151
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Berthet A, Bouchard M, Vernez D. Toxicokinetics of captan and folpet biomarkers in dermally exposed volunteers. J Appl Toxicol 2011; 32:202-9. [PMID: 21381058 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2010] [Revised: 12/24/2010] [Accepted: 12/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
To better assess biomonitoring data in workers exposed to captan and folpet, the kinetics of ring metabolites [tetrahydrophthalimide (THPI), phthalimide (PI) and phthalic acid] were determined in urine and plasma of dermally exposed volunteers. A 10 mg kg(-1) dose of each fungicide was applied on 80 cm(2) of the forearm and left without occlusion or washing for 24 h. Blood samples were withdrawn at fixed time periods over the 72 h following application and complete urine voids were collected over 96 h post-dosing, for metabolite analysis. In the hours following treatment, a progressive increase in plasma levels of THPI and PI was observed, with peak levels being reached at 24 h for THPI and 10 h for PI. The ensuing elimination phase appeared monophasic with a mean elimination half-life (t(½) ) of 24.7 and 29.7 h for THPI and PI, respectively. In urine, time courses PI and phthalic acid excretion rate rapidly evolved in parallel, and a mean elimination t(½) of 28.8 and 29.6 h, respectively, was calculated from these curves. THPI was eliminated slightly faster, with a mean t(½) of 18.7 h. Over the 96 h period post-application, metabolites were almost completely excreted, and on average 0.02% of captan dose was recovered in urine as THPI while 1.8% of the folpet dose was excreted as phthalic acid and 0.002% as PI, suggesting a low dermal absorption fraction for both fungicides. This study showed the potential use of THPI, PI and phthalic acid as key biomarkers of exposure to captan and folpet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Berthet
- Département de santé environnementale et santé au travail, Chaire d'analyse et de gestion des risques toxicologiques and Institut de recherche en santé publique de l'Université de Montréal (IRSPUM), Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H3C 3J7
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152
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Berthet A, Berode M, Bouchard M. Gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry determination of phthalic acid in human urine as a biomarker of folpet exposure. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:493-502. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4753-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Revised: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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153
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Berthet A, Bouchard M, Schüpfer P, Vernez D, Danuser B, Huynh CK. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/APCI-MS/MS) methods for the quantification of captan and folpet phthalimide metabolites in human plasma and urine. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 399:2243-55. [PMID: 21229238 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4601-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2010] [Revised: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 12/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Captan and folpet are fungicides largely used in agriculture. They have similar chemical structures, except that folpet has an aromatic ring unlike captan. Their half-lives in blood are very short, given that they are readily broken down to tetrahydrophthalimide (THPI) and phthalimide (PI), respectively. Few authors measured these biomarkers in plasma or urine, and analysis was conducted either by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography with UV detection. The objective of this study was thus to develop simple, sensitive and specific liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/APCI-MS/MS) methods to quantify both THPI and PI in human plasma and urine. Briefly, deuterated THPI was added as an internal standard and purification was performed by solid-phase extraction followed by LC/APCI-MS/MS analysis in negative ion mode for both compounds. Validation of the methods was conducted using spiked blank plasma and urine samples at concentrations ranging from 1 to 250 μg/L and 1 to 50 μg/L, respectively, along with samples of volunteers and workers exposed to captan or folpet. The methods showed a good linearity (R (2) > 0.99), recovery (on average 90% for THPI and 75% for PI), intra- and inter-day precision (RSD, <15%) and accuracy (<20%), and stability. The limit of detection was 0.58 μg/L in urine and 1.47 μg/L in plasma for THPI and 1.14 and 2.17 μg/L, respectively, for PI. The described methods proved to be accurate and suitable to determine the toxicokinetics of both metabolites in human plasma and urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Berthet
- Institute for Work and Health, Bugnon 21, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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154
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Kim SH, Chun S, Jang JY, Chae HD, Kim CH, Kang BM. Increased plasma levels of phthalate esters in women with advanced-stage endometriosis: a prospective case-control study. Fertil Steril 2011; 95:357-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.07.1059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Revised: 07/06/2010] [Accepted: 07/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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155
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Adeniyi AA, Okedeyi OO, Yusuf KA. Flame ionization gas chromatographic determination of phthalate esters in water, surface sediments and fish species in the Ogun river catchments, Ketu, Lagos, Nigeria. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2011; 172:561-569. [PMID: 20221801 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-010-1354-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2008] [Accepted: 01/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The detection and quantification of four phthalate esters-dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP)-in water, sediment, and some fish species were carried out using flame ionization gas chromatography. The samples were collected from the Ogun river catchments, Ketu, Lagos. The DMP was not detected in the water and fish samples but was detected in sediments collected from four of the six sampling sites. The concentration of DEP, DBP, and DEHP in the fish species ranged from 320.0-810.0, 380.0-1,080.0, and 40.0-150.0 μg/kg in Tilapia sp.; 310.0-860.0, 400.0-1,170.0, and 40.0-110.0 μg/kg in Chrysichthys sp.; and 320.0-810.0, 400.0-3,970.0, and 30.0-300.0 μg/kg (DEHP) in Synodontis sp., respectively. The differences in fish phthalate levels are not statistically significant at p < 0.05, an indication that phthalate esters accumulation is not fish species dependent. The DEP, DBP, and DEHP values recorded are considerably higher than the maximum allowed concentrations for drinking water prescribed by the US Environmental Protection Agency. The phthalate pollution index and biosediment accumulation factor values were also calculated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeleke A Adeniyi
- Department of Chemistry, Lagos State University, Ojo, PMB 1087, Apapa, Lagos, Nigeria.
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156
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Solymos E, Guddat S, Geyer H, Flenker U, Thomas A, Segura J, Ventura R, Platen P, Schulte-Mattler M, Thevis M, Schänzer W. Rapid determination of urinary di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites based on liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry as a marker for blood transfusion in sports drug testing. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 401:517-28. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4589-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Revised: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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157
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Boas M, Frederiksen H, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Skakkebæk NE, Hegedüs L, Hilsted L, Juul A, Main KM. Childhood exposure to phthalates: associations with thyroid function, insulin-like growth factor I, and growth. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:1458-64. [PMID: 20621847 PMCID: PMC2957929 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2009] [Accepted: 07/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phthalates are widely used chemicals, and human exposure is extensive. Recent studies have indicated that phthalates may have thyroid-disrupting properties. OBJECTIVE We aimed to assess concentrations of phthalate metabolites in urine samples from Danish children and to investigate the associations with thyroid function, insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), and growth. METHODS In 845 children 4-9 years of age, we determined urinary concentrations of 12 phthalate metabolites and serum levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone, thyroid hormones, and IGF-I. RESULTS Phthalate metabolites were detected in all urine samples, of which monobutyl phthalate was present in highest concentration. Phthalate metabolites were negatively associated with serum levels of free and total triiodothyronine, although statistically significant primarily in girls. Metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and diisononyl phthalate were negatively associated with IGF-I in boys. Most phthalate metabolites were negatively associated with height, weight, body surface, and height gain in both sexes. CONCLUSIONS Our study showed negative associations between urinary phthalate concentrations and thyroid hormones, IGF-I, and growth in children. Although our study was not designed to reveal the mechanism of action, the overall coherent negative associations between urine phthalate and thyroid and growth parameters may suggest causative negative roles of phthalate exposures for child health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malene Boas
- Department of Growth and Reproduction, University Hospital of Copenhagen, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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158
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Marcus M, Christensen KY, Manatunga A, Rudra CB, Brock JW, Small CM. Variability of phthalate monoester levels in daily first-morning urine from adult women: a pilot study. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2010; 25:359-368. [PMID: 21268450 PMCID: PMC5578448 DOI: 10.1515/reveh.2010.25.4.359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Phthalate exposure is ubiquitous and may affect child and adolescent health through both in utero exposure and direct exposure during childhood. Variability in exposure within women is not well documented. We analyzed 90 first-morning urine samples collected by ten reproductive-age women for phthalate metabolites and creatinine. Monoethyl [122 ng/mL (geometric mean concentration = 139 microg/g creatinine)], monobutyl [85.4 ng/mL (97.0 microg/g creatinine)], monobenzyl [37.2 ng/mL (42.2 microg/g creatinine)], and mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate [9.4 ng/mL (10.7 microg/g creatinine)] were detected in most (94.4%) samples. The concentrations ranged from 23.8-1090 ng/mL, 43-437 ng/mL, 12.4-186 ng/mL, and 1.3-31.1 ng/mL, respectively. We observed considerable variation in phthalate concentrations by day for individual women. The intraclass correlation coefficient, indicating the proportion of variance explained by differences between subjects, ranged from 0.40 (monobutyl) to 0.68 (monoethyl). Monobenzyl and monoethyl phthalates showed higher levels on weekends as compared with weekdays (p = .01 for both). We found no significant difference between monoester levels from different menstrual cycles. Phthalate concentrations vary considerably for an individual and may require multiple samples for accurate assessment
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Marcus
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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159
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Kondo F, Ikai Y, Hayashi R, Okumura M, Takatori S, Nakazawa H, Izumi SI, Makino T. Determination of five phthalate monoesters in human urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2010; 85:92-96. [PMID: 20574658 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-010-0051-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We have developed a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method to determine five phthalate monoesters (monoethyl phthalate (MEP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP), mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), monoisononyl phthalate (MINP) and monobenzyl phthalate (MBz)) in human urine. Human urine samples were subjected to enzymatic deconjugation of the glucuronides followed by extraction with hexane. The extracted phthalate monoesters were methylated with diazomethane, purified on a Florisil column and then subjected to GC-MS analysis. The recoveries from urine spiked with five phthalate monoesters were 86.3%-119% with coefficients of variation of 0.6%-6.1%. We measured phthalate monoester levels in human urine by analyzing 36 samples from volunteers. MBP and MEP were detected in all samples, and their median concentrations were 60.0 and 10.7 ng/mL, respectively. MBzP and MEHP were found in 75% and 56% of samples, and their median concentrations were 10.9 and 5.75 ng/mL, respectively. MINPs were not detected in most samples (6% detectable). Women had significantly (p < 0.05) higher mean concentrations of MBP and MEP than men. The estimated daily exposure levels for the four parent phthalates excluding diisononyl phthalate ranged from 0.27 to 5.69 mug/kg/day (median).
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumio Kondo
- Department of Toxicology, Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public Health, 7-6 Nagare, Tsuji-machi, Kita-ku, Nagoya 462-8576, Japan.
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160
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Weuve J, Hauser R, Calafat AM, Missmer SA, Wise LA. Association of exposure to phthalates with endometriosis and uterine leiomyomata: findings from NHANES, 1999-2004. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:825-32. [PMID: 20185384 PMCID: PMC2898860 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2009] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phthalates are ubiquitous chemicals used in consumer products. Some phthalates are reproductive toxicants in experimental animals, but human data are limited. OBJECTIVE We conducted a cross-sectional study of urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations in relation to self-reported history of endometriosis and uterine leiomyomata among 1,227 women 20-54 years of age from three cycles of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999-2004. METHODS We examined four phthalate metabolites: mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), monobutyl phthalate (MBP), monoethyl phthalate (MEP), and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP). From the last two NHANES cycles, we also examined mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP). We used logistic regression to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS Eighty-seven (7%) and 151 (12%) women reported diagnoses of endometriosis and leiomyomata, respectively. The ORs comparing the highest versus lowest three quartiles of urinary MBP were 1.36 (95% CI, 0.77-2.41) for endometriosis, 1.56 (95% CI, 0.93-2.61) for leiomyomata, and 1.71 (95% CI, 1.07-2.75) for both conditions combined. The corresponding ORs for MEHP were 0.44 (95% CI, 0.19-1.02) for endometriosis, 0.63 (95% CI, 0.35-1.12) for leiomyomata, and 0.59 (95% CI, 0.37-0.95) for both conditions combined. Findings for MEHHP and MEOHP agreed with findings for MEHP with respect to endometriosis only. We observed null associations for MEP and MBzP. Associations were similar when we excluded women diagnosed > 7 years before their NHANES evaluation. CONCLUSION The positive associations for MBP and inverse associations for MEHP in relation to endometriosis and leiomyomata warrant investigation in prospective studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Weuve
- Rush Institute for Healthy Aging, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612 , USA.
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161
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Chatterjee S, Karlovsky P. Removal of the endocrine disrupter butyl benzyl phthalate from the environment. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 87:61-73. [PMID: 20396882 PMCID: PMC2872021 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2570-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2010] [Revised: 03/16/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), an aryl alkyl ester of 1,2-benzene dicarboxylic acid, is extensively used in vinyl tiles and as a plasticizer in PVC in many commonly used products. BBP, which readily leaches from these products, is one of the most important environmental contaminants, and the increased awareness of its adverse effects on human health has led to a dramatic increase in research aimed at removing BBP from the environment via bioremediation. This review highlights recent progress in the degradation of BBP by pure and mixed bacterial cultures, fungi, and in sludge, sediment, and wastewater. Sonochemical degradation, a unique abiotic remediation technique, and photocatalytic degradation are also discussed. The degradation pathways for BBP are described, and future research directions are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhankar Chatterjee
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research Unit, University of Goettingen, Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077 Goettingen, Germany.
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162
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Qureshi M, Fischer J, Barek J, Sirajuddin, Bhanger M. Voltammetric Determination of Aliphatic Phthalate Esters at a Hanging Mercury Drop Minielectrode and a Meniscus Modified Silver Solid Amalgam Electrode. ELECTROANAL 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201000040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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163
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Zhang XL, Niu HY, Zhang SX, Cai YQ. Preparation of a chitosan-coated C18-functionalized magnetite nanoparticle sorbent for extraction of phthalate ester compounds from environmental water samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 397:791-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3592-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 02/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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164
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Lomenick JP, Calafat AM, Melguizo Castro MS, Mier R, Stenger P, Foster MB, Wintergerst KA. Phthalate exposure and precocious puberty in females. J Pediatr 2010; 156:221-5. [PMID: 19892364 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.09.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2009] [Revised: 08/14/2009] [Accepted: 09/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether phthalate exposure is associated with precocious puberty in girls. STUDY DESIGN This was a multicenter cross-sectional study in which 28 girls with central precocious puberty (CPP) and 28 age- and race-matched prepubertal females were enrolled. Nine phthalate metabolites and creatinine were measured in spot urine samples from these 56 children. RESULTS Levels of 8 of the 9 phthalate metabolites were above the limit of detection (LOD) in all 56 subjects. Mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) was below the LOD in 25/56 samples (14 subjects with precocious puberty and 11 controls). No significant differences between the children with CPP and the controls in either absolute or creatinine-normalized concentrations of any of the 9 phthalate metabolites were measured. CONCLUSIONS Although phthalates may be associated with certain other toxicities in humans, our study suggests that their exposure is not associated with precocious puberty in female children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jefferson P Lomenick
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA.
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165
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Li Y, Zhuang M, Li T, Shi N. Neurobehavioral toxicity study of dibutyl phthalate on rats following in utero and lactational exposure. J Appl Toxicol 2010; 29:603-11. [PMID: 19533667 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the neurobehavioral effects of dibutyl phthalate (DBP), an important endocrine disruptor known for reproductive toxicity, on rodent offspring following in utero and lactational exposure, pregnant Wistar rats were treated with DBP (0, 0.037, 0.111, 0.333 and 1% in the diet) from gestation day (GD) 6 to postnatal day (PND) 28, and selected developmental and neurobehavioral parameters of the offspring were measured. There were no significant effects of DBP on body weight gain of the dams during GD 6-20 or on the pups' ages of pinna detachment, incisor eruption or eye opening. Exposure to 1% DBP prolonged gestation period, decreased body weight in both male and female pups, depressed surface righting (PND 7) in male pups, shortened forepaw grip time (PND 10), enhanced spatial learning and reference memory (PND 35) in male pups. Exposure to 0.037% DBP also shortened forepaw grip time (PND 10), but inhibited spatial learning and reference memory in male pups. Sex x treatment effects were found in forepaw grip time (PND 10), spatial learning and reference memory, and the male pups appeared to be more susceptible than the females. However, all levels of DBP exposure did not significantly alter surface righting (PND 4), air righting (PND 16), negative geotaxis (PND 4 or 7), cliff avoidance (PND 7) or open field behavior (PND 28) in either sex. Overall, the dose level of DBP in the present study produced a few adverse effects on the neurobehavioral parameters, and it may alter cognitive abilities of the male rodent.
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166
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Xu C, Zhang JJ, Chen JA, Cao B, Shu WQ, Cao J. Evaluation of ovotoxicity in female mice caused by organic extracts in tap water from Jialing River in Chongqing, China. BIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH. PART B, DEVELOPMENTAL AND REPRODUCTIVE TOXICOLOGY 2009; 89:26-33. [PMID: 20035550 DOI: 10.1002/bdrb.20219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, toxic effects of widespread organic pollutants have received much attention due to the hazards they pose to female reproductive health. The aim of the present study was to determine the female reproductive toxicity of organic extracts (OE) in tap water from the Jialing River in Chongqing, China. METHODS In our experiment, Kunming female mice that exhibited normal estrous cycles were randomly divided into 4 groups, which included a control group (OE 0 L/kg bw) as well as low- (OE 12.5 L/kg bw/day), mid- (OE 25 L/kg bw/day), and high-dose (OE 50 L/kg bw/day) groups. Mice were continually administered intraperitoneal injections of OE at different doses for 5 consecutive days. On the 15th and 30th day after treatments, half of the mice were sacrificed separately. RESULTS The results showed that OE decreased relative ovary weights and prolonged the duration of estrous cycle with concomitant increase in estrous phase. There was a significant decrease in the number of corpora lutea of OE-treated mice, but no significant differences were found in healthy and atretic follicle populations compared to control. Ultrastructure observation regarding granulosa cells of the ovary revealed that OE treatment caused mitochondrial swelling together with endoplasmic reticulum expansion. CONCLUSIONS All these data indicate that OE could exert adverse effects on the development of ovary and also a slight suppressive effect on reproductive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Xu
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
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167
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Whyatt RM, Adibi JJ, Calafat AM, Camann DE, Rauh V, Bhat HK, Perera FP, Andrews H, Just AC, Hoepner L, Tang D, Hauser R. Prenatal di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate exposure and length of gestation among an inner-city cohort. Pediatrics 2009; 124:e1213-20. [PMID: 19948620 PMCID: PMC3137456 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2009-0325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Our objective was to assess the relationship between di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) exposure during pregnancy and gestational age at delivery among 311 African American or Dominican women from New York City. METHODS Forty-eight-hour personal air and/or spot urine samples were collected during the third trimester. DEHP levels were measured in air samples and 4 DEHP metabolite levels were measured in urine. Specific gravity was used to adjust for urinary dilution. Gestational age was abstracted from newborn medical records (n = 289) or calculated from the expected date of delivery (n = 42). Multivariate linear regression models controlled for potential confounders. RESULTS DEHP was detected in 100% of personal air samples (geometric mean: 0.20 microg/m(3) [95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.18-0.21 microg/m(3)]); natural logarithms of air concentrations were inversely but not significantly associated with gestational age. Two or more of the DEHP metabolites were detected in 100% of urine samples (geometric mean: 4.8-38.9 ng/mL [95% CI: 4.1-44.3 ng/mL]). Controlling for potential confounders, gestational age was shorter by 1.1 days (95% CI: 0.2-1.8 days) for each 1-logarithmic unit increase in specific gravity-adjusted mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate concentrations (P = .01) and averaged 5.0 days (95% CI: 2.1-8.0 days) less among subjects with the highest versus lowest quartile concentrations (P = .001). Results were similar and statistically significant for the other DEHP metabolites. CONCLUSIONS Prenatal DEHP exposure was associated with shorter gestation but, given inconsistencies with previous findings for other study populations, results should be interpreted with caution, and additional research is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin M. Whyatt
- Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Jennifer J. Adibi
- Department of Obstetrics, Genecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Antonia M. Calafat
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Virgina Rauh
- Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Hari K. Bhat
- Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Frederica P. Perera
- Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Howard Andrews
- Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Allan C. Just
- Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Lori Hoepner
- Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Deliang Tang
- Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Russ Hauser
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
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168
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Xiao-feng Z, Nai-qiang Q, Jing Z, Zi L, Yang Z. Di (n-butyl) Phthalate Inhibits Testosterone Synthesis Through a Glucocorticoid-Mediated Pathway in Rats. Int J Toxicol 2009; 28:448-56. [DOI: 10.1177/1091581809342596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The present study focused on investigating whether the inhibitory effect of di (n-butyl) phthalate (DBP) on testosterone (T) biosynthesis was mediated by the glucocorticoid (GC) pathway in prepubertal male rats and T production after the exposure to DBP ceased. Prepubertal male rats were administered DBP in corn oil orally at 0, 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg daily for 30 days. Serum T and GC were measured by radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. The responses, including glucocorticoid receptor (GR), type I 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD1), and steroidogenesis acute regulatory protein (StAR) in the testes tissues, were determined by Western blotting and reverse transcriptase PCR. DBP exposure resulted in testicular toxicity, such as seminiferous tubule degeneration and a decrease in the number of spermatogenic cells. T was decreased and GC was increased in a DBP concentration-dependent manner in the exposure group. The expression of GR and 11β-HSD1 was significantly increased, with an associated decrease in expression of StAR. Neither the expression of the GR nor 11β-HSD1 and StAR were statistically significantly different in the postexposure group compared with the control. However, the weight and morphology of the testes did not recover in the postexposure group. These data suggest that DBP inhibits testosterone production through a GC-mediated pathway in prepubertal male rats, and after exposure to DBP ceases, testosterone biosynthesis returns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang Xiao-feng
- From the Division of Toxicology, College of Public Health, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZX-f, QN-q, LZ, ZY); and Division of Occupational Health, Institute of Public Health Monitor, Heilongjiang Provincial Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZJ)
| | - Qu Nai-qiang
- From the Division of Toxicology, College of Public Health, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZX-f, QN-q, LZ, ZY); and Division of Occupational Health, Institute of Public Health Monitor, Heilongjiang Provincial Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZJ)
| | - Zheng Jing
- From the Division of Toxicology, College of Public Health, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZX-f, QN-q, LZ, ZY); and Division of Occupational Health, Institute of Public Health Monitor, Heilongjiang Provincial Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZJ)
| | - Li Zi
- From the Division of Toxicology, College of Public Health, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZX-f, QN-q, LZ, ZY); and Division of Occupational Health, Institute of Public Health Monitor, Heilongjiang Provincial Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZJ)
| | - Zhang Yang
- From the Division of Toxicology, College of Public Health, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZX-f, QN-q, LZ, ZY); and Division of Occupational Health, Institute of Public Health Monitor, Heilongjiang Provincial Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China (ZJ)
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169
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Aylward LL, Hays SM, Gagné M, Krishnan K. Derivation of Biomonitoring Equivalents for di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzylbutyl phthalate (BzBP), and diethyl phthalate (DEP). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 55:259-67. [PMID: 19751787 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2009.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2009] [Accepted: 09/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent efforts worldwide have resulted in a growing database of measured concentrations of chemicals in blood and urine samples taken from the general population. However, few tools exist to assist in the interpretation of the measured values in a health risk context. Biomonitoring Equivalents (BEs) are defined as the concentration or range of concentrations of a chemical or its metabolite in a biological medium (blood, urine, or other medium) that is consistent with an existing health-based exposure guideline, and are derived by integrating available data on pharmacokinetics with existing chemical risk assessments. This study reviews available health-based exposure guidance values for di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzylbutyl phthalate (BzBP), and diethyl phthalate (DEP) from Health Canada, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). BE values corresponding to the oral reference dose (RfD), minimal risk level (MRL) or tolerable daily intake (TDI) estimates from these agencies were derived for each compound based on data on excretion fractions of key urinary metabolites. These values may be used as screening tools for evaluation of biomonitoring data for metabolites of these three phthalate compounds in the context of existing risk assessments and for prioritization of the potential need for additional risk assessment efforts for each of these compounds relative to other chemicals.
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170
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Suzuki Y, Niwa M, Yoshinaga J, Watanabe C, Mizumoto Y, Serizawa S, Shiraishi H. Exposure assessment of phthalate esters in Japanese pregnant women by using urinary metabolite analysis. Environ Health Prev Med 2009; 14:180-7. [PMID: 19568846 DOI: 10.1007/s12199-009-0078-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2008] [Accepted: 01/12/2009] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Our objectives were (1) to evaluate whether single spot urine is suitable media for longer-term phthalate esters exposure assessment, and (2) to estimate intake level of phthalate esters of Japanese pregnant women using urinary metabolites as an indicator of prenatal exposure level in their offspring. METHODS We analyzed nine metabolites (MMP, MEP, MnBP, MBzP, MEHP, MEOHP, MEHHP, MINP, MnOP) of seven phthalate esters in spot urine samples from 50 pregnant women by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Using four urine samples collected from each of 12 subjects from 50 pregnant women within 5-12 weeks, we compared intra- and interindividual variation in urinary metabolites by calculation of intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). We estimated daily intakes of 50 pregnant women from their urinary metabolite concentrations. RESULTS ICCs for seven phthalate metabolite concentrations in single spot urine samples were: MMP (0.57), MEP (0.47), MnBP (0.69), MBzP (0.28), MEHP (0.51), MEHHP (0.43), and MEOHP (0.41) in 12 pregnant women. Phthalate ester metabolites had high detection rates in 50 subjects. The mean daily intake ranged from 0.01 to 2 mug/kg per day. The daily intake levels in all subjects were lower than corresponding tolerable daily intake (TDI) set by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), though maximum value for DnBP of 6.91 mug/kg per day accounted for 70% of TDI value. CONCLUSIONS Higher ICCs indicated that phthalate metabolite levels in single spot urine could reflect longer-term exposure to the corresponding diesters of subjects. Although the current exposure level was less than TDIs, further studies and exposure monitoring are needed to reveal the toxicity of phthalate esters to sensitive subpopulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yayoi Suzuki
- Department of Environmental Studies, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha 5-1-5, Kashiwa, Chiba, 270-8563, Japan,
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171
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Hernández-Díaz S, Mitchell AA, Kelley KE, Calafat AM, Hauser R. Medications as a potential source of exposure to phthalates in the U.S. population. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2009; 117:185-9. [PMID: 19270786 PMCID: PMC2649218 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2008] [Accepted: 10/07/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Widespread human exposure to phthalates, some of which are developmental and reproductive toxicants in experimental animals, raises concerns about potential human health risks. Underappreciated sources of exposure include phthalates in the polymers coating some oral medications. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to evaluate whether users of phthalate-containing medications have higher urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites than do nonusers. METHODS We used publically available files from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for the years 1999-2004. For certain survey periods, participants were asked to recall use of prescription medication during the past 30 days, and for a subsample of individuals, the urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites were measured. We a priori identified medications potentially containing phthalates as inactive ingredients and then compared the mean urinary concentration of phthalate metabolites between users and nonusers of those medications. RESULTS Of the 7,999 persons with information on urinary phthalate concentrations, 6 reported using mesalamine formulations, some of which may include dibutyl phthalate (DBP); the mean urinary concentration of monobutyl phthalate, the main DBP metabolite, among these mesalamine users was 50 times higher than the mean for nonusers (2,257 microg/L vs. 46 microg/L; p < 0.0001). Users of didanosine, omeprazole, and theophylline products, some of which may contain diethyl phthalate (DEP), had mean urinary concentrations of monoethyl phthalate, the main DEP metabolite, significantly higher than the mean for nonusers. CONCLUSION Select medications might be a source of high exposure to some phthalates, one of which, DBP, shows adverse developmental and reproductive effects in laboratory animals. These results raise concern about potential human health risks, specifically among vulnerable segments of the general population and particularly pregnant women and children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Hernández-Díaz
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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172
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To measure manicurists' exposure to dibutyl phthalate (DBP) at work and to determine whether workplace characteristics influence this exposure. DBP is a reproductive and developmental toxicant in rats and is used in nail polish to hold color and prevent chipping. METHODS Pre- and postshift spot urine samples were collected from 40 manicurists. Linear regression compared the relationship between the log of the cross-shift differences in urinary phthalate monoester metabolite concentrations and use of workplace exposure control methods. RESULTS There was a statistically significant cross-shift increase of 17.4 ng/mL in the urinary concentration of mono-n-butyl phthalate, the major metabolite of DBP. Use of gloves reduced mono-n-butyl phthalate concentrations by 15.1 ng/mL below the preshift concentration compared with a 20.5 ng/mL increase if gloves were not worn. CONCLUSIONS Manicurists are occupationally exposed to DBP and glove use may minimize this exposure.
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173
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Han SW, Lee H, Han SY, Lim DS, Jung KK, Kwack SJ, Kim KB, Lee BM. An exposure assessment of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) in human semen. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2009; 72:1463-1469. [PMID: 20077219 DOI: 10.1080/15287390903212972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Levels of the phthalates such as di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP, a major metabolite of DEHP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP, a major metabolite of DBP), and phthalic acid (P, (a common metabolite of phthalates, including DEHP and DBP) were determined in the semen samples of 99 healthy volunteers without known prior medicosurgical history. Samples were obtained from young men (age 20-25 yr) who visited a clinic, and the semen concentrations of phthalates were measured using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). UPLC/MS/MS showed that mean concentrations in semen samples were 1.07 microg/ml for MEHP, 0.61 microg/ml for DEHP, 0.39 microg/ml for PA, 0.06 microg/ml for MBP, and 0.003 microg/ml for DBP. The concentration of MEHP (the metabolite of DEHP) was highest, and the concentrations of the metabolites including MEHP, MBP, and PA were higher than actual concentrations of parent DEHP and DBP. These findings suggest the detection of phthalates in healthy human semen might require further investigation for effects on human fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Won Han
- Department of Urology, Urological Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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174
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Meeker JD, Calafat AM, Hauser R. Urinary metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate are associated with decreased steroid hormone levels in adult men. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 30:287-97. [PMID: 19059903 DOI: 10.2164/jandrol.108.006403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Experimental animal studies have demonstrated that exposure to some phthalates may be associated with altered endocrine function and adverse effects on male reproductive development and function, but human studies are limited. In the present study, urine and serum samples were collected from 425 men recruited through a US infertility clinic. Urinary concentrations of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), the hydrolytic metabolite of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and other phthalate monoester metabolites were measured, along with serum levels of testosterone, estradiol, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, inhibin B, and prolactin. Two oxidized urinary metabolites of DEHP were also measured in urine from 221 of the men. In multiple regression models adjusted for potential confounders, MEHP was inversely associated with testosterone, estradiol, and free androgen index (FAI). An interquartile range increase in MEHP was associated with 3.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], -6.8% to -0.5%) and 6.8% (95% CI, -11.2% to -2.4%) declines in testosterone and estradiol, respectively, relative to the population median hormone levels. There was limited evidence for effect modification of the inverse association between MEHP and FAI by the proportion of DEHP metabolites in the urine measured as MEHP (MEHP%), which is considered a phenotypic marker of less efficient metabolism of DEHP to its oxidized metabolites. Finally, the ratio of testosterone to estradiol was positively associated with MEHP (P = .07) and MEHP% (P = .007), suggesting potential relationships with aromatase suppression. In conclusion, these results suggest that urinary metabolites of DEHP are inversely associated with circulating steroid hormone levels in adult men. However, additional research is needed to confirm these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Meeker
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, 6635 SPH Tower, 109 S Observatory St, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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175
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Silva MJ, Reidy JA, Preau JL, Samandar E, Needham LL, Calafat AM. Measurement of eight urinary metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate as biomarkers for human exposure assessment. Biomarkers 2008; 11:1-13. [PMID: 16484133 DOI: 10.1080/13547500500382868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Human metabolism of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is complex and yields mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and numerous oxidative metabolites. The oxidative metabolites, mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP) and mono(2-carboxymethylhexyl) phthalate (MCMHP), have been considered to be better biomarkers for DEHP exposure assessment than MEHP because urinary levels of these metabolites are generally higher than MEHP, and their measurements are not subject to contamination. The urinary levels of the above metabolites, and of three other recently identified DEHP oxidative metabolites, mono(2-ethyl-3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MECPrP), mono-2-(1-oxoethylhexyl) phthalate (MOEHP), and mono(2-ethyl-4-carboxybutyl) phthalate (MECBP), were measured in 129 adults. MECPP, MCMHP and MEHHP were present in all the samples analysed. MEHP and the other oxidative metabolites were detected less frequently: MEOHP (99%), MECBP (88%), MECPrP (84%), MEHP (83%) and MOEHP (77%). The levels of all DEHP metabolites were highly correlated (p<0.0001) with each other, confirming a common parent. The ? and ?-1 oxidative metabolites (MECPP, MCMHP, MEHHP and MEOHP) comprised 87.1% of all metabolites measured, and thus are most likely the best biomarkers for DEHP exposure assessment. The percentage of the unglucuronidated free form excreted in urine was higher for the ester linkage carboxylated DEHP metabolites compared with alcoholic and ketonic DEHP metabolites. The percentage of the unglucuronidated free form excreted in urine was higher for the DEHP metabolites with a carboxylated ester side-chain compared with alcoholic and ketonic metabolites. Further, differences were found between the DEHP metabolite profile between this adult population and that of six neonates exposed to high doses of DEHP through extensive medical treatment. In the neonates, MEHP represented 0.6% and MECPP 65.5% of the eight DEHP metabolites measured compared to 6.6% (MEHP) and 31.8% (MECPP) in the adults. Whether the observed differences reflect differences in route/duration of the exposure, age and/or health status of the individuals is presently unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Silva
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
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176
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Effects of phthalate ester derivatives including oxidized metabolites on coactivator recruiting by PPARα and PPARγ. Toxicol In Vitro 2008; 22:1534-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2008.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2007] [Revised: 05/10/2008] [Accepted: 05/26/2008] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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177
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Silva MJ, Preau JL, Needham LL, Calafat AM. Cross validation and ruggedness testing of analytical methods used for the quantification of urinary phthalate metabolites. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2008; 873:180-6. [PMID: 18790687 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2008] [Revised: 08/19/2008] [Accepted: 08/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Since the publication of our first analytical method in 2000 to detect and quantify phthalate metabolites in human urine, we have modified the method several times to improve performance, reduce the volume of matrix and solvents used, and to increase the number of analytes in one analytical run. We performed cross method validation and ruggedness testing after each modification to ensure that the analytical method adopted is robust and produces accurate and reproducible data when compared to the previously used method. Here, we present the results from the evaluation of the ruggedness of our analytical approach under variable experimental conditions, using the current analytical method. Minor deviations of the standard experimental conditions, i.e., pH, incubation time, amount of deconjugation enzyme, and incubation temperature, had no effect on final analyte concentrations. Furthermore, we validated the method to ensure accuracy at concentrations beyond the highest calibration standard. The concentrations obtained by using a lower volume of urine agreed well with original levels, suggesting broad linear calibration range as well as complete hydrolysis of the glucuronide conjugates with the standard amount of beta-glucuronidase used for deglucuronidation; also, the time of incubation (90 min) was adequate regardless of the amount of glucuronide present. We also summarize the precision of concentration data acquired by the five different analytical approaches we have used since 2000. The correlation plots of concentration data for each analyte obtained from split sample analysis, using three of these approaches, produced linear curves (R(2)>0.98) with slopes and intercepts that were not statistically different (p>0.05) from 1 and 0, respectively. These results suggest that the data are reproducible and accurate, regardless of the analytical method used. Furthermore, analysis of quality control urine samples made over the years confirmed the stability of the phthalate metabolites in urine at -70 degrees C for several years and the consistency of the analytical measurements obtained by using various methodological approaches over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manori J Silva
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, United States.
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178
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Adeniyi A, Dayomi M, Siebe P, Okedeyi O. An assessment of the levels of phthalate esters and metals in the Muledane open dump, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Chem Cent J 2008; 2:9. [PMID: 18474112 PMCID: PMC2397408 DOI: 10.1186/1752-153x-2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2008] [Accepted: 05/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This work reports the determination of the levels of phthalate esters (dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP)) and metals (lead, cadmium, manganese, zinc, iron, calcium) in composite soil samples. The soil samples were collected randomly within the Muledane open dump, Thohoyandou, Limpopo province, South Africa. Control samples were collected about 200 m away from the open dump. The phthalate esters were separated and determined by capillary gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector, whilst the metals were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. RESULTS Open dump values for the phthalate esters and metals to be generally higher in comparison to control samples for DMP, DEP, DBP and DEHP - the mean values calculated were 0.31 +/- 0.12, 0.21 +/- 0.05, 0.30 +/- 0.07, and 0.03 +/- 0.01 mg/kg, respectively, for the open dump soil samples. Nonetheless, the mean open dump values for lead, cadmium, manganese, zinc, iron and calcium were 0.07 +/- 0.04, 0.003 +/- 0.001, 5.02 +/- 1.92, 0.31 +/- 0.02, 11.62 +/- 9.48 and 0.12 +/- 0.13 mg/kg, respectively. The results were compared statistically. CONCLUSION Our results revealed that the discarding of wastes into the open dump is a potential source of soil contamination in the immediate vicinity and beyond, via dispersal. Increased levels of phthalate esters and metals in the soil pose a risk to public health, plants and animals. Sustained monitoring of these contaminants is recommended, in addition to upgrading the facility to a landfill.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeleke Adeniyi
- Department of Chemistry, Lagos State University, Ojo, PMB, 0001, LASU Post Office, Badagry Expressway, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Matthew Dayomi
- Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, 0950, Limpopo Province, South Africa
| | - Pitso Siebe
- Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, 0950, Limpopo Province, South Africa
| | - Olumuyiwa Okedeyi
- Department of Chemistry, Lagos State University, Ojo, PMB, 0001, LASU Post Office, Badagry Expressway, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria
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179
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Feng YL, Zhu J. Constant pressure-assisted electrokinetic injection for on-line enhanced detection of monophthalates in capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry with application to human urine. Electrophoresis 2008; 29:1965-73. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.200700773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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180
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Adibi JJ, Whyatt RM, Williams PL, Calafat AM, Camann D, Herrick R, Nelson H, Bhat HK, Perera FP, Silva MJ, Hauser R. Characterization of phthalate exposure among pregnant women assessed by repeat air and urine samples. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:467-73. [PMID: 18414628 PMCID: PMC2291011 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.10749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2007] [Accepted: 01/14/2008] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites are frequently used as biomarkers in epidemiologic studies, variability during pregnancy has not been characterized. METHODS We measured phthalate metabolite concentrations in spot urine samples collected from 246 pregnant Dominican and African-American women. Twenty-eight women had repeat urine samples collected over a 6-week period. We also analyzed 48-hr personal air samples (n = 96 women) and repeated indoor air samples (n = 32 homes) for five phthalate diesters. Mixed-effects models were fit to evaluate reproducibility via intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). We evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of using a single specimen versus repeat samples to classify a woman's exposure in the low or high category. RESULTS Phthalates were detected in 85-100% of air and urine samples. ICCs for the unadjusted urinary metabolite concentrations ranged from 0.30 for mono-ethyl phthalate to 0.66 for monobenzyl phthalate. For indoor air, ICCs ranged from 0.48 [di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP)] to 0.83 [butylbenzyl phthalate (BBzP)]. Air levels of phthalate diesters correlated with their respective urinary metabolite concentrations for BBzP (r = 0.71), di-isobutyl phthalate (r = 0.44), and diethyl phthalate (DEP; r = 0.39). In women sampled late in pregnancy, specific gravity appeared to be more effective than creatinine in adjusting for urine dilution. CONCLUSIONS Urinary concentrations of DEP and DEHP metabolites in pregnant women showed lower reproducibility than metabolites for di-n-butyl phthalate and BBzP. A single indoor air sample may be sufficient to characterize phthalate exposure in the home, whereas urinary phthalate biomarkers should be sampled longitudinally during pregnancy to minimize exposure misclassification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J. Adibi
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Robin M. Whyatt
- Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Address correspondence to R.M. Whyatt, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Joseph L. Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 60 Haven Ave., B-109, New York, NY 10032 USA. Telephone: (646) 459-9609. Fax: (646) 459-9610. E-mail:
| | - Paige L. Williams
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Antonia M. Calafat
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - David Camann
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Robert Herrick
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Heather Nelson
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Hari K. Bhat
- Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Frederica P. Perera
- Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Manori J. Silva
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Russ Hauser
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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181
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Chen ML, Chen JS, Tang CL, Mao IF. The internal exposure of Taiwanese to phthalate--an evidence of intensive use of plastic materials. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2008; 34:79-85. [PMID: 17765308 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2007] [Revised: 07/09/2007] [Accepted: 07/10/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Phthalates are widely used in industry and consumer products. Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butylphthalate (DBP) show the greatest potency of reproductive toxicants among phthalates. The purposes of this study are to examine the migration level of phthalate from PVC films by simulating food handling and to reveal the body burden of phthalate for Taiwanese. In order to estimate a worst-case of phthalate migration, food was covered with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) films and then microwave heated. Results show that DEHP level in food increased significantly after heating for 3 min. Under the heating condition, the calculated intake of phthalate and the percentage of the tolerable daily intake (TDI, based on body weight of 60 kg) from eating one 400-g meal were 1705.6 microg and 92.2% for DEHP. Determination of urinary metabolites from 60 subjects reveals more than 90% of samples were detectable for mono-methyl phthalate (MMP), mono-butyl phthalate (MBP) and mono-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP). Notably, the median value of estimated daily intake of DEHP had reached 91.6% of TDI established by the European Union Scientific Committee for Toxicity, Ecotoxicity and the Environment (CSTEE) (1998). Thirty-seven percent of the study population exceeded the TDI and 85% exceeded the reference dose (RfD) of the US EPA. We conclude that the body burden of DEHP for Taiwanese reflects the intensives use of plastic materials in the region. The regulation of PVC for food preparation is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Lien Chen
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Yang Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
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182
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Dalman A, Eimani H, Sepehri H, Ashtiani SK, Valojerdi MR, Eftekhari-Yazdi P, Shahverdi A. Effect of mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) on resumption of meiosis, in vitro maturation and embryo development of immature mouse oocytes. Biofactors 2008; 33:149-55. [PMID: 19346590 DOI: 10.1002/biof.5520330207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of MEHP on in vitro maturation of mouse oocytes and resulting embryo development. Denuded oocytes (DO) were cultured in maturation medium supplemented with 0, 50, 100, 200 and 400 microM levels of MEHP for 24 h. The matured oocytes then were fertilized and cultured for 4 days. The percentage of Germinal Vesicle (GV) stage oocytes were significantly higher in 200 and 400 microM MEHP treatment comparing to the control (P < 0.05). The proportion of oocytes that progressed to the metaphase II (MII) stage was significantly decreased by adding of MEHP in a dose related pattern. The 2-cell embryo formation was significantly decreased with 400 microM treatments than the control. Moreover with further culture in experimental groups none of the embryos comparing to that of the control group were developed to morulla stage (P < 0.05). These results indicate that MEHP could negatively modulate mouse oocyte meiotic maturation in vitro and embryo development, suggesting possible risks for human and other mammalians reproductive health.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Dalman
- Department of Embryology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute, ACECR,Tehran, Iran
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183
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Tay TW, Andriana BB, Ishii M, Tsunekawa N, Kanai Y, Kurohmaru M. Disappearance of vimentin in Sertoli cells: a mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate effect. Int J Toxicol 2007; 26:289-95. [PMID: 17661219 DOI: 10.1080/00207450701470757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The effects of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) on 21-day-old C57Bl/6N mice and their Sertoli cell cultures were studied. Mice were given a single dose of 800 mg/kg MEHP by oral gavage and sacrificed 24 h later. At the same time, testes were harvested from another batch of mice for Sertoli cell cultures. Cultures were subsequently exposed to 0, 1, and 100 nmol/ml MEHP for 0, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h. An antivimentin antibody was used to detect intermediate filament changes in Sertoli cells. Meanwhile, detection of preapoptotic signals and presence of apoptotic cells were done using annexin V-FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate) and TUNEL (deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling) analyses, respectively. In vivo results showed a correlation between the increase in TUNEL-positive cells and the vimentin disruption in treated mice. Toluidine blue staining of the Sertoli cell cultures showed the increased number and size of vacuoles in Sertoli cell cytoplasm. Vimentin immunohistochemistry showed gradual disappearance of vimentin in Sertoli cell cultures as time and dose increased. Some Sertoli cells were found to be annexin V-FITC positive, but no TUNEL-positive cells were found. Taken together, these results show that the appearance of vacuoles and the vimentin disappearance caused by MEHP in the Sertoli cells are related with each other and can be observed in relation to time. This can be used as an indicator of the loss of mechanical support for spermatogenic cells, which in the end causes apoptosis of spermatogenic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tat Wei Tay
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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184
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Tay TW, Andriana BB, Ishii M, Choi EK, Zhu XB, Alam MS, Tsunekawa N, Kanai Y, Kurohmaru M. Phagocytosis plays an important role in clearing dead cells caused by mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate administration. Tissue Cell 2007; 39:241-6. [PMID: 17590400 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2007.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2007] [Revised: 04/19/2007] [Accepted: 04/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The role of phagocytosis in eliminating apoptotic spermatogenic cells caused by mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) was studied. Twenty-one-day-old C57Bl/6N male mice were given a single dose of 800 mg/kg MEHP in corn oil by oral gavage and sacrificed at 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 days after initial exposure. At the same time, the role of phagocytosis in MEHP related apoptosis was examined using microinjection of annexin V into the seminiferous tubules of living mice. Results showed that mice treated with MEHP had a lower rate of testis weight gain (lower regression line) and a significant TUNEL-positive spermatogenic cell number compared to control. However, this incident was reversible, and the number of TUNEL-positive cells returned to normal after 9 days. Mice microinjected with annexin V and later treated with MEHP showed a large amount of TUNEL-positive cells compared to mice treated with MEHP only. This clearly proves that phagocytosis plays an efficient and highly important role in eliminating dead cells in the injured testis of mice treated with MEHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- T W Tay
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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185
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Itoh H, Yoshida K, Masunaga S. Quantitative identification of unknown exposure pathways of phthalates based on measuring their metabolites in human urine. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2007; 41:4542-7. [PMID: 17695894 DOI: 10.1021/es062926y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Humans are exposed to ubiquitous phthalates via multiple pathways. Exposures to phthalates have been estimated in some previous risk assessments in Japan based on point-of-contact measurement or scenario evaluation approaches. While the Japanese national government has regulated the use of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and excluded several other phthalates from its regulation based on some of them, it is unclear whether such past exposure assessment studies fully assessed total human exposure to phthalates. In the present study, we measured their urinary metabolites, which show direct evidence of human exposure to phthalates. We recruited voluntary participants (N = 36) who agreed to donate urine samples, and measured the urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites using enzymatic deconjugation, solid-phase extraction, and high-performance liquid-chromatography isotope-dilution tandem mass spectrometry. We then derived the daily intakes of their respective phthalates based on steady state assumption and finally compared them with the corresponding estimated daily intakes of each phthalate via diet and air derived from previous exposure or risk assessments in Japan. These comparisons showed that exposures to dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, and di-n-butyl phthalate via diet and air accounted for less than half of their respective total exposures. On the other hand, it appears that dietary intake was more predictive for the total exposure to n-butyl-benzyl phthalate and DEHP. The probabilities that the log normal distribution of each phthalate daily intake estimated from the present study exceeds the corresponding tolerable daily intake were estimated to be less than 10(-4).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Itoh
- Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-7, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan.
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186
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Abstract
Phthalates are synthetic compounds widely used as plasticisers, solvents and additives in many consumer products. Several animal studies have shown that some phthalates possess endocrine disrupting effects. Some of the effects of phthalates seen in rats are due to testosterone lowering effects on the foetal testis and they are similar to those seen in humans with testicular dysgenesis syndrome. Therefore, exposure of the human foetus and infants to phthalates via maternal exposure is a matter of concern. The metabolic pathways of phthalate metabolites excreted in human urine are partly known for some phthalates, but our knowledge about metabolic distribution in the body and other biological fluids, including breast milk, is limited. Compared to urine, human breast milk contains relatively more of the hydrophobic phthalates, such as di-n-butyl phthalate and the longer-branched, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DiNP); and their monoester metabolites. Urine, however, contains relatively more of the secondary metabolites of DEHP and DiNP, as well as the monoester phthalates of the more short-branched phthalates. This differential distribution is of special concern as, in particular, the hydrophobic phthalates and their metabolites are shown to have adverse effects following in utero and lactational exposures in animal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanne Frederiksen
- Department of Growth and Reproduction, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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187
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Meeker JD, Calafat AM, Hauser R. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites may alter thyroid hormone levels in men. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2007; 115:1029-34. [PMID: 17637918 PMCID: PMC1913587 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2006] [Accepted: 03/12/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phthalates are used extensively in many personal-care and consumer products, resulting in widespread nonoccupational human exposure through multiple routes and media. A limited number of animal studies suggest that exposure to phthalates may be associated with altered thyroid function, but human data are lacking. METHODS Concurrent samples of urine and blood were collected from 408 men. We measured urinary concentrations of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), the hydrolytic metabolite of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and other phthalate monoester metabolites, along with serum levels of free thyroxine (T(4)), total triiodothyronine (T(3)), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Oxidative metabolites of DEHP were measured in urine from only 208 of the men. RESULTS We found an inverse association between MEHP urinary concentrations and free T(4) and T(3) serum levels, although the relationships did not appear to be linear when MEHP concentrations were categorized by quintiles. There was evidence of a plateau at the fourth quintile, which was associated with a 0.11 ng/dL decrease in free T(4) [95% confidence interval (CI), -0.18 to -0.03] and a 0.05 ng/mL decrease in T(3) (95% CI, -0.10 to 0.01) compared with the first (lowest) MEHP quintile. The inverse relationship between MEHP and free T(4) remained when we adjusted for oxidative metabolite concentrations; this simultaneously demonstrated a suggestive positive association with free T(4). CONCLUSIONS Urinary MEHP concentrations may be associated with altered free T(4) and/or total T(3) levels in adult men, but additional study is needed to confirm the observed findings. Future studies must also consider oxidative DEHP metabolites relative to MEHP as a potential marker of metabolic susceptibility to DEHP exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Meeker
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
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188
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Tay TW, Andriana BB, Ishii M, Choi EK, Zhu XB, Alam MS, Tsunekawa N, Kanai Y, Kurohmaru M. An ultrastructural study on the effects of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on mice testes: cell death and sloughing of spermatogenic cells. Okajimas Folia Anat Jpn 2007; 83:123-30. [PMID: 17380854 DOI: 10.2535/ofaj.83.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) is a well-characterized testicular toxicant. In this study, morphological alterations of mice testes caused by repeated administrations of MEHP were examined by light and transmission electron microscopy. Prepubertal male mice were given a range of MEHP doses (600-900 mg/kg/day) for 3 consecutive days in corn oil by oral gavage. Control animals were given only corn oil. Thereafter, the testes were excised, fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for light microscopy and/or 5% glutaraldehyde for transmission electron microscopy. Then, they were embedded, and sectioned. TUNEL analysis was done to quantify the occurrence of apoptosis in the testis. Cellular damages were also observed. Results showed that administration of 700 mg/kg of MEHP caused a significant increase in TUNEL-positive cells. At the same time, mice treated with higher doses of MEHP showed presence of degenerating (apoptotic and necrotic) spermatogenic cells. Appearance of small vacuoles in the Sertoli cell cytoplasm and displacement of spermatogenic cells were also observed. Sloughed and shed spermatogenic cells found in the tubular lumen were identified to be necrotic and apoptotic in appearance, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tat Wei Tay
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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189
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Ableitung von Human-Biomonitoring-(HBM-) Werten auf der Basis tolerabler Aufnahmemengen–Teil III: HBM-Werte für Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalat (DEHP). Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00103-007-0147-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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190
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Hauser R, Meeker JD, Duty S, Silva MJ, Calafat AM. Altered semen quality in relation to urinary concentrations of phthalate monoester and oxidative metabolites. Epidemiology 2007; 17:682-91. [PMID: 17003688 DOI: 10.1097/01.ede.0000235996.89953.d7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phthalates are multifunctional chemicals used in a variety of consumer, medical, and personal care products. Previously, we reported dose-response associations of decreased semen quality with urinary concentrations of monobutyl phthalate (MBP) and monobenzyl (MBzP) phthalate, which are metabolites of dibutyl phthalate and butylbenzyl phthalate, respectively. The present study extends our work in a larger sample of men and includes measurements of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) oxidative metabolites. METHODS Between January 2000 and May 2004, we recruited 463 male partners of subfertile couples who presented for semen analysis to the Massachusetts General Hospital. Semen parameters were dichotomized based on World Health Organization reference values for sperm concentration (<20 million/mL) and motility (<50% motile) and the Tygerberg Kruger Strict criteria for morphology (<4% normal). The comparison group was men with all 3 semen parameters above the reference values. In a single spot urine sample from each man, phthalate metabolites were measured using solid-phase extraction coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography isotope-dilution tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS There were dose-response relationships of MBP with low sperm concentration (odds ratio per quartile adjusted for age, abstinence time, and smoking status = 1.00, 3.1, 2.5, 3.3; P for trend = 0.04) and motility (1.0, 1.5, 1.5, 1.8; P for trend = 0.04). There was suggestive evidence of an association between the highest MBzP quartile and low sperm concentration (1.00, 1.1, 1.1, 1.9; P for trend = 0.13). There were no relationships of monoethyl phthalate, monomethyl phthalate, and the DEHP metabolites with these semen parameters. CONCLUSION The present study confirms previous results on the relationship of altered semen quality with exposure to MBP at general population levels. We did not find associations between semen parameters and 3 DEHP metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russ Hauser
- Harvard School of Public Health/Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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191
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Nakazawa H, Ito R, Iwasaki Y, Nakata A, Saito K. Trace Analysis of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals for Risk Assessment to Human Exposure. BUNSEKI KAGAKU 2007. [DOI: 10.2116/bunsekikagaku.56.1005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Rie Ito
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Hoshi University
| | | | - Ayako Nakata
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Hoshi University
| | - Koichi Saito
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Hoshi University
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192
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Calafat AM, McKee RH. Integrating biomonitoring exposure data into the risk assessment process: phthalates [diethyl phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate] as a case study. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2006; 114:1783-9. [PMID: 17107868 PMCID: PMC1665433 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2006] [Accepted: 05/04/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The probability of nonoccupational exposure to phthalates is high given their use in a vast range of consumables, including personal care products (e.g., perfumes, lotions, cosmetics), paints, industrial plastics, and certain medical devices and pharmaceuticals. Phthalates are of high interest because of their potential for human exposure and because animal toxicity studies suggest that some phthalates affect male reproductive development apparently via inhibition of androgen biosynthesis. In humans, phthalates are rapidly metabolized to their monoesters, which can be further transformed to oxidative products, conjugated, and eliminated. Phthalate metabolites have been used as biomarkers of exposure. Using urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations allows accurate assessments of human exposure because these concentrations represent an integrative measure of exposure to phthalates from multiple sources and routes. However, the health significance of this exposure is unknown. To link biomarker measurements to exposure, internal dose, or health outcome, additional information (e.g., toxicokinetics, inter- and intraindividual differences) is needed. We present a case study using diethyl phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate as examples to illustrate scientific approaches and their limitations, identify data gaps, and outline research needs for using biomonitoring data in the context of human health risk assessment, with an emphasis on exposure and dose. Although the vast and growing literature on phthalates research could not be covered comprehensively in this article, we made every attempt to include the most relevant publications as of the end of 2005.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA.
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193
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Pan G, Hanaoka T, Yoshimura M, Zhang S, Wang P, Tsukino H, Inoue K, Nakazawa H, Tsugane S, Takahashi K. Decreased serum free testosterone in workers exposed to high levels of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP): a cross-sectional study in China. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2006; 114:1643-8. [PMID: 17107847 PMCID: PMC1665432 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Observations of adverse developmental and reproductive effects in laboratory animals and wildlife have fueled increasing public concern regarding the potential for various chemicals to impair human fertility. OBJECTIVE Our objective in this study was to assess the effect of occupational exposure to high levels of phthalate esters on the balance of gonadotropin and gonadal hormones including luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, free testosterone (fT), and estradiol. METHODS We examined urine and blood samples of 74 male workers at a factory producing unfoamed polyvinyl chloride flooring exposed to di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and compared them with samples from 63 male workers from a construction company, group matched for age and smoking status. RESULTS Compared to the unexposed workers, the exposed workers had substantially and significantly elevated concentrations of mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP; 644.3 vs. 129.6 microg/g creatinine, p < 0.001) and mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP; 565.7 vs. 5.7 microg/g creatinine, p < 0.001). fT was significantly lower (8.4 vs. 9.7 microg/g creatinine, p = 0.019) in exposed workers than in unexposed workers. fT was negatively correlated to MBP (r = -0.25, p = 0.03) and MEHP (r = -0.19, p = 0.095) in the exposed worker group. Regression analyses revealed that fT decreases significantly with increasing total phthalate ester score (the sum of quartiles of MBP and MEHP; r = -0.26, p = 0.002). CONCLUSION We observed a modest and significant reduction of serum fT in workers with higher levels of urinary MBP and MEHP compared with unexposed workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guowei Pan
- Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Liaoning Provincial Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tomoyuki Hanaoka
- Epidemiology and Prevention Division, Research Center for Cancer Prevention and Screening, National Cancer Center, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Environmental Epidemiology, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Kitakyushu, Japan
- Department of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine, Showa University, School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mariko Yoshimura
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shenyang Municipal Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shujuan Zhang
- Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Liaoning Provincial Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ping Wang
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shenyang Municipal Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hiromasa Tsukino
- Epidemiology and Prevention Division, Research Center for Cancer Prevention and Screening, National Cancer Center, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koichi Inoue
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hoshi University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Nakazawa
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hoshi University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shoichiro Tsugane
- Epidemiology and Prevention Division, Research Center for Cancer Prevention and Screening, National Cancer Center, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ken Takahashi
- Department of Environmental Epidemiology, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Kitakyushu, Japan
- Address correspondence to K. Takahashi, Department of Environmental Epidemiology, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, 1-1 Iseigaoka, Yahatanishi-ku, Kitakyushu 807-8555, Japan. Telephone: 81-93-601-7401. Fax: 81-93-601-7324. E-mail:
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194
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Jaakkola JJK, Ieromnimon A, Jaakkola MS. Interior surface materials and asthma in adults: a population-based incident case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 2006; 164:742-9. [PMID: 16877535 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwj249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The authors conducted a population-based incident case-control study to assess the relations between different types of interior surface materials and recent renovations at home and at work and the risk of asthma in adults. The authors systematically recruited all new cases of asthma during a 2.5-year study period (1997-2000) and randomly selected controls from a source population consisting of adults 21-63 years of age living in south Finland. The clinically diagnosed cases consisted of 521 adults with new asthma, and the controls consisted of 932 adults fulfilling eligibility criteria. In logistic regression analysis adjusting for confounding, the risk of asthma was related to the presence of plastic wall materials (adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 2.43, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03, 5.75) and wall-to-wall carpet at work (adjusted OR = 1.73, 95% CI: 0.74, 4.09), the latter in particular in the presence of mold problems (adjusted OR = 4.64, 95% CI: 1.11, 19.4). Use of floor-leveling plaster at home during the past 12 months was also a determinant of onset of asthma (adjusted OR = 1.81, 95% CI: 1.06, 3.08). These findings underline the need to consider the health aspects of materials used in floor, wall, and other indoor surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jouni J K Jaakkola
- Institute of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.
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195
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Zhu J, Phillips SP, Feng YL, Yang X. Phthalate esters in human milk: concentration variations over a 6-month postpartum time. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2006; 40:5276-81. [PMID: 16999099 DOI: 10.1021/es060356w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated the levels of phthalate esters in a total of 86 human milk samples collected among 21 breast-feeding mothers over a 6-month postpartum time. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was the predominant ester with the arithmetic mean value of 222 ng g(-1) (range: 156-398 ng g(-1), 95% confidence limit), followed by dibutyl phthalate (DBP), 0.87 (range: 0.62-1.2) ng g(-1). Diethyl phthalate (DEP), with a mean of 0.31 ng g(-1), was detected in only a small number of samples. Weak correlations between lipid content and levels of phthalate esters were observed. The levels of phthalate esters in human milk fluctuated over the 6-month period; this may indicate a need for multiple sample collection, to calculate average concentrations over the feeding period. Multiple sample collection would provide a better estimate of the exposure of breast-fed infants to phthalate in human milk. For infants relying on breast-feeding, the mean daily intake over the first 6-month period considering a 7 kg infant consuming 750 g of milk was estimated at 167 microg d(-1) for DEHP and less than 1 microg d(-1) for DBP and DEP. While the nutritional and social benefits of breast-feeding are well established, the potential transfer of phthalate esters from mothers to breast-fed infants should also be recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiping Zhu
- Chemistry Research Division, Health Canada AL: 0800C, EHC (Building 8), Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0L2.
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Silva MJ, Reidy JA, Preau JL, Needham LL, Calafat AM. Oxidative metabolites of diisononyl phthalate as biomarkers for human exposure assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2006; 114:1158-61. [PMID: 16882519 PMCID: PMC1552017 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Diisononyl phthalate (DINP) is a complex mixture of predominantly nine-carbon branched-chain dialkyl phthalate isomers. Similar to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, a widely used phthalate, DINP causes antiandrogenic effects on developing rodent male fetuses. Traditionally, assessment of human exposure to DINP has been done using monoisononyl phthalate (MINP) , the hydrolytic metabolite of DINP, as a biomarker. However, MINP is only a minor urinary metabolite of DINP. Oxidative metabolites, including mono(carboxyisooctyl) phthalate (MCIOP) , mono(oxoisononyl) phthalate (MOINP) , and mono(hydroxyisononyl) phthalate (MHINP) are the major urinary metabolites in DINP-dosed rats. The urinary concentrations of MINP, MCIOP, MOINP, and MHINP were measured in 129 adult anonymous human volunteers with no known exposure to DINP. Although MINP was not present at detectable levels in any of the samples analyzed, MCIOP, MHINP, and MOINP were detected in 97, 100, and 87% of the urine samples at geometric mean levels equal to 8.6, 11.4, and 1.2 ng/mL, respectively. The concentrations of all three oxidative metabolites were highly correlated with each other (p<0.0001), which confirms a common precursor. MCIOP was excreted predominantly as a free species, whereas MOINP was excreted mostly in its glucuronidated form. The percentage of MHINP excreted either glucuronidated or in its free form was similar. The significantly higher frequency of detection and urinary concentrations of oxidative metabolites than of MINP suggest that these oxidative metabolites are better biomarkers of exposure assessment of DINP than is MINP. Therefore, we concluded that the prevalence of human exposure to DINP is underestimated by using MINP as the sole DINP urinary biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manori J Silva
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA.
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197
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Jen JF, Liu TC. Determination of phthalate esters from food-contacted materials by on-line microdialysis and liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1130:28-33. [PMID: 16837003 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2006] [Revised: 06/05/2006] [Accepted: 06/08/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Phthalates (endocrine disrupters) released from food-contacted plastics into aqueous solution during microwave conditioning were measured with microdialysis enrichment on-lined high-performance liquid chromatography. The released phthalates in aqueous solution were diffused through a cellular dialysis membrane into the perfusion stream and thus enriched prior to HPLC analysis. Conditions for obtaining optimum enrichment such as the hollow dialysis fiber, flow-rate and polarity modifier in perfusion stream, pH, added-salt and stirring rate in sample solution, as well as chromatographic conditions were investigated. Experimental results indicated that microdialysis enrichment with a 20-cm polysulfone hollow dialysis fiber and heptane as the perfusate at 0.10-microL/min flow-rate to collect phthalates from aqueous sample in 0.5M KCl matrix (optional pH) at 250 rpm stirring offered the optimum enriched efficiency. The dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) were well separated within 16 min by a C-18 column and eluted gradient from 40 to 90% aqueous acetonitrile (at pH 6.0) and 1.0 to 1.5 mL/min flow-rate. Detection was carried out with an UV detector at 225 nm. The enrichment factors were 14, 140 and 201 (at 0.10-microL/min perfusate flow-rate) for DMP, DEP and DBP, respectively, with less than 4% RSD. The proposed method provided a very simple, fast and eco-friendly enriched procedure to determine the extent of phthalates migration from disposable plastic materials into drinking soup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jen-Fon Jen
- Department of Chemistry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40217, Taiwan.
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198
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Ogunfowokan AO, Torto N, Adenuga AA, Okoh EK. Survey of levels of phthalate ester plasticizers in a sewage lagoon effluent and a receiving stream. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2006; 118:457-80. [PMID: 16897557 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-006-1500-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2005] [Accepted: 08/01/2005] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In this study, samples from a sewage treatment lagoon and those from a receiving stream were analyzed for their phthalate esters content. Knowledge of the distribution of ubiquitous phthalate esters in the sewage lagoon and the receiving stream was necessary because of the reports of their subtle toxicity to aquatic biota and humans. Liquid-liquid extraction, Clean-up experiment and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) were the methods employed for the quantitative determination of the Phthalates. A study of uncontaminated water was done to establish blank levels. The sewage lagoon and the receiving stream were grossly polluted as several phthalate ester plasticizers: DMP, DEP, DPhP, DBP, DEHP, DOP and DINP were found present at monthly mean levels of between 24.02 mg/L and 139.25 mg/L in the sewage treatment lagoon and 10.41 mg/L and 80.53 mg/L in the receiving stream. The results showed higher levels of phthalate esters in the sewage lagoon compared to the receiving stream. The sewage lagoon was identified as a pollution point source into the receiving stream. Levels of phthalates obtained from the receiving stream are much higher than the water criteria of 3 microg/L phthalates recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for the protection of fish and other aquatic life in water and the Suggested No-Adverse Effect Levels (SNAEL) of 7.5-38.5 microg/L for drinking water. This should give cause for great environmental concern. Peoples' health downstream is at stake and so is the 'health' of the ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- A O Ogunfowokan
- Department of Chemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, 220005, Nigeria.
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199
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Calafat AM, Ye X, Silva MJ, Kuklenyik Z, Needham LL. Human exposure assessment to environmental chemicals using biomonitoring. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 29:166-71; discussion 181-5. [PMID: 16466536 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2605.2005.00570.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In modern societies, humans may be exposed to a wide spectrum of environmental chemicals. Although the health significance of this exposure for many chemicals is unknown, studies to investigate the prevalence of exposure are warranted because of the chemicals' potential harmful health effects, as often indicated in animal studies. Three tools have been used to assess exposure: exposure history/questionnaire information, environmental monitoring, and biomonitoring (i.e. measuring concentrations of the chemicals, their metabolites, or their adducts in human specimens). We present an overview on the use of biomonitoring in exposure assessment using phthalates, bisphenol A and other environmental phenols, and perfluorinated chemicals as examples. We discuss some factors relevant for interpreting and understanding biomonitoring data, including selection of both biomarkers of exposure and human matrices, and toxicokinetic information. The use of biomonitoring in human risk assessment is not discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
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200
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Luisi S, Latini G, de Felice C, Sanseverino F, di Pasquale D, Mazzeo P, Petraglia F. Low serum concentrations of di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in women with uterine fibromatosis. Gynecol Endocrinol 2006; 22:92-5. [PMID: 16603434 DOI: 10.1080/09513590600551312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is the most commonly used plasticizer in flexible polyvinylchloride formulations, and is a widespread ubiquitous environmental contaminant. A potential role of exposure to DEHP and its primary metabolite, monoethylhexylphthalate (MEHP), on women's reproductive function is suggested in the current study. The aim of the study was to test serum concentrations of DEHP and/or MEHP in women with uterine fibromatosis. Two groups of women were enrolled in the study: (i) women with uterine fibromatosis undergoing surgical menopause (n = 15) and (ii) healthy women (n = 20). Serum DEHP and MEHP concentrations were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. Serum MEHP distribution was found to be non-Gaussian (p = 0.001) while serum DEHP distribution was compatible with a normal curve (p = 0.141). Patients with uterine fibromatosis showed significantly lower serum MEHP concentrations (median [interquartile range]: 0 [0-0] microg/ml, range: 0-0.57 microg/ml) than controls (0.42 [0-0.51] microg/ml, range: 0-1.20 microg/ml, z = -2.93, p = 0.0034). Likewise, serum DEHP concentrations in women with fibromatosis were found to be significantly lower than in controls (patients: 0.27 +/- 0.096 microg/ml (mean +/- standard deviation (SD)), range: 0.14-0.59 microg/ml vs. controls: 0.30 +/- 0.14 microg/ml (mean +/- SD), range: 0-0.63 microg/ml; t = 3.212, df = 33, difference: -0.325 (95% confidence interval: -0.5309, -0.1191), p = 0.0029). In conclusion, the present findings indicate for the first time that serum DEHP and MEHP concentration are lower in women with uterine fibromatosis, suggesting a possible correlation between phthalate esters and fibromatosis pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Luisi
- Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Pediatrics, Obstetrics, and Reproductive Medicine, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
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