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Paterniti I, Mazzon E, Gil C, Impellizzeri D, Palomo V, Redondo M, Perez DI, Esposito E, Martinez A, Cuzzocrea S. PDE 7 inhibitors: new potential drugs for the therapy of spinal cord injury. PLoS One 2011; 6:e15937. [PMID: 21297958 PMCID: PMC3031524 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Accepted: 11/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Primary traumatic mechanical injury to the spinal cord (SCI) causes the death of a number of neurons that to date can neither be recovered nor regenerated. During the last years our group has been involved in the design, synthesis and evaluation of PDE7 inhibitors as new innovative drugs for several neurological disorders. Our working hypothesis is based on two different facts. Firstly, neuroinflammation is modulated by cAMP levels, thus the key role for phosphodiesterases (PDEs), which hydrolyze cAMP, is undoubtedly demonstrated. On the other hand, PDE7 is expressed simultaneously on leukocytes and on the brain, highlighting the potential crucial role of PDE7 as drug target for neuroinflammation. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Here we present two chemically diverse families of PDE7 inhibitors, designed using computational techniques such as virtual screening and neuronal networks. We report their biological profile and their efficacy in an experimental SCI model induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. We have selected two candidates, namely S14 and VP1.15, as PDE7 inhibitors. These compounds increase cAMP production both in macrophage and neuronal cell lines. Regarding drug-like properties, compounds were able to cross the blood brain barrier using parallel artificial membranes (PAMPA) methodology. SCI in mice resulted in severe trauma characterized by edema, neutrophil infiltration, and production of a range of inflammatory mediators, tissue damage, and apoptosis. Treatment of the mice with S14 and VP1.15, two PDE7 inhibitors, significantly reduced the degree of spinal cord inflammation, tissue injury (histological score), and TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2 and iNOS expression. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE All these data together led us to propose PDE7 inhibitors, and specifically S14 and VP1.15, as potential drug candidates to be further studied for the treatment of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Paterniti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | | | - Carmen Gil
- Instituto de Quimica Médica-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniela Impellizzeri
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Emanuela Esposito
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi “Bonino-Pulejo”, Messina, Italy
| | | | - Salvatore Cuzzocrea
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi “Bonino-Pulejo”, Messina, Italy
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202
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Diaz-Ruiz A, Salgado-Ceballos H, Montes S, Guizar-Sahagún G, Gelista-Herrera N, Mendez-Armenta M, Diaz-Cintra S, Ríos C. Delayed administration of dapsone protects from tissue damage and improves recovery after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res 2011; 89:373-80. [PMID: 21259324 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2010] [Revised: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
After spinal cord injury (SCI), a complex cascade of pathophysiological processes increases the primary damage. The inflammatory response plays a key role in this pathology. Recent evidence suggests that myeloperoxidase (MPO), an enzyme produced and released by neutrophils, is of special importance in spreading tissue damage. Dapsone (4,4'-diaminodiphenylsulfone) is an irreversible inhibitor of MPO. Recently, we demonstrated, in a model of brain ischemia/reperfusion, that dapsone has antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects. The effects of dapsone on MPO activity, lipid peroxidation (LP) processes, motor function recovery, and the amount of spared tissue were evaluated in a rat model of SCI. MPO activity had increased 24.5-fold 24 hr after SCI vs. the sham group, and it had diminished by 38% and 19% in the groups treated with dapsone at 3 and 5 hr after SCI, respectively. SCI increased LP by 45%, and this increase was blocked by dapsone. In rats treated with dapsone, a significant motor function recovery (Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan score, BBB) was observed beginning during the first week of evaluation and continuing until the end of the study. Spontaneous recovery 8 weeks after SCI was 9.2 ± 1.12, whereas, in the dapsone-treated groups, it reached 13.6 ± 1.04 and 12.9 ± 1.17. Spared tissue increased by 42% and 33% in the dapsone-treated groups (3 and 5 hr after SCI, respectively) vs. SCI without treatment. Dapsone significantly prevented mortality. The results show that inhibition of MPO by dapsone significantly protected the spinal cord from tissue damage and enhanced motor recovery after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Araceli Diaz-Ruiz
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez S.S.A., México D.F., México
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203
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Zhang H, Adwanikar H, Werb Z, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Matrix metalloproteinases and neurotrauma: evolving roles in injury and reparative processes. Neuroscientist 2010; 16:156-70. [PMID: 20400713 DOI: 10.1177/1073858409355830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are involved in a wide range of proteolytic events in fetal development and normal tissue remodeling as well as wound healing and inflammation. In the CNS, they have been implicated in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases ranging from multiple sclerosis to Alzheimer disease and are integral to stroke-related cell damage. Although studies implicate increased activity of MMPs in pathogenesis in the CNS, there is also a growing literature to support their participation in events that support recovery processes. Here the authors provide a brief overview of MMPs and their regulation, address their complex roles following traumatic injuries to the adult and developing CNS, and consider their time- and context-dependent signatures that influence both injury and reparative processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoqian Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0110, USA.
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204
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Herrera JJ, Sundberg LM, Zentilin L, Giacca M, Narayana PA. Sustained expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and angiopoietin-1 improves blood-spinal cord barrier integrity and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27:2067-76. [PMID: 20799882 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2010.1403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in immediate disruption of the spinal vascular network, triggering an ischemic environment and initiating secondary degeneration. Promoting angiogenesis and vascular stability through the induction of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1), respectively, provides a possible therapeutic approach in treating SCI. We examined whether supplementing the injured environment with these two factors, which are significantly reduced following injury, has an effect on lesion size and functional outcome. Sustained delivery of both VEGF(165) and Ang-1 was realized using viral vectors based on the adeno-associated virus (AAV), which were injected directly into the lesion epicenter immediately after injury. Our results indicate that the combined treatment with VEGF and Ang-1 resulted in both reduced hyperintense lesion volume and vascular stabilization, as determined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Western blot analysis indicated that the viral vector expression was maintained into the chronic phase of injury, and that the use of the AAV vectors did not exacerbate infiltration of microglia into the lesion epicenter. The combined treatment with AAV-VEGF and AAV-Ang-1 improved locomotor recovery in the chronic phase of injury. These results indicate that combining angiogenesis with vascular stabilization may have potential therapeutic applications following SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Herrera
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Imaging, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
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205
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Lee SI, Jeong SR, Kang YM, Han DH, Jin BK, Namgung U, Kim BG. Endogenous expression of interleukin-4 regulates macrophage activation and confines cavity formation after traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:2409-19. [PMID: 20623539 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers inflammatory reactions in which various types of cells and cytokines are involved. Several proinflammatory cytokines are up-regulated after SCI and play crucial roles in determining the extent of secondary tissue damage. However, relatively little is known about antiinflammatory cytokines and their roles in spinal cord trauma. Recent studies have shown that an antiinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-4 (IL-4), is expressed and exerts various modulatory effects in CNS inflammation. We found in the present study that IL-4 was highly expressed at 24 hr after contusive SCI in rats and declined thereafter, with concurrent up-regulation of IL-4 receptor subunit IL-4alpha. The majority of IL-4-producing cells were myeloperoxidase-positive neutrophils. Injection of neutralizing antibody against IL-4 into the contused spinal cord did not significantly affect the expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha or other antiinflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta. Instead, attenuation of IL-4 activity led to a marked increase in the extent of ED1-positive macrophage activation along the rostrocaudal extent at 7 days after injury. The enhanced macrophage activation was preceded by an increase in the level of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2). Finally, IL-4 neutralization resulted in more extensive cavitation at 4 weeks after injury. These results suggest that endogenous expression of antiinflammatory cytokine IL-4 regulates the extent of acute macrophage activation and confines the ensuing secondary cavity formation after spinal cord trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Ihm Lee
- Brain Disease Research Center, Institute for Medical Sciences, and Department of Neurology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
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206
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Loane DJ, Byrnes KR. Role of microglia in neurotrauma. Neurotherapeutics 2010; 7:366-77. [PMID: 20880501 PMCID: PMC2948548 DOI: 10.1016/j.nurt.2010.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 465] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2010] [Revised: 05/26/2010] [Accepted: 07/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the primary mediators of the immune defense system of the CNS and are integral to the subsequent inflammatory response. The role of microglia in the injured CNS is under scrutiny, as research has begun to fully explore how postinjury inflammation contributes to secondary damage and recovery of function. Whether microglia are good or bad is under debate, with strong support for a dual role or differential activation of microglia. Microglia release a number of factors that modulate secondary injury and recovery after injury, including pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, nitric oxide, prostaglandins, growth factors, and superoxide species. Here we review experimental work on the complex and varied responses of microglia in terms of both detrimental and beneficial effects. Addressed in addition are the effects of microglial activation in two examples of CNS injury: spinal cord and traumatic brain injury. Microglial activation is integral to the response of CNS tissue to injury. In that light, future research is needed to focus on clarifying the signals and mechanisms by which microglia can be guided to promote optimal functional recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Loane
- Department of Anesthesiology & Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), National Study Center for Trauma and EMS, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 21201 Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Kimberly R. Byrnes
- grid.265436.00000000104215525Room B2048, Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, 20814 Bethesda, MD
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207
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Ellingson BM, Schmit BD, Kurpad SN. Lesion growth and degeneration patterns measured using diffusion tensor 9.4-T magnetic resonance imaging in rat spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg Spine 2010; 13:181-92. [PMID: 20672953 DOI: 10.3171/2010.3.spine09523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECT Using diffusion tensor MR imaging, the authors conducted a study to explore lesion growth and degeneration patterns, from the acute through chronic stages of spinal cord injury (SCI), in an experimental animal model. METHODS In vivo and ex vivo diffusion tensor imaging was performed using a 9.4-T MR imaging system in rats allowed to recover from traumatic contusion SCI from 2 weeks through 25 weeks postinjury, mimicking progression of human SCI from the acute through chronic stages. RESULTS Results showed significant growth of the traumatic lesion up to 15 weeks postinjury, where both the size and mean diffusivity (MD) reached a maximum that was maintained through the remainder of recovery. Mean diffusivity was sensitive to overall spinal cord integrity, whereas fractional anisotropy showed specificity to sites of cavity formation. The use of an MD contour map for in vivo data and a 3D surface map for ex vivo data, showing MD as a function of rostral-caudal distance and recovery time, allowed documentation of rostral and caudal spreading of the lesion. CONCLUSIONS Results from this study demonstrate changes in both lesion morphology and diffusivity beyond previously reported time points and provide a unique perspective on the process of cavity formation and degeneration following traumatic SCI. Additionally, results suggest that MD more accurately defines regions of histological damage than do regions of T2 signal hyperintensity. This could have significant clinical implications in the detection and potential treatment of posttraumatic syringes in SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Ellingson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201, USA
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208
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Crockford D, Turjman N, Allan C, Angel J. Thymosin beta4: structure, function, and biological properties supporting current and future clinical applications. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1194:179-89. [PMID: 20536467 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05492.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Published studies have described a number of physiological properties and cellular functions of thymosin beta4 (Tbeta4), the major G-actin-sequestering molecule in mammalian cells. Those activities include the promotion of cell migration, blood vessel formation, cell survival, stem cell differentiation, the modulation of cytokines, chemokines, and specific proteases, the upregulation of matrix molecules and gene expression, and the downregulation of a major nuclear transcription factor. Such properties have provided the scientific rationale for a number of ongoing and planned dermal, corneal, cardiac clinical trials evaluating the tissue protective, regenerative and repair potential of Tbeta4, and direction for future clinical applications in the treatment of diseases of the central nervous system, lung inflammatory disease, and sepsis. A special emphasis is placed on the development of Tbeta4 in the treatment of patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction in combination with percutaneous coronary intervention.
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209
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Sribnick EA, Samantaray S, Das A, Smith J, Matzelle DD, Ray SK, Banik NL. Postinjury estrogen treatment of chronic spinal cord injury improves locomotor function in rats. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:1738-50. [PMID: 20091771 PMCID: PMC3127445 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes loss of neurological function and, depending on serverity, may cause paralysis. The only recommended pharmacotherapy for the treatment of SCI is high-dose methylprednisolone, and its use is controversial. We have previously shown that estrogen treatment attenuated cell death, axonal and myelin damage, calpain and caspase activities, and inflammation in acute SCI. The aim of this study was to examine whether posttreatment of SCI with estrogen would improve locomotor function by protecting cells and axons and reducing inflammation during the chronic phase following injury. Moderately severe injury (40 g . cm force) was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats following laminectomy at T10. Three groups of animals were used: sham (laminectomy only), vehicle (dimethyl sulfoxide; DMSO)-treated injury group, and estrogen-treated injury group. Animals were treated with 4 mg/kg estrogen at 15 min and 24 hr postnjury, followed by 2 mg/kg estrogen daily for the next 5 days. After treatment, animals were sacrificed at the end of 6 weeks following injury, and 1-cm segments of spinal cord (lesion, rostral to lesion, and caudal to lesion) were removed for biochemical analyses. Estrogen treatment reduced COX-2 activity, blocked nuclear factor-kappaB translocation, prevented glial reactivity, attenuated neuron death, inhibited activation and activity of calpain and caspase-3, decreased axonal damage, reduced myelin loss in the lesion and penumbra, and improved locomotor function compared with vehicle-treated animals. These findings suggest that estrogen may be useful as a promising therapeutic agent for prevention of damage and improvement of locomotor function in chronic SCI. (c) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A. Sribnick
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Supriti Samantaray
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Arabinda Das
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Joshua Smith
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - D. Denise Matzelle
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Swapan K. Ray
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina
| | - Naren L. Banik
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
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210
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Treadmill running protects spinal cord contusion from secondary degeneration. Brain Res 2010; 1346:266-78. [PMID: 20513364 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.05.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2010] [Revised: 05/18/2010] [Accepted: 05/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It is known that physical activity triggers changes in the central nervous system. Adult rats, trained on treadmills for 4 weeks, and a group of sedentary rats was submitted to contuse moderate spinal cord injury. A group of sedentary rats was submitted to a sham operation. The trained group continued running on treadmill after lesion for 4 weeks. Motor behavior evaluated by BBB score was smaller in the sedentary group compared to the trained rats by 7 days after lesion. Computerized activity monitor showed clear-cut differences in spontaneous motor parameters in trained rats only before lesion. After surgery, sedentary rats showed changes in motor parameters but not in later periods of analysis. Animals were euthanized by 28 days after surgery, and their spinal cords were processed for Nissl staining and immunohistochemistry. The number of the remaining neurons and the lesion areal and lesion volume fractions were obtained by stereological method. The number of the remaining neurons did not change after training. Lesion volume and lesion areal fraction per section were smaller in the trained group. Lesion index was more pronounced in the sedentary group. Microdensitometric image analysis demonstrated a microglial reaction, astroglial activation, and glial FGF-2 production more pronounced in the spinal cord of sedentary animals. GAP-43 was higher in caudal levels of contusion in the sedentary group. In conclusion, treadmill running may favor a better functional recovery in the acute period after spinal cord lesion and wound repair processes leading to neuroprotection.
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211
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Luchetti S, Beck KD, Galvan MD, Silva R, Cummings BJ, Anderson AJ. Comparison of immunopathology and locomotor recovery in C57BL/6, BUB/BnJ, and NOD-SCID mice after contusion spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27:411-21. [PMID: 19831737 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2009.0930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of cell transplantation therapeutics in animal models of traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) are often hampered by partial or complete rejection of the graft by the host. Pharmacological immunosuppression is rarely sufficient to prevent rejection. Further, the immunological niche created by both the host immune response and immunosuppressant drugs could hypothetically influence the proliferation, differentiation, and fate of transplanted progenitor/stem cells. To avoid these confounds, we have previously used the constitutively immunodeficient non-obese diabetic severe combined immunodeficient (NOD-SCID) mouse as a model for transplantation studies following SCI. In the current study, we compare behavioral and histological recovery in NOD-SCID, C57BL/6, and BUB/BnJ mice of both sexes to better facilitate interpretation of data from studies using NOD-SCID mice. Of the strains examined, NOD-SCID mice exhibited the greatest locomotor recovery in the open field; no sex differences were detected in locomotor recovery in any of the strains. Stereologic estimation of the number of infiltrated neutrophils showed more cells in C57BL/6 mice than NOD-SCID mice, with BUB/BnJ mice having an intermediate number. The volume of macrophages/microglia did not differ between strains or sexes, though more rostral-caudal spreading was observed in C57BL/6 and BUB/BnJ than NOD-SCID mice. No significant differences were detected in lesion volume. Taken together these findings demonstrate that relative to other strains, NOD-SCID mice have both similar primary lesion volume and cellular inflammatory parameters after SCI, and support the applicability of the model for neurotransplantation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Luchetti
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-4540, USA
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212
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Nakajima Y, Osuka K, Seki Y, Gupta RC, Hara M, Takayasu M, Wakabayashi T. Taurine reduces inflammatory responses after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27:403-10. [PMID: 19831872 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2009.1044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Taurine has multiple functions in the central nervous system (CNS), serving as an osmoregulator, antioxidant, inhibitory neuromodulator, and regulator of intracellular Ca(2+) flux. Since the role of taurine in traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is not fully understood, the present study was conducted with C57 black/6 mice (18-20 g) who underwent severe SCI at the Th-8 level using a weight compression device. Taurine was injected intraperitoneally at doses of 25, 80, 250, and 800 mg/kg within 30 min after SCI. Controls were injected with saline. The contusional cord segments were removed 6 h after SCI, and concentrations of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) were measured using ELISA kits. Phosphorylation of STAT3, which is activated by IL-6, and expression of inducible cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) were also compared between the taurine treatment group (250 mg/kg) and the control group by Western blot analysis. Morphological changes were evaluated with H&E-stained sections. Taurine significantly decreased IL-6 and MPO levels in a dose-dependent manner, significantly reducing the phosphorylation of STAT3 and expression of COX-2 after SCI compared to controls. A reduced accumulation of neutrophils, especially in the subarachnoid spaces, and secondary degenerative changes in gray matter were also noted, and motor disturbances were significantly attenuated with taurine treatment (250 mg/kg). These findings indicate that taurine has anti-inflammatory effects against SCI, and may play a neuroprotective role against secondary damage, and thus it may have therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Nakajima
- Department of Neurosurgery, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi, Japan
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213
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Cantarella G, Di Benedetto G, Scollo M, Paterniti I, Cuzzocrea S, Bosco P, Nocentini G, Riccardi C, Bernardini R. Neutralization of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand reduces spinal cord injury damage in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 35:1302-14. [PMID: 20107429 PMCID: PMC3055339 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2009.234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a major cause of disability, its clinical outcome depending mostly on the extent of damage in which proapoptotic cytokines have a crucial function. In particular, the inducers of apoptosis belonging to TNF receptor superfamily and their respective ligands are upregulated after SCI. In this study, the function of the proapoptotic cytokine tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) in SCI-induced damage was investigated in the mouse. SCI resulted in severe trauma, characterized by prominent inflammation-related damage and apoptosis. Immunostaining for TRAIL and its receptor DR5 was found in the white and gray matter of the perilesional area, as also confirmed by western blotting experiments. Immunoneutralization of TRAIL resulted in improved functional recovery, reduced apoptotic cell number, modulation of molecules involved in the inflammatory response (FasL, TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, and MPO), and the corresponding signaling (caspase-8 and -3 activation, JNK phosphorylation, Bax, and Bcl-2 expression). As glucocorticoid-induced TNF receptor superfamily-related protein (GITR) activated by its ligand (GITRL) contributes to SCI-related inflammation, interactions between TRAIL and GITRL were investigated. SCI was associated with upregulated GITR and GITRL expression, a phenomenon prevented by anti-TRAIL treatment. Moreover, the expression of both TRAIL and DR5 was reduced in tissues from mice lacking the GITR gene (GITR(-/-)) in comparison with wild-type mice suggesting that TRAIL- and GITRL-activated pathways synergise in the development of SCI-related inflammatory damage. Characterization of new targets within such molecular systems may constitute a platform for innovative treatment of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppina Cantarella
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Catania School of Medicine, Catania, Italy
| | - Giulia Di Benedetto
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Catania School of Medicine, Catania, Italy
- ‘Oasi' Institute for Research on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging (I.R.C.C.S.), Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Mimmo Scollo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Catania School of Medicine, Catania, Italy
| | - Irene Paterniti
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Messina School of Medicine, Messina, Italy
| | - Salvatore Cuzzocrea
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Messina School of Medicine, Messina, Italy
| | - Paolo Bosco
- ‘Oasi' Institute for Research on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging (I.R.C.C.S.), Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Giuseppe Nocentini
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia School of Medicine, Perugia, Italy
| | - Carlo Riccardi
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia School of Medicine, Perugia, Italy
| | - Renato Bernardini
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Catania School of Medicine, Catania, Italy
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214
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Pineau I, Sun L, Bastien D, Lacroix S. Astrocytes initiate inflammation in the injured mouse spinal cord by promoting the entry of neutrophils and inflammatory monocytes in an IL-1 receptor/MyD88-dependent fashion. Brain Behav Immun 2010; 24:540-53. [PMID: 19932745 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2009] [Revised: 11/12/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
CNS injury stimulates the expression of several proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, some of which including MCP-1 (also known as CCL2), KC (CXCL1), and MIP-2 (CXCL2) act to recruit Gr-1(+) leukocytes at lesion sites. While earlier studies have reported that neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages contribute to secondary tissue loss after spinal cord injury (SCI), recent work has shown that depletion of Gr-1(+) leukocytes compromised tissue healing and worsened functional recovery. Here, we demonstrate that astrocytes distributed throughout the spinal cord initially contribute to early neuroinflammation by rapidly synthesizing MCP-1, KC, and MIP-2, from 3 up to 12h post-SCI. Chemokine expression by astrocytes was followed by the infiltration of blood-derived immune cells, such as type I "inflammatory" monocytes and neutrophils, into the lesion site and nearby damaged areas. Interestingly, astrocytes from mice deficient in MyD88 signaling produced significantly less MCP-1 and MIP-2 and were unable to synthesize KC. Analysis of the contribution of MyD88-dependent receptors revealed that the astrocytic expression of MCP-1, KC, and MIP-2 was mediated by the IL-1 receptor (IL-1R1), and not by TLR2 or TLR4. Flow cytometry analysis of cells recovered from the spinal cord of MyD88- and IL-1R1-knockout mice confirmed the presence of significantly fewer type I "inflammatory" monocytes and the almost complete absence of neutrophils at 12h and 4days post-SCI. Together, these results indicate that MyD88/IL-1R1 signals regulate the entry of neutrophils and, to a lesser extent, type I "inflammatory" monocytes at sites of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Pineau
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laval University, Québec, Québec, Canada G1V 4G2
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Ibarra A, García E, Flores N, Martiñón S, Reyes R, Campos MG, Maciel M, Mestre H. Immunization with neural-derived antigens inhibits lipid peroxidation after spinal cord injury. Neurosci Lett 2010; 476:62-5. [PMID: 20381587 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2010] [Revised: 04/01/2010] [Accepted: 04/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Lipid peroxidation (LP) is one of the most harmful mechanisms developed after spinal cord (SC) injury. Several strategies have been explored in order to control this phenomenon. Protective autoimmunity is a physiological process based on the modulation of inflammatory cells that can be boosted by immunizing with neural-derived peptides, such as A91. Since inflammatory cells are among the main contributors to lipid peroxidation, we hypothesized that protective autoimmunity could reduce LP after SC injury. In order to test this hypothesis, we designed two experiments in SC contused rats. First, animals were immunized with a neural-derived peptide seven days before injury. With the aim of inducing the functional elimination of CNS-specific T cells, for the second experiment, animals were tolerized against SC-protein extract and thereafter subjected to a SC injury. The lipid-soluble fluorescent products were used as an index of lipid peroxidation and were assessed after injury. Immunization with neural-derived peptides reduced lipid peroxidation after SC injury. Functional elimination of CNS-specific T cells avoided the beneficial effect induced by protective autoimmunity. The present study demonstrates the beneficial effect of immunizing with neural-derived peptides on lipid peroxidation inhibition; besides this, it also provides evidence on the neuroprotective mechanisms exerted by protective autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Ibarra
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Norte, Av. Universidad Anáhuac No. 46, Col. Lomas Anáhuac, Huixquilucan Edo. de México, Mexico.
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216
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Saiwai H, Ohkawa Y, Yamada H, Kumamaru H, Harada A, Okano H, Yokomizo T, Iwamoto Y, Okada S. The LTB4-BLT1 axis mediates neutrophil infiltration and secondary injury in experimental spinal cord injury. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2010; 176:2352-66. [PMID: 20304963 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.090839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic injury in the central nervous system induces inflammation; however, the role of this inflammation is controversial. Precise analysis of the inflammatory cells is important to gain a better understanding of the inflammatory machinery in response to neural injury. Here, we demonstrated that leukotriene B4 plays a significant role in mediating leukocyte infiltration after spinal cord injury. Using flow cytometry, we revealed that neutrophil and monocyte/macrophage infiltration peaked 12 hours after injury and was significantly suppressed in leukotriene B4 receptor 1 knockout mice. Similar findings were observed in mice treated with a leukotriene B4 receptor antagonist. Further, by isolating each inflammatory cell subset with a cell sorter, and performing quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, we demonstrated the individual contributions of more highly expressed subsets, ie, interleukins 6 and 1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and FasL, to the inflammatory reaction and neural apoptosis. Inhibition of leukotriene B4 suppressed leukocyte infiltration after injury, thereby attenuating the inflammatory reaction, sparing the white matter, and reducing neural apoptosis, as well as inducing better functional recovery. These findings are the first to demonstrate that leukotriene B4 is involved in the pathogenesis of spinal cord injury through the amplification of leukocyte infiltration, and provide a potential therapeutic strategy for traumatic spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Saiwai
- Department of Research Superstar Program Stem Cell Unit, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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217
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Kurihara D, Ueno M, Tanaka T, Yamashita T. Expression of galectin-1 in immune cells and glial cells after spinal cord injury. Neurosci Res 2010; 66:265-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2009.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2009] [Revised: 11/17/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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218
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Steen PW, Shi L, He L, McCluskey LP. Neutrophil responses to injury or inflammation impair peripheral gustatory function. Neuroscience 2010; 167:894-908. [PMID: 20219636 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.02.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2010] [Revised: 02/17/2010] [Accepted: 02/19/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The adult peripheral taste system is capable of extensive functional plasticity after injury. Sectioning the chorda tympani (CT), a primary sensory afferent nerve, elicits transient changes in the uninjured, contralateral population of taste receptor cells. Remarkably, the deficits are specific to the sodium transduction pathway. Normal function is quickly restored in the intact nerve, in parallel with an influx of macrophages to both the denervated and uninjured sides of the tongue. However, changing the dietary environment by restricting sodium blocks the macrophage response and prolongs functional alterations. Since the functional deficits occur before macrophages are present in the peripheral taste system, we hypothesized that neutrophils play a role in modulating neural responses in the intact CT. First, the dynamics of the neutrophil response to nerve injury were analyzed in control-fed and sodium-deficient rats. Nerve sectioning briefly increased the number of neutrophils on both the denervated and uninjured sides of the tongue. The low-sodium diet amplified and extended the bilateral neutrophil response to injury, in parallel with the persistent changes in sodium taste function. To test the impact of neutrophils on taste function, we depleted these cells prior to nerve sectioning and recorded neural responses from the intact CT. This treatment restored normal sodium responses in the uninjured nerve. Moreover, recruiting neutrophils to the tongue induced deficits in sodium taste function in both CT nerves. Neutrophils play a critical role in ongoing inflammatory responses in the oral cavity, and may induce changes in taste perception. We also suggest that balanced neutrophil and macrophage responses enable normal neural responses after neural injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- P W Steen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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219
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Kuluz J, Samdani A, Benglis D, Gonzalez-Brito M, Solano JP, Ramirez MA, Luqman A, De Los Santos R, Hutchinson D, Nares M, Padgett K, He D, Huang T, Levi A, Betz R, Dietrich D. Pediatric spinal cord injury in infant piglets: description of a new large animal model and review of the literature. J Spinal Cord Med 2010; 33:43-57. [PMID: 20397443 PMCID: PMC2853328 DOI: 10.1080/10790268.2010.11689673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To develop a new, clinically relevant large animal model of pediatric spinal cord injury (SCI) and compare the clinical and experimental features of pediatric SCI. METHODS Infant piglets (3-5 weeks old) underwent contusive SCI by controlled cortical impactor at T7. Severe complete SCI was induced in 6 piglets, defined as SCI with no spontaneous return of sensorimotor function. Eight piglets received incomplete SCI, which was followed by partial recovery. Somatosensory evoked potentials, magnetic resonance imaging, neurobehavioral function, and histopathology were measured during a 28-day survival period. RESULTS Mean SCI volume (defined as volume of necrotic tissue) was larger after complete compared with incomplete SCI (387 +/- 29 vs 77 +/- 38 mm3, respectively, P < 0.001). No functional recovery occurred after complete SCI. After incomplete SCI, piglets initially had an absence of lower extremity sensorimotor function, urinary and stool retention, and little to no rectal tone. Sensory responses recovered first (1-2 days after injury), followed by spontaneous voiding, lower extremity motor responses, regular bowel movements, and repetitive flexion-extension of the lower extremities when crawling. No piglet recovered spontaneous walking, although 4 of 8 animals with incomplete injuries were able to bear weight by 28 days. In vivo magnetic resonance imaging was performed safely, yielded high-resolution images of tissue injury, and correlated closely with injury volume seen on histopathology, which included intramedullary hemorrhage, cellular inflammation, necrosis, and apoptosis. CONCLUSION Piglets performed well as a reproducible model of traumatic pediatric SCI in a large animal with chronic survival and utilizing multiple outcome measures, including evoked potentials, magnetic resonance imaging, functional outcome scores, and histopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Kuluz
- Pediatric Critical Care (R-131), University of Miami School of Medicine, 1611 NW 12th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
| | - Amer Samdani
- Shriners Hospitals for Children, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - David Benglis
- University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | | | - Juan P Solano
- University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | | | - Ali Luqman
- University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | | | | | - Mike Nares
- University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Kyle Padgett
- University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Dansha He
- University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | | | - Allan Levi
- University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Randal Betz
- Shriners Hospitals for Children, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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220
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Torres B, Silva C, Almeida Á, Caldeira F, Gomes M, Alves E, Silva S, Melo E. Modelo experimental de trauma medular agudo produzido por aparelho estereotáxico modificado. ARQ BRAS MED VET ZOO 2010. [DOI: 10.1590/s0102-09352010000100013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Foram utilizados 55 ratos machos da espécie Rattus novergicus, variedade Wistar, com o objetivo de propor um modelo experimental de trauma medular produzido por aparelho estereotáxico modificado, capaz de reproduzir clinicamente lesões medulares padronizadas. Após realização de laminectomia dorsal de T13, utilizou-se peso compressivo de 50,5g (25 animais - grupo I) ou 70,5g (30 animais - grupo II), durante cinco minutos, comprimindo a medula espinhal. Os animais foram assistidos durante oito dias, por meio de testes comportamentais para avaliar a sensibilidade dolorosa, a capacidade motora, o posicionamento tátil e proprioceptivo e a capacidade de manter-se em plano inclinado. No grupo I, observaram-se déficits neurológicos moderados e transitórios, que variaram entre os animais. No grupo II, foi possível obter um trauma padronizado, caracterizado por paraplegia bilateral e simétrica dos membros posteriores, perda de propriocepção e da sensibilidade dolorosa de todos os animais. A utilização do aparelho estereotáxico desenvolvido permite reproduzir clinicamente trauma medular padronizado em ratos, de maneira simples, econômica e satisfatória, o que poderá proporcionar avanços nas investigações terapêuticas, abrangendo doenças neurodegenerativas, como é o caso do trauma medular agudo.
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Beck KD, Nguyen HX, Galvan MD, Salazar DL, Woodruff TM, Anderson AJ. Quantitative analysis of cellular inflammation after traumatic spinal cord injury: evidence for a multiphasic inflammatory response in the acute to chronic environment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 133:433-47. [PMID: 20085927 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awp322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 446] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic injury to the central nervous system results in the disruption of the blood brain/spinal barrier, followed by the invasion of cells and other components of the immune system that can aggravate injury and affect subsequent repair and regeneration. Although studies of chronic neuroinflammation in the injured spinal cord of animals are clinically relevant to most patients living with traumatic injury to the brain or spinal cord, very little is known about chronic neuroinflammation, though several studies have tested the role of neuroinflammation in the acute period after injury. The present study characterizes a novel cell preparation method that assesses, quickly and effectively, the changes in the principal immune cell types by flow cytometry in the injured spinal cord, daily for the first 10 days and periodically up to 180 days after spinal cord injury. These data quantitatively demonstrate a novel time-dependent multiphasic response of cellular inflammation in the spinal cord after spinal cord injury and are verified by quantitative stereology of immunolabelled spinal cord sections at selected time points. The early phase of cellular inflammation is comprised principally of neutrophils (peaking 1 day post-injury), macrophages/microglia (peaking 7 days post-injury) and T cells (peaking 9 days post-injury). The late phase of cellular inflammation was detected after 14 days post-injury, peaked after 60 days post-injury and remained detectable throughout 180 days post-injury for all three cell types. Furthermore, the late phase of cellular inflammation (14-180 days post-injury) did not coincide with either further improvements, or new decrements, in open-field locomotor function after spinal cord injury. However, blockade of chemoattractant C5a-mediated inflammation after 14 days post-injury reduced locomotor recovery and myelination in the injured spinal cord, suggesting that the late inflammatory response serves a reparative function. Together, these data provide new insight into cellular inflammation of spinal cord injury and identify a surprising and extended multiphasic response of cellular inflammation. Understanding the role of this multiphasic response in the pathophysiology of spinal cord injury could be critical for the design and implementation of rational therapeutic treatment strategies, including both cell-based and pharmacological interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Beck
- Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4292, USA
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Becker D, Gary DS, Rosenzweig ES, Grill WM, McDonald JW. Functional electrical stimulation helps replenish progenitor cells in the injured spinal cord of adult rats. Exp Neurol 2010; 222:211-8. [PMID: 20059998 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 12/19/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Functional electrical stimulation (FES) can restore control and offset atrophy to muscles after neurological injury. However, FES has not been considered as a method for enhancing CNS regeneration. This paper demonstrates that FES dramatically enhanced progenitor cell birth in the spinal cord of rats with a chronic spinal cord injury (SCI). A complete SCI at thoracic level 8/9 was performed on 12 rats. Three weeks later, a FES device to stimulate hindlimb movement was implanted into these rats. Twelve identically-injured rats received inactive FES implants. An additional control group of uninjured rats were also examined. Ten days after FES implantation, dividing cells were marked with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU). The "cell birth" subgroup (half the animals in each group) was sacrificed immediately after completion of BrdU administration, and the "cell survival" subgroup was sacrificed 7 days later. In the injured "cell birth" subgroup, FES induced an 82-86% increase in cell birth in the lumbar spinal cord. In the injured "cell survival" subgroup, the increased lumbar newborn cell counts persisted. FES doubled the proportion of the newly-born cells which expressed nestin and other markers suggestive of tripotential progenitors. In uninjured rats, FES had no effect on cell birth/survival. This report suggests that controlled electrical activation of the CNS may enhance spontaneous regeneration after neurological injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Becker
- International Center, for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo Moser Research Institute, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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223
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Abstract
AbstractResearch to date has indicated that cAMPspecific PDEs, particularly the members of PDE4 family, play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of CNS injury and neurodegeneration by downregulating intracellular levels of cAMP in various cell types. Reduced cAMP signaling results in immune cell activation, inflammation, secondary tissue damage, scar formation and axon growth failure, ultimately leading to an exacerbation of injury, the prevention of endogenous repair and limited functional recovery. Although inhibition of cAMPspecific-PDE activity through the use of drugs like Rolipram has been shown to reverse these deficiencies and mediate neurorepair, an inability to develop selective agents and/or reduce dose-limiting side-effects associated with PDE4 inhibition has hampered their clinical translation. Recent work with more selective pharmacological inhibitors of cAMP-specific PDEs and molecular targeting approaches, along with improved understanding of the basic biology and role of PDEs in pathological processes may enable this promising therapeutic approach to advance clinically and have a similar impact on CNS injury and disease as PDE5 inhibitors have had on the treatment of sexual dysfunction.
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224
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McMahon SS, Albermann S, Rooney GE, Shaw G, Garcia Y, Sweeney E, Hynes J, Dockery P, O'Brien T, Windebank AJ, Allsopp TE, Barry FP. Engraftment, migration and differentiation of neural stem cells in the rat spinal cord following contusion injury. Cytotherapy 2010; 12:313-25. [DOI: 10.3109/14653241003695018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Fleming JC, Bao F, Chen Y, Hamilton EF, Gonzalez-Lara LE, Foster PJ, Weaver LC. Timing and duration of anti-alpha4beta1 integrin treatment after spinal cord injury: effect on therapeutic efficacy. J Neurosurg Spine 2009; 11:575-87. [PMID: 19929361 DOI: 10.3171/2009.6.spine08915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT After spinal cord injury (SCI) leukocytes infiltrate the injured cord, causing significant damage and further impairment of functional recovery. The leukocyte integrin alpha4beta1 is crucial for their entry. The authors previously demonstrated that an anti-alpha4 monoclonal antibody (mAb) treatment attenuates leukocyte infiltration, improves motor and autonomic function, and reduces neuropathic pain when administered at 2 hours and 24 hours after SCI. METHODS The authors conducted 2 preclinical studies: the first determined effects of treatment commencing at 6 hours, a clinically relevant time after injury, and the second examined effects of long-lasting treatment (28 days) on neurological recovery after SCI, as current clinically used anti-inflammatory monoclonal antibodies have such longevity. In the first study (timing study), rats were treated with anti-alpha4 or control mAb (intravenously) at 6 hours and 48 hours after moderate (35 g) thoracic compression SCI. Effects on intraspinal inflammation and oxidative injury were assessed at 3 and 7 days after SCI; motor function and pain were examined for 6 weeks. In the second study (duration study), anti-alpha4 mAb was administered starting 2 hours after SCI and subsequently every 3 days for 4 weeks (total of 8 doses), using a schedule of decreasing doses to resemble the pharmacodynamics of long-lasting antibodies used clinically. Motor function and pain were examined for 6 weeks. Lesions were assessed for tissue sparing and inflammation at 6 weeks by histological examination and MR imaging. RESULTS Anti-alpha4 mAb treatment at 6 hours and 48 hours after SCI (timing study) significantly decreased neutrophil and monocyte/macrophage influx at 3 days by 36% and 20%, respectively, but had no effect by at 7 days after SCI. Antibody treatment significantly reduced intraspinal myeloperoxidase activity by 48% and lipid peroxidation by 27% at 3 days post-injury. The treatment did not improve locomotor function but reduced mechanical allodynia elicited from the trunk and hind paw by ~50% at 3-6 weeks after SCI. In contrast, long-term mAb treatment commencing at 2 hours after SCI (duration study) significantly improved locomotor function at 2-6 weeks after SCI, (mean BBB scores +/- SE: treated rats, 8.3 +/- 0.16; controls, 7.3 +/- 0.2 at 6 weeks). At 3-6 weeks, mAb treatment decreased mechanical allodynia elicited from the trunk and hind paw by ~55%. This recovery correlated with 30% more myelin-containing white matter in treated rats than controls at 6 weeks. The lesion cavity was smaller in the treated rats when assessed by both histological (-37%) and imaging (-50%) methods. The accumulation of ED1-immunoreactive microglia/macrophages at the lesion was similar in treated and control rats. CONCLUSIONS Although delayed treatment reduced intraspinal inflammation and pain, motor function was not improved, revealing decreased efficacy at the more clinically feasibly treatment onset. Long-term anti-alpha4 mAb treatment starting 2 hours after SCI improved neurological outcomes, with tissue sparing near the lesion and no impairment of the late immune response to injury. These findings reveal no disadvantage of long-lasting immunosuppression by the treatment but show that efficacy depends upon very early delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer C Fleming
- Spinal Cord Injury Laboratory, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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226
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Ankeny DP, Guan Z, Popovich PG. B cells produce pathogenic antibodies and impair recovery after spinal cord injury in mice. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:2990-9. [PMID: 19770513 DOI: 10.1172/jci39780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2009] [Accepted: 07/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic injury to the mammalian spinal cord activates B cells, which culminates in the synthesis of autoantibodies. The functional significance of this immune response is unclear. Here, we show that locomotor recovery was improved and lesion pathology was reduced after spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice lacking B cells. After SCI, antibody-secreting B cells and Igs were present in the cerebrospinal fluid and/or injured spinal cord of WT mice but not mice lacking B cells. In mice with normal B cell function, large deposits of antibody and complement component 1q (C1q) accumulated at sites of axon pathology and demyelination. Antibodies produced after SCI caused pathology, in part by activating intraspinal complement and cells bearing Fc receptors. These data indicate that B cells, through the production of antibodies, affect pathology in SCI. One or more components of this pathologic immune response could be considered as novel therapeutic targets for minimizing tissue injury and/or promoting repair after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Ankeny
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology, and Medical Genetics, The Ohio State University Medical Center, 460 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1239, USA
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227
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Schültke E, Kamencic H, Skihar VM, Griebel R, Juurlink B. Quercetin in an animal model of spinal cord compression injury: correlation of treatment duration with recovery of motor function. Spinal Cord 2009; 48:112-7. [PMID: 19736558 DOI: 10.1038/sc.2009.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We have shown previously that administration of quercetin after spinal cord injury in a rat model induced significant recovery of motor function. In the same model for spinal cord compression injury, we now have correlated the treatment duration with the extent to which motor function is recovered. METHODS Seventy-four male Wistar rats were assigned to eight experimental groups. Mid-thoracic spinal cord injury was produced in the animals of seven groups. Quercetin was administered intraperitoneally in individual doses of 25 micromol kg(-1). Treatment onset was 1 h after the injury. The length of treatment ranged from one single injection to 10 days, with injection frequencies of two or three times daily. BBB (Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan) scores were obtained and tissue preservation at the site of injury was analyzed. RESULTS None of the untreated control animals recovered motor function sufficient to walk. When quercetin was administered twice daily over a period of either 3 or 10 days, about 50% of the animals recovered sufficient motor function to walk. Stepping/walking (BBB > or =10) were seen in two of six animals receiving only a single injection and in one of the six animal receiving three injections. Surprisingly, none of the animals that received quercetin injections three times daily recovered the ability to walk (all BBB < or = 9). CONCLUSION Quercetin administration results in preservation of tissue bridges at the site of injury. Treatment success depends on frequency of administration and overall dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Schültke
- Department of Anatomy, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada S7N 5E5.
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228
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Wang W, Bu B, Xie M, Zhang M, Yu Z, Tao D. Neural cell cycle dysregulation and central nervous system diseases. Prog Neurobiol 2009; 89:1-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2008] [Revised: 12/04/2008] [Accepted: 01/27/2009] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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230
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McMahon SS, Albermann S, Rooney GE, Moran C, Hynes J, Garcia Y, Dockery P, O'Brien T, Windebank AJ, Barry FP. Effect of cyclosporin A on functional recovery in the spinal cord following contusion injury. J Anat 2009; 215:267-79. [PMID: 19558472 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01107.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Considerable evidence has shown that the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporin A (CsA) may have neuroprotective properties which can be exploited in the treatment of spinal cord injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the cellular environment within the spinal cord following injury and determine whether CsA has an effect on altering cellular interactions to promote a growth-permissive environment. CsA was administered to a group of rats 4 days after they endured a moderate contusion injury. Functional recovery was assessed using the Basso Beattie Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating scale at 3, 5 and 7 weeks post-injury. The rats were sacrificed 3 and 7 weeks post-injury and the spinal cords were sectioned, stained using histological and immunohistochemical methods and analysed. Using stereology, the lesion size and cellular environment in the CsA-treated and control groups was examined. Little difference in lesion volume was observed between the two groups. An improvement in functional recovery was observed within CsA-treated animals at 3 weeks. Although we did not see significant reduction in tissue damage, there were some notable differences in the proportion of individual cells contributing to the lesion. CsA administration may be used as a technique to control the cell population of the lesion, making it more permissive to neuronal regeneration once the ideal environment for regeneration and the effects of CsA administration at different time points post-injury have been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhan S McMahon
- Department of Anatomy, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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231
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Mitchell CS, Lee RH. Pathology dynamics predict spinal cord injury therapeutic success. J Neurotrauma 2009; 25:1483-97. [PMID: 19125684 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2008.0658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Secondary injury, the complex cascade of cellular events following spinal cord injury (SCI), is a major source of post-insult neuron death. Experimental work has focused on the details of individual factors or mechanisms that contribute to secondary injury, but little is known about the interactions among factors leading to the overall pathology dynamics that underlie its propagation. Prior hypotheses suggest that the pathology is dominated by interactions, with therapeutic success lying in combinations of neuroprotective treatments. In this study, we provide the first comprehensive, system-level characterization of the entire secondary injury process using a novel relational model methodology that aggregates the findings of approximately 250 experimental studies. Our quantitative examination of the overall pathology dynamics suggests that, while the pathology is initially dominated by "fire-like", rate-dependent interactions, it quickly switches to a "flood-like", accumulation-dependent process with contributing factors being largely independent. Our evaluation of approximately 20,000 potential single and combinatorial treatments indicates this flood-like pathology results in few highly influential factors at clinically realistic treatment time frames, with multi-factor treatments being merely additive rather than synergistic in reducing neuron death. Our findings give new fundamental insight into the understanding of the secondary injury pathology as a whole, provide direction for alternative therapeutic strategies, and suggest that ultimate success in treating SCI lies in the pursuit of pathology dynamics in addition to individually involved factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassie S Mitchell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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232
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Cell Cycle Activation and CNS Injury. Neurotox Res 2009; 16:221-37. [PMID: 19526282 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-009-9050-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2009] [Revised: 03/26/2009] [Accepted: 03/26/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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233
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Christie SD, Comeau B, Myers T, Sadi D, Purdy M, Mendez I. Duration of lipid peroxidation after acute spinal cord injury in rats and the effect of methylprednisolone. Neurosurg Focus 2009; 25:E5. [PMID: 18980479 DOI: 10.3171/foc.2008.25.11.e5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT Oxidative stress leading to lipid peroxidation is a major cause of secondary injury following spinal cord injury (SCI). The objectives of this study were to determine the duration of lipid peroxidation following acute SCI and the efficacy of short-and long-term administration of methylprednisolone on decreasing lipid peroxidation. METHODS A total of 226 female Wistar rats underwent clip-compression induced SCI. In the first part of the study, spinal cords of untreated rats were assayed colorimetrically for malondialdehyde (MDA) to determine lipid peroxidation levels at various time points between 0 and 10 days. In the second part of the study, animals were treated with methylprednisolone for either 24 hours or 7 days. Control animals received equal volumes of normal saline. Treated and control rats were killed at various time points between 0 and 7 days. RESULTS The MDA levels initially peaked 4 hours postinjury. By 12 hours, the MDA levels returned to baseline. A second increase was observed from 24 hours to 5 days. Both peak values differed statistically from the trough values (p < 0.008). The methylprednisolone reduced MDA levels (p < 0.04) within 12 hours of injury. No effect was seen at 24 hours or later. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicate that oxidative stress persists for 5 days following SCI in rats, and although methylprednisolone reduces MDA levels within the first 12 hours, it has no effect on the second lipid peroxidation peak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean D Christie
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
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234
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Depletion of Ly6G/Gr-1 leukocytes after spinal cord injury in mice alters wound healing and worsens neurological outcome. J Neurosci 2009; 29:753-64. [PMID: 19158301 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4918-08.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) induces a robust inflammatory response and the extravasation of leukocytes into the injured tissue. To further knowledge of the functions of neuroinflammation in SCI in mice, we depleted the early arriving neutrophils using an anti-Ly6G/Gr-1 antibody. Complete blood counts revealed that neutrophils increased approximately 3-fold over uninjured controls and peaked at 6-12 h after injury, and that anti-Ly6G/Gr-1 treatment reduced circulating neutrophils by >90% at these time points. Intravital and spinning disk confocal microscopy of the exposed posterior vein and postcapillary venules showed a significant reduction in rolling and adhering neutrophils in vivo after anti-Ly6G/Gr-1 treatment; this was accompanied by a parallel reduction in neutrophil numbers within the injured spinal cord at 24 and 48 h as determined by flow cytometry. The evolution of astrocyte reactivity, a wound healing response, was reduced in anti-Ly6G/Gr-1-treated mice, which also had less spared white matter and axonal preservation compared with isotype controls. These histological outcomes may be caused by alterations of growth factors and chemokines important in promoting wound healing. Importantly, anti-Ly6G/Gr-1 treatment worsened behavioral outcome as determined using the Basso Mouse Scale and subscores. Although the spectrum of cells affected by anti-Ly6G/Gr-1 antibody treatment cannot be fully ascertained at this point, the correspondence of neutrophil depletion and worsened recovery suggests that neutrophils promote recovery after SCI through wound healing and protective events that limit lesion propagation.
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235
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Cohen DM, Patel CB, Ahobila-Vajjula P, Sundberg LM, Chacko T, Liu SJ, Narayana PA. Blood-spinal cord barrier permeability in experimental spinal cord injury: dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2009; 22:332-41. [PMID: 19023867 PMCID: PMC2741317 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.1343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
After a primary traumatic injury, spinal cord tissue undergoes a series of pathobiological changes, including compromised blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) integrity. These vascular changes occur over both time and space. In an experimental model of spinal cord injury (SCI), longitudinal dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) studies were performed up to 56 days after SCI to quantify spatial and temporal changes in the BSCB permeability in tissue that did not show any visible enhancement on the post-contrast MRI (non-enhancing tissue). DCE-MRI data were analyzed using a two-compartment pharmacokinetic model. These studies demonstrate gradual restoration of BSCB with post-SCI time. However, on the basis of DCE-MRI, and confirmed by immunohistochemistry, the BSCB remained compromised even at 56 days after SCI. In addition, open-field locomotion was evaluated using the 21-point Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan scale. A significant correlation between decreased BSCB permeability and improved locomotor recovery was observed.
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236
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Treatment with green tea extract attenuates secondary inflammatory response in an experimental model of spinal cord trauma. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2009; 380:179-92. [PMID: 19337722 PMCID: PMC2694926 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-009-0414-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2009] [Accepted: 03/13/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we evaluated the effect of green tea extract (that was administered 25 mg/kg intraperitoneal at 1 and 6 h after injury) in experimental animal model of spinal cord injury. The spinal cord trauma was induced by the application of vascular clips to the dura via a four-level T5–T8 laminectomy. Spinal cord injury in mice resulted in severe trauma characterised by oedema, neutrophilic infiltration and apoptosis. Also, immunohistochemical examination demonstrated a marked increase in immune reactivity for nitrotyrosine. All parameters of inflammation were attenuated by green tea extract. The degree of spinal cord inflammation, nitrotyrosine, poli (ADP-ribosio) synthetase (PARS) and neutrophilic infiltration was markedly reduced. Green tea extract significantly ameliorated the recovery of limb function. Values shown are mean ± SE mean of ten mice for each group. *p < 0.01 versus sham, °p < 0.01 versus spinal cord injury. Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate that green tea extract treatment ameliorates spinal cord injury oxidative stress.
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237
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Ellingson BM, Kurpad SN, Schmit BD. Ex vivo diffusion tensor imaging and quantitative tractography of the rat spinal cord during long-term recovery from moderate spinal contusion. J Magn Reson Imaging 2009; 28:1068-79. [PMID: 18972347 DOI: 10.1002/jmri.21578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To characterize DTI metric changes throughout the length of the entire spinal cord from the acute through chronic stages of spinal cord injury (SCI). MATERIALS AND METHODS Ex vivo DTI was performed at 9.4 Tesla to examine changes in water diffusion throughout the entire spinal cord (7-cm) up to 25 weeks after injury in a rat model of contusive SCI. Animals were grouped according to recovery times after injury (2, 5, 15, 20, or 25 weeks), and various DTI metrics were evaluated including transverse and longitudinal apparent diffusion coefficient (tADC and lADC), mean diffusivity (MD), and fractional anisotropy (FA). RESULTS An overall decrease in lADC throughout the cord and decreases in MD remote from the lesion site were observed, along with an increase in tADC within fiber tracts throughout the recovery period. These trends were statistically significant at P<0.05 and were found in both white and gray matter regions. tADC and lADC distributions in fiber bundles extracted using DTI tractography were well fit by an exponential model (R=0.998) with time constants of 4.6 and 3.3 days, respectively. CONCLUSION Results from the current study support the hypothesis that the spinal cord undergoes continual changes during recovery from SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Ellingson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201-1881, USA
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238
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Batchelor PE, Tan S, Wills TE, Porritt MJ, Howells DW. Comparison of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord following mechanical injury. J Neurotrauma 2009; 25:1217-25. [PMID: 18986223 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2007.0308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation in the CNS predominantly involves microglia and macrophages, and is believed to be a significant cause of secondary injury following trauma. This study compares the microglial and macrophage response in the rat brain and spinal cord following discrete mechanical injury to better appreciate the degree to which these cells could contribute to secondary damage in these areas. We find that, 1 week after injury, the microglial and macrophage response is significantly greater in the spinal cord compared to the brain. This is the case for injuries to both gray and white matter. In addition, we observed a greater inflammatory response in white matter compared to gray matter within both the brain and spinal cord. Because activated microglia and macrophages appear to be effectors of secondary damage, a greater degree of inflammation in the spinal cord is likely to result in more extensive secondary damage. Tissue saving strategies utilizing anti-inflammatory treatments may therefore be more useful in traumatic spinal cord than brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter E Batchelor
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Austin Health, Victoria, Australia
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239
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Alexander JK, Popovich PG. Neuroinflammation in spinal cord injury: therapeutic targets for neuroprotection and regeneration. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2009; 175:125-37. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(09)17508-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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240
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Hulsebosch CE, Hains BC, Crown ED, Carlton SM. Mechanisms of chronic central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 60:202-13. [PMID: 19154757 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/29/2008] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Not all spinal contusions result in mechanical allodynia, in which non-noxious stimuli become noxious. The studies presented use the NYU impactor at 12.5 mm drop or the Infinite Horizons Impactor (150 kdyn, 1 s dwell) devices to model spinal cord injury (SCI). Both of these devices and injury parameters, if done correctly, will result in animals with above level (forelimb), at level (trunk) and below level (hindlimb) mechanical allodynia that model the changes in evoked somatosensation experienced by the majority of people with SCI. The sections are as follows: 1) Mechanisms of remote microglial activation and pain signaling in "below-level" central pain 2) Intracellular signaling mechanisms in central sensitization in "at-level" pain 3) Peripheral sensitization contributes to "above level" injury pain following spinal cord injury and 4) Role of reactive oxygen species in central sensitization in regional neuropathic pain following SCI. To summarize, differential regional mechanisms contribute to the regional chronic pain states. We propose the importance of understanding the mechanisms in the differential regional pain syndromes after SCI in the chronic condition. Targeting regional mechanisms will be of enormous benefit to the SCI population that suffer chronic pain, and will contribute to better treatment strategies for other chronic pain syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire E Hulsebosch
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, TX 77555-1043, USA.
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241
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Esposito E, Genovese T, Caminiti R, Bramanti P, Meli R, Cuzzocrea S. Melatonin regulates matrix metalloproteinases after traumatic experimental spinal cord injury. J Pineal Res 2008; 45:149-56. [PMID: 18298463 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.2008.00569.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are important enzymes that regulate developmental processes, maintain normal physiology in adulthood and have reparative roles at specific stages after an insult to the nervous system. MMPs, particularly MMP-9/gelatinase B, promote early inflammation and barrier disruption after spinal cord injury (SCI). Recently, we have reported that the pineal secretory product melatonin exerts important anti-inflammatory effects in an experimental model of SCI induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura after a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. However, no reports are available on the relationship between the activity of MMPs and melatonin's anti-inflammatory effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the protective effect of melatonin observed in SCI is related to the regulation of MMP-9 and MMP-2 in mice. Biochemical and zymographic methods were used to analyze MMP-9 and -2 expression and activities in spinal cord tissue from SCI-treated mice at 24 hr after the trauma. Our studies reveal that melatonin reduced SCI and lipid peroxidation in spinal cord at 24 hr after SCI. Melatonin also diminished proMMP-9 and -2 activities that were induced in the spinal cord tissues at 24 hr after SCI. The reduced activities of MMP-9 and -2 were associated with depressed expression of TNF-alpha. We propose that melatonin's ability to reduce SCI in mice is also related to a reduction in MMP-9 and MMP-2 activity and expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Esposito
- Department of Experimental Pharmacology, University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy
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242
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Stirling DP, Yong VW. Dynamics of the inflammatory response after murine spinal cord injury revealed by flow cytometry. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:1944-58. [PMID: 18438914 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers a robust inflammatory response that contributes in part to the secondary degeneration of spared tissue. Here, we use flow cytometry to quantify the inflammatory response after SCI. Besides its objective evaluation, flow cytometry allows for levels of particular markers to be documented that further aid in the identification of cellular subsets. Analyses of blood from SCI mice for CD45 (common leukocyte antigen), CD11b (complement receptor-3), Gr-1 (neutrophil/monocyte marker), and CD3 (T-cell marker) revealed a marked increase in circulating neutrophils (CD45(high):Gr-1(high)) at 12 hr compared with controls. Monocyte density in blood increased at 24 hr, and in contrast, lymphocyte numbers were significantly decreased. Mirroring the early increase in neutrophils within the blood, flow analysis of the spinal cord lesion site revealed a significant (P < 0.01) and maintained increase in blood-derived leukocytes (CD45(high):CD11b(high)) from 12 to 96 hr compared with sham-injured and naive controls. Importantly, this technique clearly distinguishes blood-derived neutrophils (CD45:Gr-1(high):F4/80(negative)) and monocyte/macrophages (CD45(high)) from resident microglia (CD45(low)) and revealed that the majority of the blood-derived infiltrate were neutrophils. Our results highlight an assumed, but previously uncharacterized, marked and transient increase in leukocyte populations in blood early after SCI followed by the orchestrated invasion of neutrophils and monocytes into the injured cord. In contrast to mobilization of neutrophils, SCI induces lymphopenia that may contribute negatively to the overall outcome after spinal cord trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Stirling
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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243
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Erol FS, Kaplan M, Tiftikci M, Yakar H, Ozercan I, Ilhan N, Topsakal C. Comparison of the effects of octreotide and melatonin in preventing nerve injury in rats with experimental spinal cord injury. J Clin Neurosci 2008; 15:784-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2007.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2007] [Accepted: 06/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Stirling DP, Liu J, Plunet W, Steeves JD, Tetzlaff W. SB203580, a p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor, fails to improve functional outcome following a moderate spinal cord injury in rat. Neuroscience 2008; 155:128-37. [PMID: 18562123 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2008] [Revised: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 05/06/2008] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
We examined the spatial and temporal expression patterns of active p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), an important regulator of immune cell function, following spinal cord injury (SCI). We further assessed whether administration of SB203580, an inhibitor of p38 MAPK activity, would reduce inflammation, improve tissue sparing, and improve functional outcome after SCI. Adult Wistar rats were subjected to a T9/10 SCI contusion of moderate severity and killed at several time points after injury, whereas sham-injured (control) animals only received a laminectomy. In control animals, active p38 MAPK expression was primarily localized to resting microglia within the spinal cord. Over the first 24 h after SCI, a continuing increase in active p38 MAPK expression was evident in neutrophils and activated microglia (OX42+) surrounding the spinal lesion site. At 15 days post-injury, active p38 MAPK was localized to macrophages (ED1+) that now dominated the lesion site. In addition, active p38 MAPK was localized to macrophages within white matter fiber tracts undergoing degeneration, several segments rostral and caudal to the injury site, which persisted for at least 6 weeks. Overall, our results demonstrate that active p38 MAPK is increased within resident and invading immune cells after SCI contusion injury and, therefore, may be an important target to regulate the inflammatory cascade after SCI. However, intrathecal application of SB203580 failed to improve functional outcome after a moderate SCI contusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- D P Stirling
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, ICORD, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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245
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Manganese Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging in a Contusion Model of Spinal Cord Injury in Rats: Correlation With Motor Function. Invest Radiol 2008; 43:277-83. [DOI: 10.1097/rli.0b013e318162f1bd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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246
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Kurt G, Ergün E, Cemil B, Börcek AO, Börcek P, Gülbahar O, Ceviker N. Neuroprotective effects of infliximab in experimental spinal cord injury. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 71:332-6, discussion 336. [PMID: 18440605 DOI: 10.1016/j.surneu.2008.01.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2007] [Accepted: 01/07/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of the study is to assess the effects of infliximab, a TNF-alpha receptor blocker, in a spinal cord clip compression injury model. METHODS Clip compression injury model was used for producing spinal cord injury on 32 adult, male Wistar rats (Gazi University Animal Research Laboratory, Ankara, Turkey). After exposing the vertebral column between T7 and T10, total laminectomy was performed with the assistance of a high-speed drill and a surgical microscope. The dura was left intact. Spinal cord injury was performed on all rats with application of a 70-g closing force aneurysm clip for 1 minute. The rats were randomly allocated into 4 groups. Control group received no further therapy, whereas the other 3 groups received methylprednisolone (30 mg/kg intraperitoneal), infliximab (5 mg/kg subcutaneous), and a mixture of these 2 agents. All rats were killed 72 hours later, and the level of lipid peroxides in traumatized spinal cord tissue were measured as thiobarbituric acid-reactive material and determined using the method of Mihara and Uchiyama (Determination of malonaldehyde precursor in tissue by thiobarbituric acid test. Anal Biochem 1978;86(1):271-8). RESULTS Treatment with infliximab and methylprednisolone decreased MDA levels in rats with spinal cord injury with a statistically significant difference. In addition, combined therapy achieved a more profound decrease in tissue MDA levels, which was also statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS Infliximab is found as effective as methylprednisolone on spinal cord clip compression injury. Moreover, the combination of these 2 agents demonstrated higher efficacy suggesting a synergistic effect between these 2 agents. However, further studies regarding functional and behavioral analyses as well as biochemical markers are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gökhan Kurt
- Department of Neurosurgery, Gazi University Faculty of Medicine, 06500 Ankara, Turkey
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Konya D, Gercek A, Akakin A, Akakin D, Tural S, Cetinel S, Ozgen S, Pamir MN. The effects of inflammatory response associated with traumatic spinal cord injury in cutaneous wound healing and on expression of transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-A at the wound site in rats. Growth Factors 2008; 26:74-9. [PMID: 18428026 DOI: 10.1080/08977190802025339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
At the cellular level, spinal cord injury (SCI) provokes an inflammatory response that generates substantial secondary damage within the cord, but also may contribute to its repair. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of inflammatory response associated with SCI in cutaneous wound healing and on expression of transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-A at the wound site in rats. At the 14th day analysis, the mean TGF-beta1 score in trauma group (I) was significantly lower than that in control group (C) (2.60 +/- 0.90 vs. 3.64 +/- 0.37, respectively; p < 0.05). The mean score for PDGF-A expression in group I was similar to the corresponding value in group C (2.42 +/- 0.74 vs. 2.94 +/- 0.72, respectively). Compared to group C, group I had significantly lower mean scores for epidermal and dermal regeneration, but higher mean scores for granulation tissue thickness and similar scores for angiogenesis. The dermal layer contains diffuse deposition of collagen fibers that are not organised as in control rat skin, and intraepidermal and subepidermal vasocongestion is distinct. Based on the results on the parameters evaluated in the study, experimental SCI in rats results in delay in wound healing and low intensity of TGF-beta1 in the dorsal wound-tissue specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz Konya
- Department of Neurosurgery, Marmara University Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
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248
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McAdoo DJ, Wu P. Microdialysis in central nervous system disorders and their treatment. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008; 90:282-96. [PMID: 18436292 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2008.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2007] [Revised: 02/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/05/2008] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) insults elevate endogenous toxins and alter levels of indicators of metabolic disorder. These contribute to neurotrauma, neurodegenerative diseases and chronic pain and are possible targets for pharmaceutical treatment. Microdialysis samples substances in the extracellular space for chemical analysis. It has demonstrated that toxic levels of glutamate are released and that toxic levels of the reactive species O(2)(-), H(2)O(2), HO. NO and HOONO are generated upon CNS injury. Agent administration by microdialysis can also help elucidate mechanisms of damage and protection, and to identify targets for clinical application. Microdialysis sampling indicates that circuits descending from the brain to the spinal cord transmit and modulate pain signals by releasing neurotransmitter amines and amino acids. Efforts are under way to develop microdialysis into a technique for intensive care monitoring and predicting outcomes of brain insults. Finally, microdialysis sampling has demonstrated in vivo elevation of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor following grafting of primed fetal human neural stem cells into brain-injured rats, the first in vivo demonstration of the release of a neurotrophic factor by grafted stem cells. This increased release correlated with significantly improved spatial learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J McAdoo
- Department of Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, TX 77555-1043, United States.
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Nocentini G, Cuzzocrea S, Genovese T, Bianchini R, Mazzon E, Ronchetti S, Esposito E, Rosanna DP, Bramanti P, Riccardi C. Glucocorticoid-Induced Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor-Related (GITR)-Fc Fusion Protein Inhibits GITR Triggering and Protects from the Inflammatory Response after Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Pharmacol 2008; 73:1610-21. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.107.044354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
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250
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Souza-Rodrigues R, Costa A, Lima R, Dos Santos C, Picanço-Diniz C, Gomes-Leal W. Inflammatory response and white matter damage after microinjections of endothelin-1 into the rat striatum. Brain Res 2008; 1200:78-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2007] [Revised: 11/07/2007] [Accepted: 11/08/2007] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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