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation, such as carboxylesterase 3, acetyl-coenzyme A acyltransferase 1, 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase B and enoyl-coenzyme A hydratase/3-hydroxyacyl coenzyme A dehydrogenase were up-regulated by DHT. Pro-apoptotic transcripts such as cell death-inducing DFFA-like effector c, BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa-interacting protein 1 NIP3 and -interacting protein 3-like were up-regulated by DHT, whereas transcripts involved in promotion of cell cycle such as cyclin D2 were down-regulated by DHT.

DISCUSSION

These results suggest that chronic androgen treatment may help to improve metabolic profile by regulating various critical pathways involved in adipose tissue physiology. In addition, several genes associated with a healthier metabolic profile, such as adiponectin and CD36 antigen, were up-regulated by 21 days of DHT treatment.

Effect of l-Carnitine Infusion and Feed Restriction on Carnitine Status in Lactating Holstein Cows

Previously we determined that abomasal infusion of L-carnitine increased in vitro hepatic fatty acid oxidation, decreased liver lipid accumulation, and supported higher fat-corrected milk yield in feed-restricted lactating cows. The objectives of this study were to examine the effects of supplemental L-carnitine and amount of feed intake on free carnitine and carnitine ester concentrations in liver, muscle, milk, and plasma of lactating dairy cows. Eight lactating Holstein cows (132 +/- 36 d in milk) were used in a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square design with 14-d periods to test factorial combinations of water or L-carnitine infusion (20 g/d; d 5 to 14) and ad libitum or restricted (50% of previous 5-d intake; d 10 to 14) dry matter intake. Plasma was obtained 3 times daily on d 4, 8, and 12; milk samples were collected on d 8, 9, 13, and 14. Liver and muscle were biopsied on d 14 of each period. Free carnitine, short-chain acylcarnitine, and long-chain acylcarnitine concentrations were determined using a radioenzymatic assay coupled with ion exchange chromatography. Abomasal L-carnitine infusion increased total carnitine in plasma on d 8 and d 12. All liver carnitine fractions were increased by carnitine infusion. Feed restriction elevated concentrations of free carnitine, long-chain acylcarnitine, and total carnitine in liver tissue from carnitine-infused cows but not in those infused with water. In muscle, acid-soluble carnitine, long-chain acylcarnitine, and total carnitine concentrations were increased by carnitine infusion and feed restriction without significant interaction. Feed restriction increased free carnitine concentrations in muscle from water-infused cows but not in carnitine-infused cows. Carnitine infusion increased the concentration of each milk carnitine fraction as well as milk carnitine output on d 8 to 9. On d 13 to 14, all carnitine fractions except short-chain acylcarnitine were increased in milk from water-infused, feed-restricted cows, whereas all fractions were increased in carnitine-infused, feed-restricted cows. Carnitine infusion increased total carnitine in plasma, liver, muscle, and milk during feed restriction, whereas feed restriction alone increased carnitine concentrations in muscle and milk but not in liver. Liver carnitine concentrations might limit hepatic fatty acid oxidation capacity in dairy cows during the periparturient period; therefore, supplemental L-carnitine might decrease liver lipid accumulation in periparturient cows.

Transport and transporters in the endoplasmic reticulum

Enzyme activities localized in the luminal compartment of the endoplasmic reticulum are integrated into the cellular metabolism by transmembrane fluxes of their substrates, products and/or cofactors. Most compounds involved are bulky, polar or even charged; hence, they cannot be expected to diffuse through lipid bilayers. Accordingly, transport processes investigated so far have been found protein-mediated. The selective and often rate-limiting transport processes greatly influence the activity, kinetic features and substrate specificity of the corresponding luminal enzymes. Therefore, the phenomenological characterization of endoplasmic reticulum transport contributes largely to the understanding of the metabolic functions of this organelle. Attempts to identify the transporter proteins have only been successful in a few cases, but recent development in molecular biology promises a better progress in this field.

New insights concerning the role of carnitine in the regulation of fuel metabolism in skeletal muscle

In skeletal muscle, carnitine plays an essential role in the translocation of long-chain fatty-acids into the mitochondrial matrix for subsequent beta-oxidation, and in the regulation of the mitochondrial acetyl-CoA/CoASH ratio. Interest in these vital metabolic roles of carnitine in skeletal muscle appears to have waned over the past 25 years. However, recent research has shed new light on the importance of carnitine as a regulator of muscle fuel selection. It has been established that muscle free carnitine availability may be limiting to fat oxidation during high intensity submaximal exercise. Furthermore, increasing muscle total carnitine content in resting healthy humans (via insulin-mediated stimulation of muscle carnitine transport) reduces muscle glycolysis, increases glycogen storage and is accompanied by an apparent increase in fat oxidation. By increasing muscle pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) activity and acetylcarnitine content at rest, it has also been established that PDC flux and acetyl group availability limits aerobic ATP re-synthesis at the onset of exercise (the acetyl group deficit). Thus, carnitine plays a vital role in the regulation of muscle fuel metabolism. The demonstration that its availability can be readily manipulated in humans, and impacts on physiological function, will result in renewed business and scientific interest in this compound.

Gene expression and regulation of drug transporters in the intestine and kidney

Intestinal absorption and renal secretion of ionic drugs are controlled by a number of drug transporters expressed at the brush-border and basolateral membranes of epithelial cells. Over the last several years, considerable progress has been made regarding the molecular identification and functional characterization of drug transporters. Under some physiological and pathophysiological conditions, the expression and transport activity of drug transporters are changed, affecting the pharmacokinetics of substrate drugs. The regulation of transport activity in response to endogenous and exogenous signals can occur at various levels such as transcription, mRNA stability, translation, and posttranslational modification. Transcriptional regulation is of particular interest, because changes in transport activity are dynamically regulated by increases or decreases in levels of mRNA expression. The tissue-specific expression of drug transporters is also under transcriptional control, and recent studies using clinical samples from human tissues have revealed the expression profiles of drug transporters in the human body. The purpose of this research updates is to review the recent progress in the study of the gene expression and regulation of intestinal and renal drug transporters.