Toward the synthesis of more reactive S = 2 non-heme oxoiron(IV) complexes

Equatorial Ligand Perturbations Influence the Reactivity of Manganese(IV)-Oxo Complexes

Manganese(IV)-oxo complexes are often invoked as intermediates in Mn-catalyzed C-H bond activation reactions. While many synthetic Mn^IV -oxo species are mild oxidants, other members of this class can attack strong C-H bonds. The basis for these reactivity differences is not well understood. Here we describe a series of Mn^IV -oxo complexes with N5 pentadentate ligands that modulate the equatorial ligand field of the Mn^IV center, as assessed by electronic absorption, electron paramagnetic resonance, and Mn K-edge X-ray absorption methods. Kinetic experiments show dramatic rate variations in hydrogen-atom and oxygen-atom transfer reactions, with faster rates corresponding to weaker equatorial ligand fields. For these Mn^IV -oxo complexes, the rate enhancements are correlated with both 1) the energy of a low-lying ⁴ E excited state, which has been postulated to be involved in a two-state reactivity model, and 2) the Mn^III/IV reduction potentials.

A Chromium(III)-Superoxo Complex as a Three-Electron Oxidant with a Large Tunneling Effect in Multi-Electron Oxidation of NADH Analogues

Metal-superoxo species are involved in a variety of enzymatic oxidation reactions, and multi-electron oxidation of substrates is frequently observed in those enzymatic reactions. A Cr^III -superoxo complex, [Cr^III (O₂ )(TMC)(Cl)]⁺ (1; TMC=1,4,8,11-tetramethyl-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane), is described that acts as a novel three-electron oxidant in the oxidation of dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) analogues. In the reactions of 1 with NADH analogues, a Cr^IV -oxo complex, [Cr^IV (O)(TMC)(Cl)]⁺ (2), is formed by a heterolytic O-O bond cleavage of a putative Cr^II -hydroperoxo complex, [Cr^II (OOH)(TMC)(Cl)], which is generated by hydride transfer from NADH analogues to 1. The comparison of the reactivity of NADH analogues with 1 and p-chloranil (Cl₄ Q) indicates that oxidation of NADH analogues by 1 proceeds by proton-coupled electron transfer with a very large tunneling effect (for example, with a kinetic isotope effect of 470 at 233 K), followed by rapid electron transfer.

Chasing the Evasive Fe═O Stretch and the Spin State of the Iron(IV)-Oxo Complexes by Photodissociation Spectroscopy

We demonstrate the application of infrared photodissocation spectroscopy for determination of the Fe═O stretching frequencies of high-valent iron(IV)-oxo complexes [(L)Fe(O)(X)]^2+/+ (L = TMC, N4Py, PyTACN, and X = CH₃CN, CF₃SO₃, ClO₄, CF₃COO, NO₃, N₃). We show that the values determined by resonance Raman spectroscopy in acetonitrile solutions are on average 9 cm^-1 red-shifted with respect to unbiased gas-phase values. Furthermore, we show the assignment of the spin state of the complexes based on the vibrational modes of a coordinated anion and compare reactivities of various iron(IV)-oxo complexes generated as dications or monocations (bearing an anionic ligand). The coordinated anions can drastically affect the reactivity of the complex and should be taken into account when comparing reactivities of complexes bearing different ligands. Comparison of reactivities of [(PyTACN)Fe(O)(X)]⁺ generated in different spin states and bearing different anionic ligands X revealed that the nature of anion influences the reactivity more than the spin state. The triflate and perchlorate ligands tend to stabilize the quintet state of [(PyTACN)Fe(O)(X)]⁺, whereas trifluoroacetate and nitrate stabilize the triplet state of the complex.

Ethane C–H bond activation on the Fe(iv)–oxo species in a Zn-based cluster of metal–organic frameworks: a density functional theory study

The generation of a Fe(iv)–oxo complex and its reactivity for C–H bond activation of ethane have been theoretically unraveled.

Two-state reactivity in C–H activation by a four-coordinate iron(0) complex

The ground state structure of [Ph₂B(^tBuIm)₂Fe(CO)₂]⁻ is trigonal pyramidal (S = 1), with a thermally accessible square planar (S = 0) geometry.

Autocatalytic dioxygen activation to produce an iron(v)-oxo complex without any reductants

An iron(v)-oxo complex with a tetraamido macrocyclic ligand, [(TAML)Fe^V(O)]⁻, was produced by reacting [(TAML)Fe^III]⁻ with dioxygen without any electron source in acetone at 298 K.

Metal-Assisted Oxo Atom Addition to an Fe(III) Thiolate

Cysteinate oxygenation is intimately tied to the function of both cysteine dioxygenases (CDOs) and nitrile hydratases (NHases), and yet the mechanisms by which sulfurs are oxidized by these enzymes are unknown, in part because intermediates have yet to be observed. Herein, we report a five-coordinate bis-thiolate ligated Fe(III) complex, [Fe^III(S₂^Me2N₃(Pr,Pr))]⁺ (2), that reacts with oxo atom donors (PhIO, IBX-ester, and H₂O₂) to afford a rare example of a singly oxygenated sulfenate, [Fe^III(η²-S^Me2O)(S^Me2)N₃(Pr,Pr)]⁺ (5), resembling both a proposed intermediate in the CDO catalytic cycle and the essential NHase Fe-S(O)^Cys114 proposed to be intimately involved in nitrile hydrolysis. Comparison of the reactivity of 2 with that of a more electron-rich, crystallographically characterized derivative, [Fe^IIIS₂^Me2N^MeN₂^amide(Pr,Pr)]^- (8), shows that oxo atom donor reactivity correlates with the metal ion's ability to bind exogenous ligands. Density functional theory calculations suggest that the mechanism of S-oxygenation does not proceed via direct attack at the thiolate sulfurs; the average spin-density on the thiolate sulfurs is approximately the same for 2 and 8, and Mulliken charges on the sulfurs of 8 are roughly twice those of 2, implying that 8 should be more susceptible to sulfur oxidation. Carboxamide-ligated 8 is shown to be unreactive towards oxo atom donors, in contrast to imine-ligated 2. Azide (N₃^-) is shown to inhibit sulfur oxidation with 2, and a green intermediate is observed, which then slowly converts to sulfenate-ligated 5. This suggests that the mechanism of sulfur oxidation involves initial coordination of the oxo atom donor to the metal ion. Whether the green intermediate is an oxo atom donor adduct, Fe-O═I-Ph, or an Fe(V)═O remains to be determined.

Spinning around in Transition-Metal Chemistry

The great diversity and richness of transition metal chemistry, such as the features of an open d-shell, opened a way to numerous areas of scientific research and technological applications. Depending on the nature of the metal and its environment, there are often several energetically accessible spin states, and the progress in accurate theoretical treatment of this complicated phenomenon is presented in this Account. The spin state energetics of a transition metal complex can be predicted theoretically on the basis of density functional theory (DFT) or wave function based methodology, where DFT has advantages since it can be applied routinely to medium-to-large-sized molecules and spin-state consistent density functionals are now available. Additional factors such as the effect of the basis set, thermochemical contributions, solvation, relativity, and dispersion, have been investigated by many researchers, but challenges in unambiguous assignment of spin states still remain. The first DFT studies showed intrinsic spin-state preferences of hybrid functionals for high spin and early generalized gradient approximation functionals for low spin. Progress in the development of density functional approximations (DFAs) then led to a class of specially designed DFAs, such as OPBE, SSB-D, and S12g, and brought a very intriguing and fascinating observation that the spin states of transition metals and the S_N2 barriers of organic molecules are somehow intimately linked. Among the many noteworthy results that emerged from the search for the appropriate description of the complicated spin state preferences in transition metals, we mainly focused on the examination of the connection between the spin state and the structures or coordination modes of the transition metal complexes. Changes in spin states normally lead only to changes in the metal-ligand bond lengths, but to the best of our knowledge, the dapsox ligand showed the first example of a transition-metal complex where a change in spin state leads also to changes in the coordination, switching between pentagonal-bipyramidal and capped-octahedron. Moreover, we have summarized the results of the thorough study that corrected the experimental assignment of the nature of the recently synthesized Sc³⁺ adduct of [Fe^IV(O)(TMC)]²⁺ (TMC = 1,4,8,11-tetramethylcyclam) and firmly established that the Sc³⁺-capped iron-oxygen complex corresponds to high-spin Fe^III. Last, but not least, we have provided deeper insight and rationalization of the observation that unlike in metalloenzymes, where the Fe^IV-oxo is usually observed with high spin, biomimetic Fe^IV-oxo complexes typically have a intermediate spin state. Energy decomposition analyses on the trigonal-bypiramidal (TBP) and octahedral model systems with ammonia ligands have revealed that the interaction energy of the prepared metal ion in the intermediate spin state is much smaller for the TBP structure. This sheds light on the origin of the intermediate spin state of the biomimetic TBP Fe^IV-oxo complexes.

Spectroscopic and Computational Investigations of a Mononuclear Manganese(IV)-Oxo Complex Reveal Electronic Structure Contributions to Reactivity

The mononuclear Mn(IV)-oxo complex [Mn^IV(O)(N4py)]²⁺, where N4py is the pentadentate ligand N,N-bis(2-pyridylmethyl)-N-bis(2-pyridyl)methylamine, has been proposed to attack C-H bonds by an excited-state reactivity pattern [ Cho, K.-B.; Shaik, S.; Nam, W. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2012 , 3 , 2851 - 2856 (DOI: 10.1021/jz301241z )]. In this model, a ⁴E excited state is utilized to provide a lower-energy barrier for hydrogen-atom transfer. This proposal is intriguing, as it offers both a rationale for the relatively high hydrogen-atom-transfer reactivity of [Mn^IV(O)(N4py)]²⁺ and a guideline for creating more reactive complexes through ligand modification. Here we employ a combination of electronic absorption and variable-temperature magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) spectroscopy to experimentally evaluate this excited-state reactivity model. Using these spectroscopic methods, in conjunction with time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) and complete-active space self-consistent-field calculations (CASSCF), we define the ligand-field and charge-transfer excited states of [Mn^IV(O)(N4py)]²⁺. Through a graphical analysis of the signs of the experimental C-term MCD signals, we unambiguously assign a low-energy MCD feature of [Mn^IV(O)(N4py)]²⁺ as the ⁴E excited state predicted to be involved in hydrogen-atom-transfer reactivity. The CASSCF calculations predict enhanced Mn^III-oxyl character on the excited-state ⁴E surface, consistent with previous DFT calculations. Potential-energy surfaces, developed using the CASSCF methods, are used to determine how the energies and wave functions of the ground and excited states evolved as a function of Mn═O distance. The unique insights into ground- and excited-state electronic structure offered by these spectroscopic and computational studies are harmonized with a thermodynamic model of hydrogen-atom-transfer reactivity, which predicts a correlation between transition-state barriers and driving force.

Spectroscopic analyses of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent oxygenases: TauD as a case study

A wide range of spectroscopic approaches have been used to interrogate the mononuclear iron metallocenter in 2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent oxygenases. The results from these spectroscopic studies have provided valuable insights into the structural changes at the active site during substrate binding and catalysis, thus providing critical information that complements investigations of these enzymes by X-ray crystallography, biochemical, and computational approaches. This mini-review highlights taurine hydroxylase (taurine:2OG dioxygenase, TauD) as a case study to illustrate the wealth of knowledge that can be generated by applying a diverse array of spectroscopic investigations to a single enzyme. In particular, electronic absorption, circular dichroism, magnetic circular dichroism, conventional and pulse electron paramagnetic, Mössbauer, X-ray absorption, and resonance Raman methods have been exploited to uncover the properties of the metal site in TauD.

Reactivity of an FeIV-Oxo Complex with Protons and Oxidants

High-valent Fe-OH species are often invoked as key intermediates but have only been observed in Compound II of cytochrome P450s. To further address the properties of non-heme FeIV-OH complexes, we demonstrate the reversible protonation of a synthetic FeIV-oxo species containing a tris-urea tripodal ligand. The same protonated FeIV-oxo species can be prepared via oxidation, suggesting that a putative FeV-oxo species was initially generated. Computational, Mössbauer, XAS, and NRVS studies indicate that protonation of the FeIV-oxo complex most likely occurs on the tripodal ligand, which undergoes a structural change that results in the formation of a new intramolecular H-bond with the oxido ligand that aids in stabilizing the protonated adduct. We suggest that similar protonated high-valent Fe-oxo species may occur in the active sites of proteins. This finding further argues for caution when assigning unverified high-valent Fe-OH species to mechanisms.

Formation, Characterization, and Reactivity of a Nonheme Oxoiron(IV) Complex Derived from the Chiral Pentadentate Ligand asN4Py

The chiral pentadentate low-spin (S = 1) oxoiron(IV) complex [Fe^IV(O)(asN4Py)]²⁺ (2) was synthesized and spectroscopically characterized. Its formation kinetics, reactivity, and (enantio)selectivity in an oxygen-atom-transfer reaction was investigated in detail and compared to a similar pentadentate ligand-containing system.

Design and engineering of artificial oxygen-activating metalloenzymes

Many efforts are being made in the design and engineering of metalloenzymes with catalytic properties fulfilling the needs of practical applications. Progress in this field has recently been accelerated by advances in computational, molecular and structural biology. This review article focuses on the recent examples of oxygen-activating metalloenzymes, developed through the strategies of de novo design, miniaturization processes and protein redesign. Considerable progress in these diverse design approaches has produced many metal-containing biocatalysts able to adopt the functions of native enzymes or even novel functions beyond those found in Nature.

The active site of low-temperature methane hydroxylation in iron-containing zeolites

An efficient catalytic process for converting methane into methanol could have far-reaching economic implications. Iron-containing zeolites (microporous aluminosilicate minerals) are noteworthy in this regard, having an outstanding ability to hydroxylate methane rapidly at room temperature to form methanol. Reactivity occurs at an extra-lattice active site called α-Fe(ii), which is activated by nitrous oxide to form the reactive intermediate α-O; however, despite nearly three decades of research, the nature of the active site and the factors determining its exceptional reactivity are unclear. The main difficulty is that the reactive species-α-Fe(ii) and α-O-are challenging to probe spectroscopically: data from bulk techniques such as X-ray absorption spectroscopy and magnetic susceptibility are complicated by contributions from inactive 'spectator' iron. Here we show that a site-selective spectroscopic method regularly used in bioinorganic chemistry can overcome this problem. Magnetic circular dichroism reveals α-Fe(ii) to be a mononuclear, high-spin, square planar Fe(ii) site, while the reactive intermediate, α-O, is a mononuclear, high-spin Fe(iv)=O species, whose exceptional reactivity derives from a constrained coordination geometry enforced by the zeolite lattice. These findings illustrate the value of our approach to exploring active sites in heterogeneous systems. The results also suggest that using matrix constraints to activate metal sites for function-producing what is known in the context of metalloenzymes as an 'entatic' state-might be a useful way to tune the activity of heterogeneous catalysts.

Activation of Dioxygen by Iron and Manganese Complexes: A Heme and Nonheme Perspective

The rational design of well-defined, first-row transition metal complexes that can activate dioxygen has been a challenging goal for the synthetic inorganic chemist. The activation of O2 is important in part because of its central role in the functioning of metalloenzymes, which utilize O2 to perform a number of challenging reactions including the highly selective oxidation of various substrates. There is also great interest in utilizing O2, an abundant and environmentally benign oxidant, in synthetic catalytic oxidation systems. This Perspective brings together recent examples of biomimetic Fe and Mn complexes that can activate O2 in heme or nonheme-type ligand environments. The use of oxidants such as hypervalent iodine (e.g., ArIO), peracids (e.g., m-CPBA), peroxides (e.g., H2O2) or even superoxide is a popular choice for accessing well-characterized metal-superoxo, metal-peroxo, or metal-oxo species, but the instances of biomimetic Fe/Mn complexes that react with dioxygen to yield such observable metal-oxygen species are surprisingly few. This Perspective focuses on mononuclear Fe and Mn complexes that exhibit reactivity with O2 and lead to spectroscopically observable metal-oxygen species, and/or oxidize biologically relevant substrates. Analysis of these examples reveals that solvent, spin state, redox potential, external co-reductants, and ligand architecture can all play important roles in the O2 activation process.

Factors Controlling the Chemoselectivity in the Oxidation of Olefins by Nonheme Manganese(IV)-Oxo Complexes

We report the oxidation of cyclic olefins, such as cyclohexene, cyclohexene-d10, and cyclooctene, by mononuclear nonheme manganese(IV)-oxo (Mn(IV)O) and triflic acid (HOTf)-bound Mn(IV)O complexes. In the oxidation of cyclohexene, the Mn(IV)O complexes prefer the C-H bond activation to the C═C double bond epoxidation, whereas the C═C double bond epoxidation becomes a preferred reaction pathway in the cyclohexene oxidation by HOTf-bound Mn(IV)O complexes. In contrast, the oxidation of cyclohexene-d10 and cyclooctene by the Mn(IV)O complexes occurs predominantly via the C═C double bond epoxidation. This conclusion is drawn from the product analysis and kinetic studies of the olefin oxidation reactions, such as the epoxide versus allylic oxidation products, the formation of Mn(II) versus Mn(III) products, and the kinetic analyses. Overall, the experimental results suggest that the energy barrier of the C═C double bond epoxidation is very close to that of the allylic C-H bond activation in the oxidation of cyclic olefins by high-valent metal-oxo complexes. Thus, the preference of the reaction pathways is subject to changes upon small manipulation of the reaction environments, such as the supporting ligands and metal ions in metal-oxo species, the presence of HOTf (i.e., HOTf-bound Mn(IV)O species), and the allylic C-H(D) bond dissociation energies of olefins. This is confirmed by DFT calculations in the oxidation of cyclohexene and cyclooctene, which show multiple pathways with similar rate-limiting energy barriers and depending on the allylic C-H bond dissociation energies. In addition, the possibility of excited state reactivity in the current system is confirmed for epoxidation reactions.

A Bispidine Iron(IV)-Oxo Complex in the Entatic State

For a series of Fe(IV) =O complexes with tetra- and pentadentate bispidine ligands, the correlation of their redox potentials with reactivity, involving a variety of substrates for alkane hydroxylation (HAT), alkene epoxidation, and phosphine and thioether oxidation (OAT) are reported. The redox potentials span approximately 350 mV and the reaction rates over 8 orders of magnitude. From the experimental data and in comparison with published studies it emerges that electron transfer and the driving force are of major importance, and this is also supported by the DFT-based computational analysis. The striking difference of reactivity of two isomeric systems with pentadentate bispidines is found to be due to a destabilization of the S=1 ground state of one of the ferryl isomers, and this is supported by the experimentally determined redox potentials and published stability constants with a series of first-row transition metal ions with these two isomeric ligands.

How do Enzymes Utilize Reactive OH Radicals? Lessons from Nonheme HppE and Fenton Systems

The iron(IV)-oxo (ferryl) intermediate has been amply established as the principal oxidant in nonheme enzymes and the key player in C-H bond activations and functionalizations. In contrast to this status, our present QM/MM calculations of the mechanism of fosfomycin biosynthesis (a broad range antibiotic) by the nonheme HppE enzyme rule out the iron(IV)-oxo as the reactive species in the hydrogen abstraction (H-abstraction) step of the pro-R hydrogen from the (S)-2-hydroxypropylphosphonic substrate. Moreover, the study reveals that the ferryl species is bypassed in HppE, while the actual oxidant is an HO(•) radical hydrogen-bonded to a ferric-hydroxo complex, resulting via the homolytic dissociation of the hydrogen peroxide complex, Fe(II)-H2O2. The computed energy barrier of this pathway is 12.0 kcal/mol, in fair agreement with the experimental datum of 9.8 kcal/mol. An alternative mechanism involves the iron-complexed hydroxyl radical (Fe(III)-(HO(•))) that is obtained by protonation of the iron(IV)-oxo group via the O-H group of the substrate. The barrier for this pathway, 23.0 kcal/mol, is higher than the one in the first mechanism. In both mechanisms, the HO(•) radical is highly selective; its H-abstraction leading to the final cis-fosfomycin product. It appears that HppE is prone to usage of HO(•) radicals for C-H bond activation, because the ferryl oxidant requires a specific H-abstraction trajectory (∠FeOH ∼ 180°) that cannot be met for intramolecular H-abstraction. Thus, this work broadens the landscape of nonheme iron enzymes and makes a connection to Fenton chemistry, with implications on new potential biocatalysts that may harness hydroxyl radicals for C-H bond functionalizations.

Spectroscopic, Electrochemical and Computational Characterisation of Ru Species Involved in Catalytic Water Oxidation: Evidence for a [Ru(V) (O)(Py2 (Me) tacn)] Intermediate

A new family of ruthenium complexes based on the N-pentadentate ligand Py2 (Me) tacn (N-methyl-N',N''-bis(2-picolyl)-1,4,7-triazacyclononane) has been synthesised and its catalytic activity has been studied in the water-oxidation (WO) reaction. We have used chemical oxidants (ceric ammonium nitrate and NaIO4 ) to generate the WO intermediates [Ru(II) (OH2 )(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) , [Ru(III) (OH2 )(Py2 (Me) tacn)](3+) , [Ru(III) (OH)(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) and [Ru(IV) (O)(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) , which have been characterised spectroscopically. Their relative redox and pH stability in water has been studied by using UV/Vis and NMR spectroscopies, HRMS and spectroelectrochemistry. [Ru(IV) (O)(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) has a long half-life (>48 h) in water. The catalytic cycle of WO has been elucidated by using kinetic, spectroscopic, (18) O-labelling and theoretical studies, and the conclusion is that the rate-determining step is a single-site water nucleophilic attack on a metal-oxo species. Moreover, [Ru(IV) (O)(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) is proposed to be the resting state under catalytic conditions. By monitoring Ce(IV) consumption, we found that the O2 evolution rate is redox-controlled and independent of the initial concentration of Ce(IV) . Based on these facts, we propose herein that [Ru(IV) (O)(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) is oxidised to [Ru(V) (O)(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) prior to attack by a water molecule to give [Ru(III) (OOH)(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) . Finally, it is shown that the difference in WO reactivity between the homologous iron and ruthenium [M(OH2 )(Py2 (Me) tacn)](2+) (M=Ru, Fe) complexes is due to the difference in the redox stability of the key M(V) (O) intermediate. These results contribute to a better understanding of the WO mechanism and the differences between iron and ruthenium complexes in WO reactions.

Mononuclear Nonheme High-Spin (S=2) versus Intermediate-Spin (S=1) Iron(IV)-Oxo Complexes in Oxidation Reactions

Mononuclear nonheme high-spin (S=2) iron(IV)-oxo species have been identified as the key intermediates responsible for the C-H bond activation of organic substrates in nonheme iron enzymatic reactions. Herein we report that the C-H bond activation of hydrocarbons by a synthetic mononuclear nonheme high-spin (S=2) iron(IV)-oxo complex occurs through an oxygen non-rebound mechanism, as previously demonstrated in the C-H bond activation by nonheme intermediate (S=1) iron(IV)-oxo complexes. We also report that C-H bond activation is preferred over C=C epoxidation in the oxidation of cyclohexene by the nonheme high-spin (HS) and intermediate-spin (IS) iron(IV)-oxo complexes, whereas the C=C double bond epoxidation becomes a preferred pathway in the oxidation of deuterated cyclohexene by the nonheme HS and IS iron(IV)-oxo complexes. In the epoxidation of styrene derivatives, the HS and IS iron(IV) oxo complexes are found to have similar electrophilic characters.

A theoretical study into a trans-dioxo Mn(V) porphyrin complex that does not follow the oxygen rebound mechanism in C-H bond activation reactions

Previous experimental results revealed that the C-H bond activation reaction by a synthetic trans-dioxo Mn(V) porphyrin complex, [(TF4TMAP)OMn(V)O](3+), does not occur via the well-known oxygen rebound mechanism, which has been well demonstrated in Fe(IV)O porphyrin π-cation radical reactions. In the present study, theoretical calculations offer an explanation through the energetics involved in the C-H bond activation reaction, where a multi-spin state scenario cannot be excluded.

μ-Nitrido Diiron Macrocyclic Platform: Particular Structure for Particular Catalysis

The ultimate objective of bioinspired catalysis is the development of efficient and clean chemical processes. Cytochrome P450 and soluble methane monooxygenase enzymes efficiently catalyze many challenging reactions. Extensive research has been performed to mimic their exciting chemistry, aiming to create efficient chemical catalysts for functionalization of strong C-H bonds. Two current biomimetic approaches are based on (i) mononuclear metal porphyrin-like complexes and (ii) iron and diiron non-heme complexes. However, biomimetic catalysts capable of oxidizing CH4 are still to be created. In the search for powerful oxidizing catalysts, we have recently proposed a new bioinspired strategy using N-bridged diiron phthalocyanine and porphyrin complexes. This platform is particularly suitable for stabilization of Fe(IV)Fe(IV) complexes and can be useful to generate high-valent oxidizing active species. Indeed, the possibility of charge delocalization on two iron centers, two macrocyclic ligands, and the nitrogen bridge makes possible the activation of H2O2 and peracids. The ultrahigh-valent diiron-oxo species (L)Fe(IV)-N-Fe(IV)(L(+•))═O (L = porphyrin or phthalocyanine) have been prepared at low temperatures and characterized by cryospray MS, UV-vis, EPR, and Mössbauer techniques. The highly electrophilic (L)Fe(IV)-N-Fe(IV)(L(+•))═O species exhibit remarkable reactivity. In this Account, we describe the catalytic applications of μ-nitrido diiron complexes in the oxidation of methane and benzene, in the transformation of aromatic C-F bonds under oxidative conditions, in oxidative dechlorination, and in the formation of C-C bonds. Importantly, all of these reactions can be performed under mild and clean conditions with high conversions and turnover numbers. μ-Nitrido diiron species retain their binuclear structure during catalysis and show the same mechanistic features (e.g., (18)O labeling, formation of benzene epoxide, and NIH shift in aromatic oxidation) as the enzymes operating via high-valent iron-oxo species. μ-Nitrido diiron complexes can react with perfluorinated aromatics under oxidative conditions, while the strongest oxidizing enzymes cannot. Advanced spectroscopic, labeling, and reactivity studies have confirmed the involvement of high-valent diiron-oxo species in these catalytic reactions. Computational studies have shed light on the origin of the remarkable catalytic properties, distinguishing the Fe-N-Fe scaffold from Fe-C-Fe and Fe-O-Fe analogues. X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopies assisted with DFT calculations allow deeper insight into the electronic structure of these particular complexes. Besides the novel chemistry involved, iron phthalocyanines are cheap and readily available in bulk quantities, suggesting high application potential. A variety of macrocyclic ligands can be used in combination with different transition metals to accommodate M-N-M platform and to tune their electronic and catalytic properties. The structural simplicity and flexibility of μ-nitrido dimers make them promising catalysts for many challenging reactions.

New mechanistic insight into intramolecular arene hydroxylation initiated by (μ-1,2-peroxo)diiron(III) complexes with dinucleating ligands

(μ-1,2-Peroxo)diiron(iii) complexes (-R) with dinucleating ligands (R-L) generated from the reaction of bis(μ-hydroxo)diiron(ii) complexes [Fe2(R-L)(OH)2](2+) (-R) with dioxygen in acetone at -20 °C provide a diiron-centred electrophilic oxidant, presumably diiron(iv)-oxo species, which is involved in aromatic ligand hydroxylation.

HFEPR and Computational Studies on the Electronic Structure of a High-Spin Oxidoiron(IV) Complex in Solution

Nonheme iron enzymes perform diverse and important functions in biochemistry. The active form of these enzymes comprises the ferryl, oxidoiron(IV), [FeO](2+) unit. In enzymes, this unit is in the high-spin, quintet, S = 2, ground state, while many synthetic model compounds exist in the spin triplet, S = 1, ground state. Recently, however, Que and co-workers reported an oxidoiron(IV) complex with a quintet ground state, [FeO(TMG3tren)](OTf)2, where TMG3tren = 1,1,1-tris{2-[N2-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidino)]ethyl}amine and OTf = CF3SO3(-). The trigonal geometry imposed by this ligand, as opposed to the tetragonal geometry of earlier model complexes, favors the high-spin ground state. Although [FeO(TMG3tren)](2+) has been earlier probed by magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) and Mössbauer spectroscopies, the technique of high-frequency and -field electron paramagnetic resonance (HFEPR) is superior for describing the electronic structure of the iron(IV) center because of its ability to establish directly the spin-Hamiltonian parameters of high-spin metal centers with high precision. Herein we describe HFEPR studies on [FeO(TMG3tren)](OTf)2 generated in situ and confirm the S = 2 ground state with the following parameters: D = +4.940(5) cm(-1), E = 0.000(5), B4(0) = -14(1) × 10(-4) cm(-1), g⊥ = 2.006(2), and g∥ = 2.03(2). Extraction of a fourth-order spin-Hamiltonian parameter is unusual for HFEPR and impossible by other techniques. These experimental results are combined with state-of-the-art computational studies along with previous structural and spectroscopic results to provide a complete picture of the electronic structure of this biomimetic complex. Specifically, the calculations reproduce well the spin-Hamiltonian parameters of the complex, provide a satisfying geometrical picture of the S = 2 oxidoiron(IV) moiety, and demonstrate that the TMG3tren is an "innocent" ligand.

Modeling Non-Heme Iron Halogenases: High-Spin Oxoiron(IV)-Halide Complexes That Halogenate C-H Bonds

The non-heme iron halogenases CytC3 and SyrB2 catalyze C-H bond halogenation in the biosynthesis of some natural products via S = 2 oxoiron(IV)-halide intermediates. These oxidants abstract a hydrogen atom from a substrate C-H bond to generate an alkyl radical that reacts with the bound halide to form a C-X bond chemoselectively. The origin of this selectivity has been explored in biological systems but has not yet been investigated with synthetic models. Here we report the characterization of S = 2 [Fe(IV)(O)(TQA)(Cl/Br)](+) (TQA = tris(quinolyl-2-methyl)amine) complexes that can preferentially halogenate cyclohexane. These are the first synthetic oxoiron(IV)-halide complexes that serve as spectroscopic and functional models for the halogenase intermediates. Interestingly, the nascent substrate radicals generated by these synthetic complexes are not as short-lived as those obtained from heme-based oxidants and can be intercepted by O2 to prevent halogenation, supporting an emerging notion that rapid rebound may not necessarily occur in non-heme oxoiron(IV) oxidations.

Spectroscopic Characterization and Reactivity of Triplet and Quintet Iron(IV) Oxo Complexes in the Gas Phase

Closely structurally related triplet and quintet iron(IV) oxo complexes with a tetradentate aminopyridine ligand were generated in the gas phase, spectroscopically characterized, and their reactivities in hydrogen‐transfer and oxygen‐transfer reactions were compared. The spin states were unambiguously assigned based on helium tagging infrared photodissociation (IRPD) spectra of the mass‐selected iron complexes. It is shown that the stretching vibrations of the nitrate counterion can be used as a spectral marker of the central iron spin state.

Intramolecular C-H and C-F Bond Oxygenation Mediated by a Putative Terminal Oxo Species in Tetranuclear Iron Complexes

Herein we report the intramolecular arene C-H and C-F bond oxygenation by tetranuclear iron complexes. Treatment of [LFe3(PhPz)3OFe][OTf]2 (1) or its fluorinated analog [LFe3(F2ArPz)3OFe][OTf]2 (5) with iodosobenzene results in the regioselective hydroxylation of a bridging pyrazolate ligand, converting a C-H or C-F bond into a C-O bond. The observed reactivity suggests the formation of terminal and reactive Fe-oxo intermediates. With the possibility of intramolecular electron transfer within clusters in 1 and 5, different reaction pathways (Fe(IV)-oxo vs Fe(III)-oxo) might be responsible for the observed arene hydroxylation.

C-H Bond Oxidation Catalyzed by an Imine-Based Iron Complex: A Mechanistic Insight

A family of imine-based nonheme iron(II) complexes (LX)2Fe(OTf)2 has been prepared, characterized, and employed as C-H oxidation catalysts. Ligands LX (X = 1, 2, 3, and 4) stand for tridentate imine ligands resulting from spontaneous condensation of 2-pycolyl-amine and 4-substituted-2-picolyl aldehydes. Fast and quantitative formation of the complex occurs just upon mixing aldehyde, amine, and Fe(OTf)2 in a 2:2:1 ratio in acetonitrile solution. The solid-state structures of (L1)2Fe(OTf)(ClO4) and (L3)2Fe(OTf)2 are reported, showing a low-spin octahedral iron center, with the ligands arranged in a meridional fashion. (1)H NMR analyses indicate that the solid-state structure and spin state is retained in solution. These analyses also show the presence of an amine-imine tautomeric equilibrium. (LX)2Fe(OTf)2 efficiently catalyze the oxidation of alkyl C-H bonds employing H2O2 as a terminal oxidant. Manipulation of the electronic properties of the imine ligand has only a minor impact on efficiency and selectivity of the oxidative process. A mechanistic study is presented, providing evidence that C-H oxidations are metal-based. Reactions occur with stereoretention at the hydroxylated carbon and selectively at tertiary over secondary C-H bonds. Isotopic labeling analyses show that H2O2 is the dominant origin of the oxygen atoms inserted in the oxygenated product. Experimental evidence is provided that reactions involve initial oxidation of the complexes to the ferric state, and it is proposed that a ligand arm dissociates to enable hydrogen peroxide binding and activation. Selectivity patterns and isotopic labeling studies strongly suggest that activation of hydrogen peroxide occurs by heterolytic O-O cleavage, without the assistance of a cis-binding water or alkyl carboxylic acid. The sum of these observations provides sound evidence that controlled activation of H2O2 at (LX)2Fe(OTf)2 differs from that occurring in biomimetic iron catalysts described to date.

Mn(V)(O) versus Cr(V)(O) Porphyrinoid Complexes: Structural Characterization and Implications for Basicity Controlling H-Atom Abstraction

Isomorphous crystals of Mn(V)(O) and Cr(V)(O) corrolazines were characterized by single crystal X-ray diffraction. Reactivity studies with H atom donors and separated PCET reagents show a dramatic difference in H atom abstracting abilities for these two complexes. The implied large difference in driving force is opposite the trend in redox potentials, indicating that basicity is a key factor in determining the striking difference in reactivity for two metal-oxo species in identical ligand environments.