151
|
Debnath AK. Three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship study on cyclic urea derivatives as HIV-1 protease inhibitors: application of comparative molecular field analysis. J Med Chem 1999; 42:249-59. [PMID: 9925730 DOI: 10.1021/jm980369n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) models have been developed using comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) on a large data set (118 compounds) of diverse cyclic urea derivatives as protease inhibitors against the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). X-ray crystal structures of HIV-1 protease bound with this class of inhibitors were used to derive the most probable bioactive conformations of the inhibitors. The enzyme active site was used as a constraint to limit the number of possible conformations that are sterically accessible. The test sets have been created keeping in mind structural diversity as well as the uniform simple statistical criteria (mean, standard deviation, high and low values) of the protease inhibitory activities of the molecules compared to the training sets. Multiple predictive models have been developed with the training sets (93 compounds in each set) and validated with the corresponding test sets (25 compounds in each set). All the models yielded high predictive correlation coefficients (q2 from 0.699 to 0.727), substantially high fitted correlation coefficients (r2 from 0.965 to 0.973), and reasonably low standard errors of estimates (S from 0. 239 to 0.265). The steric and electrostatic effects have approximately equal contributions, 45% and 55% (approximately), respectively, toward explaining protease inhibitory activities. This analysis yielded models with significant information on steric and electrostatic interactions clearly discerned by the respective coefficient contour plots when overlapped on the X-ray structure of the HIV-1 protease. The HINT CoMFA study revealed significant contribution of hydrophobicity toward protease inhibitory activity. The 3D visualization technique utilizing these contour plots as well as the receptor site geometry may significantly improve our understanding of the inhibitor-protease (HIV-1) interactions and help in designing compounds with improved activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A K Debnath
- Biochemical Virology Laboratory, Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute of The New York Blood Center, 310 East 67th Street, New York, New York 10021, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
152
|
Short GF, Lodder M, Laikhter AL, Arslan T, Hecht SM. Caged HIV-1 Protease: Dimerization Is Independent of the Ionization State of the Active Site Aspartates. J Am Chem Soc 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/ja9838054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Glenn F. Short
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
| | - Michiel Lodder
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
| | - Andrei L. Laikhter
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
| | - Tuncer Arslan
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
| | - Sidney M. Hecht
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
| |
Collapse
|
153
|
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease inhibitors have revolutionized the treatment of individuals infected with this pathogen. The protease is an enzyme that is essential for viral replication because it cleaves both structural and functional proteins from precursor viral polyprotein strands. Inhibition of this process suppresses viral replication, which produces immature noninfectious virions. When combined with reverse transcriptase inhibitors, these agents are very potent in suppressing viral replication. Pharmacologic properties, toxic profile, drug interactions, and resistance patterns differ among protease inhibitors, and all must be considered when selecting the drugs for therapeutic use in humans. The best combination, sequence of use, durability of response, and magnitude of immune reconstitution and function are issues that have yet to be fully elucidated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Z Rana
- Antiinfective Pharmacology Research Unit, University of Rhode Island College of Pharmacy, Roger Williams Medical Center, Providence 02908, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
154
|
Dulioust A, Paulous S, Guillemot L, Delavalle AM, Boué F, Clavel F. Constrained evolution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease during sequential therapy with two distinct protease inhibitors. J Virol 1999; 73:850-4. [PMID: 9847401 PMCID: PMC103902 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.73.1.850-854.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) variants that have developed protease (PR) inhibitor resistance most often display cross-resistance to several molecules within this class of antiretroviral agents. The clinical benefit of the switch to a second PR inhibitor in the presence of such resistant viruses may be questionable. We have examined the evolution of HIV-1 PR genotypes and phenotypes in individuals having failed sequential treatment with two distinct PR inhibitors: saquinavir (SQV) followed by indinavir (IDV). In viruses where typical SQV resistance mutations were detected before the change to IDV, the corresponding mutations were maintained under IDV, while few additional mutations emerged. In viruses where no SQV resistance mutations were detected before the switch to IDV, typical SQV resistance profiles emerged following the introduction of IDV. We conclude that following suboptimal exposure to a first PR inhibitor, the introduction of a second molecule of this class can lead to rapid selection of cross-resistant virus variants that may not be detectable by current genotyping methods at the time of the inhibitor switch. Viruses committed to resistance to the first inhibitor appear to bear the "imprint" of this initial selection and can further adapt to the selective pressure exerted by the second inhibitor following a pathway that preserves most of the initially selected mutations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Dulioust
- Service de Médecine Interne, Hôpital Antoine Béclère, Clamart, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
155
|
Abstract
A new class of tricyclic ureas containing a conformationally constrained proline was designed with the aid of molecular modeling. Efficient stereoselective intermolecular pinacol coupling represented the highlight of the synthesis. These rigid cyclic ureas are active towards HIV-1 protease, with 9 being the most potent compound (Ki = 9 nM) despite interacting with only three side chain binding pockets of HIV protease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- W Han
- Department of Chemical and Physical Sciences, DuPont Pharmaceuticals Company, Wilmington, Delaware 19880-0500, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
156
|
Ghosh AK, Fidanze S. Transition-State Mimetics for HIV Protease Inhibitors: Stereocontrolled Synthesis of Hydroxyethylene and Hydroxyethylamine Isosteres by Ester-Derived Titanium Enolate Syn and Anti-Aldol Reactions. J Org Chem 1998; 63:6146-6152. [PMID: 11672244 DOI: 10.1021/jo980159i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Stereocontrolled syntheses of hydroxyethylene dipeptide isostere and aminoalkyl epoxides for hydroxyethylamine isosteres are described. The stereochemistry of both stereogenic centers of the aminoalkyl epoxides 10 and 15 as well as the gamma-lactone 17 was assembled by our recently developed highly selective ester-derived titanium enolate aldol reactions. The Ti-enolate of 6 reacted with (benzyloxy)acetaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde to provide the syn-aldol product 7 and anti-aldol product 12, respectively. Removal of the chiral template followed by Curtius rearrangement of the resulting acid provided the desired amine functionality. The present syntheses represent practical and enantioselective entry to a range of other dipeptide isosteres, which are not limited to amino acid derived substituents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arun K. Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, 845 West Taylor Street, Chicago, Illinois, 60607
| | | |
Collapse
|
157
|
Mammano F, Petit C, Clavel F. Resistance-associated loss of viral fitness in human immunodeficiency virus type 1: phenotypic analysis of protease and gag coevolution in protease inhibitor-treated patients. J Virol 1998; 72:7632-7. [PMID: 9696866 PMCID: PMC110025 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.72.9.7632-7637.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have studied the phenotypic impact of adaptative Gag cleavage site mutations in patient-derived human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) variants having developed resistance to the protease inhibitor ritonavir or saquinavir. We found that Gag mutations occurred in a minority of resistant viruses, regardless of the duration of the treatment and of the protease mutation profile. Gag mutations exerted only a partial corrective effect on resistance-associated loss of viral fitness. Reconstructed viruses with resistant proteases displayed multiple Gag cleavage defects, and in spite of Gag adaptation, several of these defects remained, explaining the limited corrective effect of cleavage site mutations on fitness. Our data provide clear evidence of the interplay between resistance and fitness in HIV-1 evolution in patients treated with protease inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Mammano
- Unité d'Oncologie Virale, Département Sida et Rétrovirus, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
158
|
Carrillo A, Stewart KD, Sham HL, Norbeck DW, Kohlbrenner WE, Leonard JM, Kempf DJ, Molla A. In vitro selection and characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 variants with increased resistance to ABT-378, a novel protease inhibitor. J Virol 1998; 72:7532-41. [PMID: 9696850 PMCID: PMC109995 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.72.9.7532-7541.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
ABT-378, a new human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) protease inhibitor which is significantly more active than ritonavir in cell culture, is currently under investigation for the treatment of AIDS. Development of viral resistance to ABT-378 in vitro was studied by serial passage of HIV-1 (pNL4-3) in MT-4 cells. Selection of viral variants with increasing concentrations of ABT-378 revealed a sequential appearance of mutations in the protease gene: I84V-L10F-M46I-T91S-V32I-I47V. Further selection at a 3.0 microM inhibitor concentration resulted in an additional change at residue 47 (V47A), as well as reversion at residue 32 back to the wild-type sequence. The 50% effective concentration of ABT-378 against passaged virus containing these additional changes was 338-fold higher than that against wild-type virus. In addition to changes in the protease gene, sequence analysis of passaged virus revealed mutations in the p1/p6 (P1' residue Leu to Phe) and p7/p1 (P2 residue Ala to Val) gag proteolytic processing sites. The p1/p6 mutation appeared in several clones derived from early passages and was present in all clones obtained from passage P11 (0.42 microM ABT-378) onward. The p7/p1 mutation appeared very late during the selection process and was strongly associated with the emergence of the additional change at residue 47 (V47A) and the reversion at residue 32 back to the wild-type sequence. Furthermore, this p7/p1 mutation was present in all clones obtained from passage P17 (3.0 microM ABT-378) onward and always occurred in conjunction with the p1/p6 mutation. Full-length molecular clones containing protease mutations observed very late during the selection process were constructed and found to be viable only in the presence of both the p7/p1 and p1/p6 cleavage-site mutations. This suggests that mutation of these gag proteolytic cleavage sites is required for the growth of highly resistant HIV-1 selected by ABT-378 and supports recent work demonstrating that mutations in the p7/p1/p6 region play an important role in conferring resistance to protease inhibitors (L. Doyon et al., J. Virol. 70:3763-3769, 1996; Y. M. Zhang et al., J. Virol. 71:6662-6670, 1997).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Carrillo
- Pharmaceutical Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, Illinois 60064, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
159
|
Tawa GJ, Topol IA, Burt SK, Erickson JW. Calculation of Relative Binding Free Energies of Peptidic Inhibitors to HIV-1 Protease and Its I84V Mutant. J Am Chem Soc 1998. [DOI: 10.1021/ja9733090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. J. Tawa
- Contribution from the Frederick Biomedical Supercomputing Center and Structural Biochemistry Program, SAIC Frederick, NCI Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, P.O. Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702-1201
| | - I. A. Topol
- Contribution from the Frederick Biomedical Supercomputing Center and Structural Biochemistry Program, SAIC Frederick, NCI Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, P.O. Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702-1201
| | - S. K. Burt
- Contribution from the Frederick Biomedical Supercomputing Center and Structural Biochemistry Program, SAIC Frederick, NCI Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, P.O. Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702-1201
| | - J. W. Erickson
- Contribution from the Frederick Biomedical Supercomputing Center and Structural Biochemistry Program, SAIC Frederick, NCI Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, P.O. Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702-1201
| |
Collapse
|
160
|
Sáez-Llorens X, Ramilo O. Early experience with protease inhibitors in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998; 17:728-38. [PMID: 9726349 DOI: 10.1097/00006454-199808000-00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- X Sáez-Llorens
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Hospital del Niño, Panama City, Panama
| | | |
Collapse
|
161
|
Affiliation(s)
- A Molla
- Pharmaceutical Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, IL 60064, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
162
|
Friedman SH, Ganapathi PS, Rubin Y, Kenyon GL. Optimizing the binding of fullerene inhibitors of the HIV-1 protease through predicted increases in hydrophobic desolvation. J Med Chem 1998; 41:2424-9. [PMID: 9632374 DOI: 10.1021/jm970689r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We have developed and applied a computational strategy to increase the affinity of fullerene-based inhibitors of the HIV protease. The result is a approximately 50-fold increase in affinity from previously tested fullerene compounds. The strategy is based on the design of derivatives which may potentially increase hydrophobic desolvation upon complex formation, followed by the docking of the hypothetical derivatives into the HIV protease active site and assessment of the model complexes so formed. The model complexes are generated by the program DOCK and then analyzed for desolvated hydrophobic surface. The amount of hydrophobic surface desolvated was compared with a previously tested compound, and if this amount was significantly greater, it was selected as a target. Using this approach, two targets were identified and synthesized, using two different synthetic approaches: a diphenyl C60 alcohol (5) based on a cyclopropyl derivative of Bingel (Chem.Ber. 1993, 126, 1957-1959) and a diisopropyl cyclohexyl C60 alcohol (4a) as synthesized by Ganapathi et al. (J. Org.Chem. 1995, 60, 2954-2955). Both showed tighter binding than the originally tested compound (diphenethylaminosuccinate methano-C60, Ki = 5 microM) with Ki values of 103 and 150 nM, respectively. In addition to demonstrating the utility of this approach, it shows that simple modification of fullerenes can result in high-affinity ligands of the HIV protease, for which they are highly complementary in structure and chemical nature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S H Friedman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0446, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
163
|
|
164
|
Merry C, McMahon C, Ryan M, O'Shea E, Mulcahy F, Smith OP. Successful use of protease inhibitors in HIV-infected haemophilia patients. Br J Haematol 1998; 101:475-9. [PMID: 9633889 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2141.1998.00734.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The haemophilias are a group of inherited haemostatic disorders that require regular clotting factor replacement therapy in the severe and moderately severe subgroups. Prior to the introduction of adequate viral inactivation methods in 1985, haemophilia patients were at exceptionally high risk of contracting blood-borne viruses from factor concentrates as each batch was derived from the plasma of thousands of donors. As a result, approximately 60% of these patients were infected with HIV between 1979 and 1985, and HIV infection now contributes significantly to the morbidity and mortality seen in this group. Protease inhibitors (PIs) have been shown to significantly log reduce viral loads and increase CD4 cell counts in HIV-infected individuals. Recently, there has been concern about their use in HIV-infected haemophilia patients following increased bleeding episodes in some patients during PI therapy. We prospectively studied the effect of PI therapy in 20 HIV-infected haemophilia patients at our centre over a 6-month period. The mean increase in CD4 cell count was 70 x 10(6)/l and the mean log decrease in viral load was 1.59 over the study period. Gastrointestinal side-effects (nausea and vomiting in five, diarrhoea in two) were the most frequent and resulted in discontinuation of the medication in two patients. Factor concentrate usage for the group on and off study was similar. One severe FVIII patient reported a single episode of an unusual bleed which responded promptly to FVIII concentrate infusion. The significant clinical and laboratory benefits in terms of HIV disease and the paucity of added bleeding complications suggest that PI therapy should not be withheld from HIV-infected haemophilics. Further prospective studies evaluating the efficacy and possible haemostatic complications related to these promising inhibitors of the HIV protease are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Merry
- Department of Genito-Urinary Medicine, St James's Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
165
|
Vandamme AM, Van Vaerenbergh K, De Clercq E. Anti-human immunodeficiency virus drug combination strategies. Antivir Chem Chemother 1998; 9:187-203. [PMID: 9875399 DOI: 10.1177/095632029800900301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It is now generally accepted that mono- and bitherapy for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection are only transiently efficient mainly due to virus drug resistance. To obtain a sustained benefit from antiviral therapy, current guidelines recommend at least triple-drug combinations, or the so-called highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). In some patients, HAART can be problematic, either because it is difficult to remain compliant or because previous suboptimum therapies have limited the choice of drugs. For compliant drug-naive patients, HAART should be able to offer long-term virus suppression, when changing from first- to second- to third-line HAART at drug failure. Long-term treatment might ultimately result in multi-drug resistant virus leaving few options for salvage therapy. HIV drug resistance testing to guide this salvage therapy and the development of new drugs to allow new options will therefore remain priorities in anti-HIV drug research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A M Vandamme
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
166
|
Xie D, Gulnik S, Collins L, Gustchina E, Bhat TN, Erickson JW. Thermodynamics and proton uptake for pepstatin binding to retroviral and eukaryotic aspartic proteases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1998; 436:381-6. [PMID: 9561245 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-5373-1_53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D Xie
- Structural Biochemistry Program, SAIC Frederick, National Cancer Institute, Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Maryland 21702-1201, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
167
|
Affiliation(s)
- C Flexner
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
168
|
Ghosh AK, Krishnan K, Walters DE, Cho W, Cho H, Koo Y, Trevino J, Holland L, Buthod J. Structure based design: novel spirocyclic ethers as nonpeptidal P2-ligands for HIV protease inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1998; 8:979-82. [PMID: 9871524 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(98)00139-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A series of novel spirocyclic ethers were designed to function as nonpeptidal P2-ligands for HIV-1 protease inhibitors. Incorporation of designed ligands in the (R)-(hydroxyethylamino)sulfonamide isostere afforded potent HIV protease inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A K Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago 60607, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
169
|
BouHamdan M, Xue Y, Baudat Y, Hu B, Sire J, Pomerantz RJ, Duan LX. Diversity of HIV-1 Vpr interactions involves usage of the WXXF motif of host cell proteins. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:8009-16. [PMID: 9525900 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.14.8009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeting protein or RNA moieties to specific cellular compartments may enhance their desired functions and specificities. Human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV-1) encodes proteins in addition to Gag, Pol, and Env that are packaged into virus particles. One such retroviral-incorporated protein is Vpr, which is present in all primate lentiviruses. Vpr has been implicated in different roles within the HIV-1 life cycle. In testing a new hypothesis in which viral proteins are utilized as docking sites to incorporate protein moieties into virions, we used the peptide phage display approach to search for Vpr-specific binding peptides. In the present studies, we demonstrate that most of the peptides that bind to Vpr have a common motif, WXXF. More importantly, we demonstrate that the WXXF motif of uracil DNA glycosylase is implicated in the interaction of uracil DNA glycosylase with Vpr intracellularly. Finally, a dimer of the WXXF motif was fused to the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) gene, and it was demonstrated that the WXXF dimer-CAT fusion protein construct produces CAT activity within virions in the presence of Vpr as a docking protein. This study provides a novel potential strategy in the targeting of anti-viral agents to interfere with HIV-1 replication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M BouHamdan
- The Dorrance H. Hamilton Laboratories, Center for Human Virology, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
170
|
Zennou V, Mammano F, Paulous S, Mathez D, Clavel F. Loss of viral fitness associated with multiple Gag and Gag-Pol processing defects in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 variants selected for resistance to protease inhibitors in vivo. J Virol 1998; 72:3300-6. [PMID: 9525657 PMCID: PMC109806 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.72.4.3300-3306.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We examined the viral replicative capacity and protease-mediated processing of Gag and Gag-Pol precursors of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) variants selected for resistance to protease inhibitors. We compared recombinant viruses carrying plasma HIV RNA protease sequences obtained from five patients before protease inhibitor therapy and after virus escape from the treatment. Paired pretherapy-postresistance reconstructed viruses were evaluated for HIV infectivity in a quantitative single-cycle titration assay and in a lymphoid cell propagation assay. We found that all reconstructed resistant viruses had a reproducible decrease in their replicative capacity relative to their parental pretherapy counterparts. The extent of this loss of infectivity was pronounced for some viruses and more limited for others, irrespective of the inhibitor used and of the level of resistance. In resistant viruses, the efficiency of Gag and Gag-Pol precursor cleavage by the protease was impaired to different extents, as shown by the accumulation of several cleavage intermediates in purified particle preparations. We conclude that protease inhibitor-resistant HIV variants selected during therapy have an impaired replicative capacity related to multiple defects in the processing of Gag and Gag-Pol polyprotein precursors by the protease.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Cell Line, Transformed
- Cloning, Molecular
- Drug Resistance, Microbial
- Drug Resistance, Multiple
- Fusion Proteins, gag-pol/drug effects
- Fusion Proteins, gag-pol/metabolism
- Gene Products, gag/drug effects
- Gene Products, gag/metabolism
- Genetic Variation
- HIV Protease Inhibitors/pharmacology
- HIV-1/drug effects
- HIV-1/genetics
- HIV-1/metabolism
- HIV-1/physiology
- HeLa Cells
- Humans
- Protein Processing, Post-Translational/drug effects
- Proteins/metabolism
- Recombination, Genetic
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Virus Replication
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V Zennou
- Unité d'Oncologie Virale, Département Sida et Rétrovirus, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
171
|
Barry M, Mulcahy F, Back DJ. Antiretroviral therapy for patients with HIV disease. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 45:221-8. [PMID: 9517365 PMCID: PMC1873374 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2125.1998.00673.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/1997] [Accepted: 10/30/1997] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M Barry
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Liverpool, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
172
|
Lee T, Laco GS, Torbett BE, Fox HS, Lerner DL, Elder JH, Wong CH. Analysis of the S3 and S3' subsite specificities of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) protease: development of a broad-based protease inhibitor efficacious against FIV, SIV, and HIV in vitro and ex vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 95:939-44. [PMID: 9448264 PMCID: PMC18632 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.95.3.939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The S3 and S3' subsite binding specificities of HIV and feline immunodeficiency virus proteases (FIV) proteases (PRs) have been explored by using C2-symmetric competitive inhibitors. The inhibitors evaluated contained (1S, 2R, 3R, 4S)-1,4-diamino-1, 4-dibenzyl-2,3-diol as P1 and P1' units, Val as P2 and P2' residues, and a variety of amino acids at the P3 and P3' positions. All inhibitors showed very high potency against HIV PR in vitro, and their Ki values ranged between 1.1 and 2.6 nM. In contrast to the low restriction of P3 and P3' residues observed in HIV PR, FIV PR exhibited strong preference for small hydrophobic groups at the S3 and S3' subsites. Within this series, the most effective inhibitor against FIV PR contained Ala at P3 and P3'. Its Ki of 41 nM was 415- and 170-fold lower than those of the inhibitors without the P3 and P3' moieties or with the Phe at these positions, respectively. In addition, these compounds were tested against mutant FIV PRs, which contain amino acid substitutions corresponding to those in native HIV PR at homologous sites, and their efficacy of inhibition progressively increased up to 5-fold. The most potent FIV PR inhibitor was selected for examination of its effectiveness in tissue culture, and it was able to block nearly 100% of virus production in an acute infection at 1 microg/ml (1.1 microM) against HIV, FIV, and simian immunodeficiency virus. Furthermore, it was not toxic to cells, and even after 2 months of culture there was no sign of resistance development by virus. The findings suggest that inhibitors with small P3 residue may be efficacious against a broad range of HIV variants as well as interspecies PRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Lee
- Department of Chemistry and the Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
173
|
Yeh KC, Deutsch PJ, Haddix H, Hesney M, Hoagland V, Ju WD, Justice SJ, Osborne B, Sterrett AT, Stone JA, Woolf E, Waldman S. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of indinavir and the effect of food. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42:332-8. [PMID: 9527781 PMCID: PMC105409 DOI: 10.1128/aac.42.2.332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Indinavir sulfate is a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) protease inhibitor indicated for treatment of HIV infection and AIDS in adults. The purpose of this report is to summarize single-dose studies which characterized the pharmacokinetics of the drug and the effect of food in healthy volunteers. Indinavir concentrations in plasma and urine were obtained by high-pressure liquid chromatography and UV detection assay methods. The results indicate that indinavir was rapidly absorbed in the fasting state, with the time to the maximum concentration in plasma occurring at approximately 0.8 h for all doses studied. Over the 40- to 1,000-mg dose range studied, concentrations in plasma and urinary excretion of unchanged drug increased greater than dose proportionally. The nonlinear pharmacokinetics were attributed to the dose-dependent oxidative metabolism of first-pass metabolism as well as to metabolism in the systemic circulation. Renal clearance slightly exceeded the glomerular filtration rate, suggesting a net tubular secretion component. At high concentrations in plasma, tubular secretion appeared to be lowered because there was a trend for a decreased renal clearance. Administration of 400 mg of indinavir sulfate following a high-fat breakfast resulted in a blunted and decreased absorption (areas under the concentration-time curves [AUCs], 6.86 microM.h in the fasted state versus 1.54 microM.h in the fed state; n = 10). However, two types of low-fat meals were found to have no significant effect on the absorption of 800 mg of indinavir sulfate (AUCs, 23.15 microM.h in the fasted state versus 22.71 and 21.36 microM.h, respectively, in the fed state; n = 11). Immediately following dosing, the concentrations of indinavir in urine often exceeded its intrinsic solubility. To reduce the risk of nephrolithiasis, it is recommended that indinavir sulfate be administered with water.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K C Yeh
- Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
174
|
Tucker SP, Stiebel TR, Potts KE, Smidt ML, Bryant ML. Estimate of the frequency of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease inhibitor resistance within unselected virus populations in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42:478-80. [PMID: 9527815 PMCID: PMC105443 DOI: 10.1128/aac.42.2.478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The frequency of drug-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) variants in virus populations not previously exposed to drug was determined in vitro by using HIV-1RF and the protease inhibitor SC-55389A. Two variants with single mutations responsible for drug resistance (V82A and N88S) were quantifiably isolated after only one round of replication, yielding a crude frequency estimate of at least 1 SC-55389A-resistant variant per 3.5 x 10(5) wild-type infectious units.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S P Tucker
- G. D. Searle, Searle Research and Development, St. Louis, Missouri 63198, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
175
|
Chatfield DC, P. Eurenius K, Brooks BR. HIV-1 protease cleavage mechanism: A theoretical investigation based on classical MD simulation and reaction path calculations using a hybrid QM/MM potential. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0166-1280(96)04875-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
176
|
Konvalinka J, Litera J, Weber J, Vondrásek J, Hradílek M, Soucek M, Pichová I, Majer P, Strop P, Sedlácek J, Heuser AM, Kottler H, Kräusslich HG. Configurations of diastereomeric hydroxyethylene isosteres strongly affect biological activities of a series of specific inhibitors of human-immunodeficiency-virus proteinase. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1997; 250:559-66. [PMID: 9428710 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1997.0559a.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) proteinase (PR) represents an important target for antiviral chemotherapy. We present an analysis of inhibitory activities of a series of pseudopeptide inhibitors of HIV-1 PR. All inhibitors were N-protected tetrapeptides with the scissile bond replaced by a nonhydrolysable hydroxyethylene or hydroxyethylamine isostere. To elucidate subtle structural requirements of the PR binding cleft, we synthesised inhibitors with four combinations of configurations at the asymmetric carbons of the isostere. Compounds were tested in vitro using purified recombinant enzyme and a chromogenic peptide substrate. The differences in inhibition constants between individual diastereoisomers reached three orders of magnitude. The most active hydroxyethylene-containing inhibitor possessed the 2R,4S,5S configuration at the isostere. Inhibitor activity was also tested in mammalian cell culture by analysing reduction of viral polyprotein processing and virus infectivity. The results obtained in tissue culture were generally in agreement with the in vitro data, giving a similar order of potency for the individual diastereoisomers. The most active compounds completely blocked production of infectious virus. A simulation method for interaction was employed to build a model of the inhibitors in the PR active site, to identify the interactions responsible for the differences in activities of individual stereoisomers, and to estimate the relative contribution of individual structural features to the overall inhibitory activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Konvalinka
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Science of the Czech Republic, Praha.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
177
|
Choy N, Choi HI, Jung WH, Kim CR, Yoon H, Kim SC, Lee TG, Koh JS. Synthesis of irreversible HIV-1 protease inhibitors containing sulfonamide and sulfone as amide bond isosteres. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(97)10054-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
178
|
Hicks CB. UPDATE ON ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY. Radiol Clin North Am 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0033-8389(22)00449-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
179
|
Lamarre D, Croteau G, Wardrop E, Bourgon L, Thibeault D, Clouette C, Vaillancourt M, Cohen E, Pargellis C, Yoakim C, Anderson PC. Antiviral properties of palinavir, a potent inhibitor of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41:965-71. [PMID: 9145853 PMCID: PMC163834 DOI: 10.1128/aac.41.5.965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Palinavir is a potent inhibitor of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) proteases. Replication of laboratory strains (HIV-1, HIV-2, and simian immunodeficiency virus) and HIV-1 clinical isolates is inhibited by palinavir with 50% effective concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 30 nM. The average cytotoxic concentration of palinavir (35 microM) in the various target cells indicates a favorable therapeutic index. Potent antiviral activity is retained with increased doses of virus and with clinical isolates resistant to zidovudine (AZT), didanosine (ddI), or nevirapine. Combinations of palinavir with either AZT, ddI, or nevirapine demonstrate synergy or additivity in the inhibition of HIV-1 replication. Palinavir retains anti-HIV-1 activity when administered postinfection until times subsequent to the reverse transcription step. In chronically infected CR-10 cells, palinavir blocks Gag precursor polyprotein processing completely, reducing greater than 99% of infectious particle production. The results indicate that the antiviral activity of palinavir is specific to inhibition of the viral protease and occurs at a late stage in the replicative cycle of HIV-1. On the basis of the potent in vitro activity, low-level cytotoxicity, and other data, palinavir was selected for in-depth preclinical evaluation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Lamarre
- Department of Biochemistry, Bio-Méga Research Division of Boehringer Ingelheim (Canada) Ltd., Laval, Quebec
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
180
|
Tran TT, Patino N, Condom R, Frogier T, Guedj R. Fluorinated peptides incorporating a 4-fluoroproline residue as potential inhibitors of HIV protease. J Fluor Chem 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1139(96)03568-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
181
|
Yamaguchi K, Papp B, Zhang D, Ali AN, Agrawal S, Byrn RA. The multiple inhibitory mechanisms of GEM 91, a gag antisense phosphorothioate oligonucleotide, for human immunodeficiency virus type 1. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1997; 13:545-54. [PMID: 9135872 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1997.13.545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
GEM 91 (gene expression modulator) is a 25-mer oligonucleotide phosphorothioate complementary to the gag initiation site of HIV-1. GEM 91 has been studied in various in vitro cell culture models to examine inhibitory effects on different stages of HIV-1 replication. Experiments were focused on the binding of virions to the cell surface, inhibition of virus entry, reverse transcription (HIV DNA production), inhibition of steady state viral mRNA levels, inhibition of virus production from chronically infected cells, and inhibition of HIV genome packaging within virions. Experiments were also performed in vitro in an attempt to generate strains of HIV with reduced sensitivity to GEM 91. We observed sequence-dependent inhibition of virus entry/reverse transcription and a reduction in steady state viral RNA levels. We also observed sequence-independent inhibition of virion binding to cells and inhibition of virus production by chronically infected cells. Using in vitro methods that were successful in generating HIV strains with reduced sensitivity to AZT, we were unable to generate strains with reduced sensitivity to GEM 91.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Yamaguchi
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
182
|
Serio D, Rizvi TA, Cartas M, Kalyanaraman VS, Weber IT, Koprowski H, Srinivasan A. Development of a novel anti-HIV-1 agent from within: effect of chimeric Vpr-containing protease cleavage site residues on virus replication. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:3346-51. [PMID: 9096396 PMCID: PMC20372 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.7.3346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective antiviral agents will be of great value in controlling virus replication and delaying the onset of HIV-1-related disease symptoms. Current therapy involves the use of antiviral agents that target the enzymatic functions of the virus, resulting in the emergence of resistant viruses to these agents, thus lowering their effectiveness. To overcome this problem, we have considered the idea of developing novel agents from within HIV-1 as inhibitors of virus replication. The specificity of the Vpr protein for the HIV-1 virus particle makes it an attractive molecule for the development of antiviral agents targeting the events associated with virus maturation. We have generated chimeric Vpr proteins containing HIV-1-specific sequences added to the C terminus of Vpr. These sequences correspond to nine cleavage sites of the Gag and Gag-Pol precursors of HIV-1. The chimeric Vpr constructs were introduced into HIV-1 proviral DNA to assess their effect on virus infectivity using single- and multiple-round replication assays. The virus particles generated exhibited a variable replication pattern depending on the protease cleavage site used as a fusion partner. Interestingly, the chimeric Vpr containing the cleavage sequences from the junction of p24 and p2, 24/2, completely abolished virus infectivity. These results show that chimeric proteins generated from within HIV-1 have the ability to suppress HIV-1 replication and make ideal agents for gene therapy or intracellular immunization to treat HIV-1 infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Serio
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
183
|
Bäckbro K, Löwgren S, Osterlund K, Atepo J, Unge T, Hultén J, Bonham NM, Schaal W, Karlén A, Hallberg A. Unexpected binding mode of a cyclic sulfamide HIV-1 protease inhibitor. J Med Chem 1997; 40:898-902. [PMID: 9083478 DOI: 10.1021/jm960588d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Two cyclic, C2-symmetric HIV-1 protease inhibitors, one sulfamide and one urea derivative, both comprising phenyl ether groups in the P1/P1' positions, were cocrystallized with HIV-1 protease, and the crystal structures were determined to 2.0 A resolution. The structure of the urea 2 showed a conformation similar to that reported for the related urea 3 by Lam et al., while the sulfamide 1 adopted an unanticipated conformation in which the P1' and P2' side chains were transposed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Bäckbro
- Department of Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
184
|
Hultén J, Bonham NM, Nillroth U, Hansson T, Zuccarello G, Bouzide A, Aqvist J, Classon B, Danielson UH, Karlén A, Kvarnström I, Samuelsson B, Hallberg A. Cyclic HIV-1 protease inhibitors derived from mannitol: synthesis, inhibitory potencies, and computational predictions of binding affinities. J Med Chem 1997; 40:885-97. [PMID: 9083477 DOI: 10.1021/jm960728j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Ten C2-symmetric cyclic urea and sulfamide derivatives have been synthesized from L-mannonic gamma-lactone and D-mannitol. The results of experimental measurement of their inhibitory potencies against HIV-1 protease were compared to calculated free energies of binding derived from molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The compounds were selected, firstly, to enable elucidation of the role of stereochemistry for binding affinity (1a-d) and, secondly, to allow evaluation of the effects of variation in the link to the P1 and P1' phenyl groups on affinity (1a and 2-5). Thirdly, compounds with hydrogen bond-accepting or-donating groups attached to the phenyl groups in the P2 and P2' side chains (6 and 7) were selected. Binding free energies were estimated by a linear response method, whose predictive power for estimating binding affinities from MD simulations was demonstrated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Hultén
- Department of Organic Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala Biomedical Center, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
185
|
Xiang Y, Ridky TW, Krishna NK, Leis J. Altered Rous sarcoma virus Gag polyprotein processing and its effects on particle formation. J Virol 1997; 71:2083-91. [PMID: 9032340 PMCID: PMC191297 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.71.3.2083-2091.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteolytic processing of the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) Gag precursor was altered in vivo through the introduction of amino acid substitutions into either the polyprotein cleavage junctions or the PR coding sequence. Single amino acid substitutions (V(P2)S and P(P4)G), which are predicted from in vitro peptide substrate cleavage data to decrease the rate of release of PR from the Gag polyprotein, were placed in the NC portion of the NC-PR junction. These substitutions do not affect the efficiency of release of virus-like particles from COS cells even though recovered particles contain significant amounts of uncleaved Pr76gag in addition to mature viral proteins. Single amino acid substitutions (A(P3)F and S(P1)Y), which increase the rate of PR release from Gag, also do not affect budding of virus-like particles from cells. Substitution of the inefficiently cleaved MA-p2 junction sequence in Gag by eight amino acids from the rapidly cleaved NC-PR sequence resulted in a significant increase in cleavage at the new MA-p2 junction, but again without an effect on budding. However, decreased budding was observed when the A(P3)F or S(P1)Y substitution was included in the NC-PR junction sequence between the MA and p2 proteins. A budding defect was also caused by substitution into Gag of a PR subunit containing three amino acid substitutions (R105P, G106V, and S107N) in the substrate binding pocket that increase the catalytic activity of PR. The defect appears to be the result of premature proteolytic processing that could be rescued by inactivating PR through substitution of a serine for the catalytic aspartic acid residue. This budding defect was also rescued by single amino acid substitutions in the NC-PR cleavage site which decrease the rate of release of PR from Gag. A similar budding defect was caused by replacing the Gag PR with two PR subunits covalently linked by four glycine residues. In contrast to the defect caused by the triply substituted PR, the budding defect observed with the linked PR dimer could not be rescued by NC-PR cleavage site mutations, suggesting that PR dimerization is a limiting step in the maturation process. Overall, these results are consistent with a model in which viral protein maturation occurs after PR subunits are released from the Gag polyprotein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y Xiang
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
186
|
Liu C, Ng JS, Behling JR, Yen CH, Campbell AL, Fuzail KS, Yonan EE, Mehrotra DV. Development of a Large-Scale Process for an HIV Protease Inhibitor. Org Process Res Dev 1997. [DOI: 10.1021/op960040g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chin Liu
- Chemical Science Department, G. D. Searle and Company, Skokie, Illinois 60077
| | - John S. Ng
- Chemical Science Department, G. D. Searle and Company, Skokie, Illinois 60077
| | - James R. Behling
- Chemical Science Department, G. D. Searle and Company, Skokie, Illinois 60077
| | - Chung H. Yen
- Chemical Science Department, G. D. Searle and Company, Skokie, Illinois 60077
| | - Arthur L. Campbell
- Chemical Science Department, G. D. Searle and Company, Skokie, Illinois 60077
| | - Kalim S. Fuzail
- Chemical Science Department, G. D. Searle and Company, Skokie, Illinois 60077
| | - Edward E. Yonan
- Chemical Science Department, G. D. Searle and Company, Skokie, Illinois 60077
| | - Devan V. Mehrotra
- Chemical Science Department, G. D. Searle and Company, Skokie, Illinois 60077
| |
Collapse
|
187
|
Eyermann CJ, Jadhav P, Nicholas Hodge C, Chang CH, Rodgers JD, Y.S.L P. The role of computer-aided and structure-based design techniques in the discovery and optimization of cyclic urea inhibitors of hiv protease. ADVANCES IN AMINO ACID MIMETICS AND PEPTIDOMIMETICS 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s1874-5113(97)80003-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
|
188
|
Hanessian S, Wang W, Gai Y. Stereocontrolled sequential functionalization in acyclic systems by exploiting internal 1,2-asymmetric induction — generation of symmetry-related polyamino alcohol motifs. Tetrahedron Lett 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0040-4039(96)01754-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
189
|
Turpin JA, Terpening SJ, Schaeffer CA, Yu G, Glover CJ, Felsted RL, Sausville EA, Rice WG. Inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 zinc fingers prevent normal processing of gag precursors and result in the release of noninfectious virus particles. J Virol 1996; 70:6180-9. [PMID: 8709244 PMCID: PMC190642 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.70.9.6180-6189.1996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Cys-Xaa2-Cys-Xaa4-His-Xaa4-Cys zinc fingers of retroviral nucleocapsid proteins are prime antiviral targets because of conservation of the Cys and His chelating residues and the absolute requirement of these fingers in both early and late phases of retroviral replication. We previously reported that certain disulfide-substituted benzamides (DIBAs) chemically modify the Cys residues of the fingers, resulting in inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication (W. G. Rice, J. G. Supko, L. Malspeis, R. W. Buckheit, Jr., D. Clanton, M. Bu, L. Graham, C. A. Schaeffer, J. A. Turpin, J. Domagala, R. Gogliotti, J. P. Bader, S. M. Halliday, L. Coren, R. C. Sowder II, L. O. Arthur, and L. E. Henderson, Science 270:1194-1197, 1995). We now examine the consequences of the interaction of DIBAs with the zinc fingers of the HIV-1 p7 nucleocapsid protein and its Pr55gag precursor. In HIV-1-infected U1 cells, DIBAs inhibited the release of infectious virions, and even under conditions in which virion particles were produced, the particles were noninfectious. DIBAs caused abnormal processing of Gag precursors, and the inhibitory effect on processing was not due to inhibition of the HIV-1 protease enzyme or Pr55gag myristoylation. Rather, the defect in processing was due to the formation of intermolecular cross-linkages among the zinc fingers of adjacent Gag molecules, rendering the precursors no longer recognizable by HIV-1 protease. Likewise, DIBAs caused intermolecular cross-linkage among recombinant Pr55gag packaged into pseudovirions, thereby generating modified precursors that were resistant to the action of protease. Thus, DIBAs chemically modified the mutationally intolerant retroviral zinc fingers in infected cells, interrupting protease-mediated maturation of virions and leading ultimately to the production of compromised virions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J A Turpin
- Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Mechanisms, National Cancer Institute-Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, SAIC Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
190
|
Hanessian S, Devasthale PV. Design and synthesis of novel, pseudo C2 symmetric inhibitors of HIV protease. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0960-894x(96)00392-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
191
|
Ghosh AK, Kincaid JF, Walters DE, Chen Y, Chaudhuri NC, Thompson WJ, Culberson C, Fitzgerald PM, Lee HY, McKee SP, Munson PM, Duong TT, Darke PL, Zugay JA, Schleif WA, Axel MG, Lin J, Huff JR. Nonpeptidal P2 ligands for HIV protease inhibitors: structure-based design, synthesis, and biological evaluation. J Med Chem 1996; 39:3278-90. [PMID: 8765511 DOI: 10.1021/jm960128k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Design and synthesis of nonpeptidal bis-tetrahydrofuran ligands based upon the X-ray crystal structure of the HIV-1 protease-inhibitor complex 1 led to replacement of two amide bonds and a 10 pi-aromatic system of Ro 31-8959 class of HIV protease inhibitors. Detailed structure-activity studies have now established that the position of ring oxygens, ring size, and stereochemistry are all crucial to potency. Of particular interest, compound 49 with (3S,3aS,6aS)-bis-Thf is the most potent inhibitor (IC50 value 1.8 +/- 0.2 nM; CIC95 value 46 +/- 4 nM) in this series. The X-ray structure of protein-inhibitor complex 49 has provided insight into the ligand-binding site interactions. As it turned out, both oxygens in the bis-Thf ligands are involved in hydrogen-bonding interactions with Asp 29 and Asp 30 NH present in the S2 subsite of HIV-1 protease. Stereoselective routes have been developed to obtain these novel ligands in optically pure form.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A K Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago 60607, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
192
|
Fässler A, Bold G, Capraro HG, Cozens R, Mestan J, Poncioni B, Rösel J, Tintelnot-Blomley M, Lang M. Aza-peptide analogs as potent human immunodeficiency virus type-1 protease inhibitors with oral bioavailability. J Med Chem 1996; 39:3203-16. [PMID: 8759643 DOI: 10.1021/jm960022p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
A series of aza-peptide analogs with a (hydroxyethyl)hydrazine isostere has been synthesized as HIV-1 protease inhibitors using a simple synthetic scheme. Structure-activity studies based on the X-ray of a previously described inhibitor-enzyme complex led to potent inhibitors with antiviral activity in the low-nanomolar range. The S-configuration of the transition-state hydroxyl group was preferred in this series. Small modifications of the P2P3 and P2'P3' substituents had little effect on enzyme inhibition but greatly influenced the pharmacokinetic profile. As a result of these studies, the symmetrically acylated compound 8a and its close analog 24a bearing a methyl carbamate in P3 and an ethyl carbamate in P3' position were identified as potent inhibitors with plasma concentrations exceeding antiviral ED50 values 150-fold following oral application in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Fässler
- Research Laboratories Cancer and Infectious Diseases, Ciba-Geigy AG, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
193
|
|
194
|
Komai T, Higashida S, Sakurai M, Nitta T, Kasuya A, Miyamaoto S, Yagi R, Ozawa Y, Handa H, Mohri H, Yasuoka A, Oka S, Nishigaki T, Kimura S, Shimada K, Yabe Y. Structure-activity relationships of HIV-1 PR inhibitors containing AHPBA--II. Modification of pyrrolidine ring at P1' proline. Bioorg Med Chem 1996; 4:1365-77. [PMID: 8879560 DOI: 10.1016/0968-0896(96)00130-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Systematic replacement in the 3- or 4-position of the pyrrolidine ring at P1' proline was carried out. Compound 26, which has a Cl atom in the 4(S)-position was the most active among inhibitors substituted with other halogen atoms or other substituents. Furthermore, the replacement of the Z group in compound 26 with five- or six-membered fused aromatic heterocycle carbonyl groups produced more potent inhibitors. 7-Methoxybenzofuran-2-carbonyl derivative (44) was the best of these and showed Ki = 4.5 nM against HIV PR and IC90S 0.58 microM and 0.06 microM in chronic and acute infections, respectively. These results suggest that the combination of the 4(S)-CI atom and fused bicyclic heterocycles may be effective in improving their cellular penetration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Komai
- Biological Research Laboratories, Sankyo Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
195
|
|
196
|
Schramm HJ, Boetzel J, Büttner J, Fritsche E, Göhring W, Jaeger E, König S, Thumfart O, Wenger T, Nagel NE, Schramm W. The inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus proteases by 'interface peptides'. Antiviral Res 1996; 30:155-70. [PMID: 8783807 DOI: 10.1016/0166-3542(96)00940-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The active human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) protease has a homodimeric structure, the subunits are connected by an 'interface' beta-sheet formed by the NH2- and COOH-terminal amino acid segments. Short peptides derived from these segments are able to inhibit the protease activity in the range of micromolar IC50 values. We have further improved the inhibitory power of such peptides by computer modelling. The best inhibitor, the palmitoyl-blocked peptide Pam-Thr-Val-Ser-Tyr-Glu-Leu, has an IC50 value of less than 1 microM. Some of the peptides also showed very good inhibition of the HIV-2 protease. The C-terminal segment of the HIV-1 matrix protein, Acetyl-Gln-Val-Ser-Gln-Asn-Tyr, also inhibits HIV-1 protease. Kinetic studies confirmed the 'dissociative' mechanism of inhibition by the peptides. Depending on the peptide structure and ionic strength, both dimerization inhibition and competitive inhibition were observed, as well as synergistic effects between competitive inhibitors and interface peptides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H J Schramm
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biochemie, Martinsried, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
197
|
Drusano GL, Prichard M, Bilello PA, Bilello JA. Modeling combinations of antiretroviral agents in vitro with integration of pharmacokinetics: guidance in regimen choice for clinical trial evaluation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40:1143-7. [PMID: 8723455 PMCID: PMC163280 DOI: 10.1128/aac.40.5.1143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We propose a method for the selection of doses and dosing schedule for drugs to be used in combination. This approach uses the simulation of steady-state concentrations of the drugs in the combination and overlays these concentrations onto a three-dimensional effect surface. The MacSynergy II program is used to construct the three-dimensional drug interaction surface from the direct evaluation of drug combination effect in vitro. The study examined the combination of an inhibitor of the human immunodeficiency virus protease, A-77003, and the nucleoside analog zidovudine. Zidovudine concentrations from a steady-state interval were simulated on the basis of the administration of 100 mg every 12 h by mouth, while for A-77003 simulation profiles were for intravenous administration of 800 mg every 4 h as well as a continuous infusion of 200 mg/h. The average percentage of the maximal effect was taken as a measure of regimen effectiveness. Three different schedules of administration were examined. If both drugs were to be administered simultaneously, the model predicts a mean maximal effect of a steady-state interval (12 h) of 67%. If the drug doses were offset by 2 h, the mean maximal effect predicted was 71%. If A-77003 was to be given by continuous infusion, the mean maximal effect predicted was 90%. This method holds promise as a way of quickly evaluating potential combinations of agents that takes into account the drug interaction in a mathematically robust way and that allows the evaluation of the effect of each drug's pharmacokinetic profile.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G L Drusano
- Department of Medicine, Albany Medical College, New York 12208, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
198
|
Hodge CN, Aldrich PE, Bacheler LT, Chang CH, Eyermann CJ, Garber S, Grubb M, Jackson DA, Jadhav PK, Korant B, Lam PY, Maurin MB, Meek JL, Otto MJ, Rayner MM, Reid C, Sharpe TR, Shum L, Winslow DL, Erickson-Viitanen S. Improved cyclic urea inhibitors of the HIV-1 protease: synthesis, potency, resistance profile, human pharmacokinetics and X-ray crystal structure of DMP 450. CHEMISTRY & BIOLOGY 1996; 3:301-14. [PMID: 8807858 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-5521(96)90110-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Effective HIV protease inhibitors must combine potency towards wild-type and mutant variants of HIV with oral bioavailability such that drug levels in relevant tissues continuously exceed that required for inhibition of virus replication. Computer-aided design led to the discovery of cyclic urea inhibitors of the HIV protease. We set out to improve the physical properties and oral bioavailability of these compounds. RESULTS We have synthesized DMP 450 (bis-methanesulfonic acid salt), a water-soluble cyclic urea compound and a potent inhibitor of HIV replication in cell culture that also inhibits variants of HIV with single amino acid substitutions in the protease. DMP 450 is highly selective for HIV protease, consistent with displacement of the retrovirus-specific structural water molecule. Single doses of 10 mg kg-1 DMP 450 result in plasma levels in man in excess of that required to inhibit wild-type and several mutant HIVs. A plasmid-based, in vivo assay model suggests that maintenance of plasma levels of DMP 450 near the antiviral IC90 suppresses HIV protease activity in the animal. We did identify mutants that are resistant to DMP 450, however; multiple mutations within the protease gene caused a significant reduction in the antiviral response. CONCLUSIONS DMP 450 is a significant advance within the cyclic urea class of HIV protease inhibitors due to its exceptional oral bioavailability. The data presented here suggest that an optimal cyclic urea will provide clinical benefit in treating AIDS if it combines favorable pharmacokinetics with potent activity against not only single mutants of HIV, but also multiply-mutant variants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C N Hodge
- Department of Chemical Sciences, DuPont Merck Pharmaceutical Co., Wilmington, DE 19880, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
199
|
β-Methanesulfonyl-L-valine as a novel, unnatural amino acid surrogate for P2 in the design of HIV protease inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0960-894x(96)00086-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
200
|
Rose RE, Gong YF, Greytok JA, Bechtold CM, Terry BJ, Robinson BS, Alam M, Colonno RJ, Lin PF. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viral background plays a major role in development of resistance to protease inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93:1648-53. [PMID: 8643685 PMCID: PMC39996 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.93.4.1648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The observed in vitro and in vivo benefit of combination treatment with anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) agents prompted us to examine the potential of resistance development when two protease inhibitors are used concurrently. Recombinant HIV-1 (NL4-3) proteases containing combined resistance mutations associated with BMS-186318 and A-77003 (or saquinavir) were either inactive or had impaired enzyme activity. Subsequent construction of HIV-1 (NL4-3) proviral clones containing the same mutations yielded viruses that were severely impaired in growth or nonviable, confirming that combination therapy may be advantageous. However, passage of BMS-186318-resistant HIV-1 (RF) in the presence of either saquinavir or SC52151, which represented sequential drug treatment, produced viable viruses resistant to both BMS-186318 and the second compound. The predominant breakthrough virus contained the G48V/A71T/V82A protease mutations. The clone-purified RF (G48V/A71T/V82A) virus, unlike the corresponding defective NL4-3 triple mutant, grew well and displayed cross-resistance to four distinct protease inhibitors. Chimeric virus and in vitro mutagenesis studies indicated that the RF-specific protease sequence, specifically the Ile at residue 10, enabled the NL4-3 strain with the triple mutant to grow. Our results clearly indicate that viral genetic background will play a key role in determining whether cross-resistance variants will arise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R E Rose
- Department of Virology, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, Wallingford, CT 06492, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|