Type IV secretion in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria

Metatranscriptomic and comparative genomic insights into resuscitation mechanisms during enrichment culturing

BACKGROUND

The pure culture of prokaryotes remains essential to elucidating the role of these organisms. Scientists have reasoned that hard to cultivate microorganisms might grow in pure culture if provided with the chemical components of their natural environment. However, most microbial species in the biosphere that would otherwise be "culturable" may fail to grow because of their growth state in nature, such as dormancy. That means even if scientist would provide microorganisms with the natural environment, such dormant microorganisms probably still remain in a dormant state.

RESULTS

We constructed an enrichment culture system for high-efficiency isolation of uncultured strains from marine sediment. Degree of enrichment analysis, dormant and active taxa calculation, viable but non-culturable bacteria resuscitation analysis, combined with metatranscriptomic and comparative genomic analyses of the interactions between microbial communications during enrichment culture showed that the so-called enrichment method could culture the "uncultured" not only through enriching the abundance of "uncultured," but also through the resuscitation mechanism. In addition, the enrichment culture was a complicated mixed culture system, which contains the competition, cooperation, or coordination among bacterial communities, compared with pure cultures.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering that cultivation techniques must evolve further-from axenic to mixed cultures-for us to fully understand the microbial world, we should redevelop an understanding of the classic enrichment culture method. Enrichment culture methods can be developed and used to construct a model for analyzing mixed cultures and exploring microbial dark matter. This study provides a new train of thought to mining marine microbial dark matter based on mixed cultures.

Agrobacterium-mediated horizontal gene transfer: Mechanism, biotechnological application, potential risk and forestalling strategy

The extraordinary capacity of Agrobacterium to transfer its genetic material to host cell makes it evolve from phytopathogen to a powerful transgenic vector. Agrobacterium-mediated stable transformation is widely used as the preferred method to create transgenic plants for molecular plant biology research and crop breeding. Recent years, both mechanism and application of Agrobacterium-mediated horizontal gene transfer have made significant progresses, especially Agrobacterium-mediated transient transformation was developed for plant biotechnology industry to produce recombinant proteins. Agrobacterium strains are almost used and saved not only by each of microbiology and molecular plant labs, but also by many of plant biotechnology manufacturers. Agrobacterium is able to transfer its genetic material to a broad range of hosts, including plant and non-plant hosts. As a consequence, the concern of environmental risk associated with the accidental release of genetically modified Agrobacterium arises. In this article, we outline the recent progress in the molecular mechanism of Agrobacterium-meditated gene transfer, focus on the application of Agrobacterium-mediated horizontal gene transfer, and review the potential risk associated with Agrobacterium-meditated gene transfer. Based on the comparison between the infecting process of Agrobacterium as a pathogen and the transgenic process of Agrobacterium as a transgenic vector, we realize that chemotaxis is the distinct difference between these two biological processes and thus discuss the possible role of chemotaxis in forestalling the potential risk of Agrobacterium-meditated horizontal gene transfer to non-target plant species.

Virulence of Agrobacterium tumefaciens requires lipid homeostasis mediated by the lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol hydrolase AcvB

Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers oncogenic T-DNA via the type IV secretion system (T4SS) into plants causing tumor formation. The acvB gene encodes a virulence factor of unknown function required for plant transformation. Here we specify AcvB as a periplasmic lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol (L-PG) hydrolase, which modulates L-PG homeostasis. Through functional characterization of recombinant AcvB variants, we showed that the C-terminal domain of AcvB (residues 232-456) is sufficient for full enzymatic activity and defined key residues for catalysis. Absence of the hydrolase resulted in ~10-fold increase in L-PG in Agrobacterium membranes and abolished T-DNA transfer and tumor formation. Overproduction of the L-PG synthase gene (lpiA) in wild-type A. tumefaciens resulted in a similar increase in the L-PG content (~7-fold) and a virulence defect even in the presence of intact AcvB. These results suggest that elevated L-PG amounts (either by overproduction of the synthase or absence of the hydrolase) are responsible for the virulence phenotype. Gradually increasing the L-PG content by complementation with different acvB variants revealed that cellular L-PG levels above 3% of total phospholipids interfere with T-DNA transfer. Cumulatively, this study identified AcvB as a novel virulence factor required for membrane lipid homeostasis and T-DNA transfer.

The conserved mosaic prophage protein paratox inhibits the natural competence regulator ComR in Streptococcus

Horizontal gene transfer is an important means of bacterial evolution. This includes natural genetic transformation, where bacterial cells become “competent” and DNA is acquired from the extracellular environment. Natural competence in many species of Streptococcus, is regulated by quorum sensing via the ComRS receptor-signal pair. The ComR-XIP (mature ComS peptide) complex induces expression of the alternative sigma factor SigX, which targets RNA polymerase to CIN-box promoters to activate genes involved in DNA uptake and recombination. In addition, the widely distributed Streptococcus prophage gene paratox (prx) also contains a CIN-box, and here we demonstrate it to be transcriptionally activated by XIP. In vitro experiments demonstrate that Prx binds ComR directly and prevents the ComR-XIP complex from interacting with DNA. Mutations of prx in vivo caused increased expression of the late competence gene ssb when induced with XIP as compared to wild-type, and Prx orthologues are able to inhibit ComR activation by XIP in a reporter strain which lacks an endogenous prx. Additionally, an X-ray crystal structure of Prx reveals a unique fold that implies a novel molecular mechanism to inhibit ComR. Overall, our results suggest Prx functions to inhibit the acquisition of new DNA by Streptococcus.

Bacterial antagonism in host-associated microbial communities

Antagonistic interactions are abundant in microbial communities and contribute not only to the composition and relative proportions of their members but also to the longer-term stability of a community. This Review will largely focus on bacterial antagonism mediated by ribosomally synthesized peptides and proteins produced by members of host-associated microbial communities. We discuss recent findings on their diversity, functions, and ecological impacts. These systems play key roles in ecosystem defense, pathogen invasion, spatial segregation, and diversity but also confer indirect gains to the aggressor from products released by killed cells. Investigations into antagonistic bacterial interactions are important for our understanding of how the microbiota establish within hosts, influence health and disease, and offer insights into potential translational applications.

Two pKM101-encoded proteins, the pilus-tip protein TraC and Pep, assemble on the Escherichia coli cell surface as adhesins required for efficient conjugative DNA transfer

Mobile genetic elements (MGEs) encode type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) known as conjugation machines for their transmission between bacterial cells. Conjugation machines are composed of an envelope-spanning translocation channel, and those functioning in Gram-negative species additionally elaborate an extracellular pilus to initiate donor-recipient cell contacts. We report that pKM101, a self-transmissible MGE functioning in the Enterobacteriaceae, has evolved a second target cell attachment mechanism. Two pKM101-encoded proteins, the pilus-tip adhesin TraC and a protein termed Pep, are exported to the cell surface where they interact and also form higher order complexes appearing as distinct foci or patches around the cell envelope. Surface-displayed TraC and Pep are required for an efficient conjugative transfer, 'extracellular complementation' potentially involving intercellular protein transfer, and activation of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa type VI secretion system. Both proteins are also required for bacteriophage PRD1 infection. TraC and Pep are exported across the outer membrane by a mechanism potentially involving the β-barrel assembly machinery. The pKM101 T4SS, thus, deploys alternative routing pathways for the delivery of TraC to the pilus tip or both TraC and Pep to the cell surface. We propose that T4SS-encoded, pilus-independent attachment mechanisms maximize the probability of MGE propagation and might be widespread among this translocation superfamily.

Spreading the news about the novel conjugation mechanism in Streptomyces bacteria

The hallmark of mycelial spore-forming bacteria of the genus Streptomyces is their prolific production of antibiotics and other bioactive secondary metabolites as part of a complex morphological and physiological developmental program. They are further distinguished by a conjugation mechanism that differs substantially from the single-strand mode of DNA transfer via Type IV secretion, which is exhibited by numerous unicellular Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. At the crux of the novel intermycelial transfer event in Streptomyces spp. is a membrane pore composed of a single plasmid protein (TraB), which also functions as an FtsK-like DNA pump driven by the energy of ATP hydrolysis. TraB binds to specific 8-mer repeats within the non-coding clt plasmid transfer locus and the DNA is then translocated intercellularly in double-strand form. TraB also translocates chromosomal DNA most likely by binding to 8-mer clc sequences (clt-like chromosomal sequences) distributed throughout streptomycete chromosomes. In the recipient, plasmids are dispersed through septal crosswalls apparently by a multiprotein complex comprising TraB and plasmid Spd proteins. Continued rounds of such intramycelial spreading distribute plasmids well beyond the initial entrance point during the time prior to cell differentiation and sporulation.

Ehrlichia type IV secretion system effector Etf-2 binds to active RAB5 and delays endosome maturation

Ehrlichia chaffeensis, an obligatory intracellular bacterium, infects monocytes/macrophages by sequestering a regulator of endosomal traffic, the small GTPase RAB5, on its membrane-bound inclusions to avoid routing to host-cell phagolysosomes. How RAB5 is sequestered on ehrlichial inclusions is poorly understood, however. We found that native Ehrlichia translocated factor-2 (Etf-2), a previously predicted effector of the Ehrlichia type IV secretion system, and recombinant Etf-2 (cloned into the Ehrlichia genome) are secreted into the host-cell cytoplasm and localize to ehrlichial inclusions. Ectopically expressed Etf-2-GFP also localized to inclusions and membranes of early endosomes marked with RAB5 and interacted with GTP-bound RAB5 but not with a GDP-bound RAB5. Etf-2, although lacking a RAB GTPase-activating protein (GAP) Tre2-Bub2-Cdc16 (TBC) domain, contains two conserved TBC domain motifs, namely an Arg finger and a Gln finger, and site-directed mutagenesis revealed that both Arg188 and Gln245 are required for Etf-2 localization to early endosomes. The yeast two-hybrid assay and microscale thermophoresis revealed that Etf-2 binds tightly to GTP-bound RAB5 but not to GDP-bound RAB5. However, Etf-2 lacks RAB5-specific GAP activity. Etf-2 localized to bead-containing phagosomes as well as endosomes containing beads coated with the C-terminal fragment of EtpE (entry-triggering protein of Ehrlichia), an Ehrlichia outer-membrane invasin, and significantly delayed RAB5 dissociation from and RAB7 localization to phagosomes/endosomes and RABGAP5 localization to endosomes. Thus, binding of Etf-2 to RAB5-GTP appears to delay RAB5 inactivation by impeding RABGAP5 localization to endosomes. This suggests a unique mechanism by which RAB5 is sequestered on ehrlichial inclusions to benefit bacterial survival and replication.

Characteristics of the Conjugative Transfer System of the IncM Plasmid pCTX-M3 and Identification of Its Putative Regulators

Horizontal gene transfer is responsible for rapid changes in bacterial genomes, and the conjugative transfer of plasmids has a great impact on the plasticity of bacteria. Here, we present a deletion analysis of the conjugative transfer system genes of the pCTX-M3 plasmid of the IncM group, which is responsible for the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes in Enterobacteriaceae. We found that the deletion of either of the orf35 and orf36 genes, which are dispensable for conjugative transfer, increased the plasmid mobilization efficiency. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis suggested the involvement of orf35 and orf36 in regulating the expression of transfer genes. We also revised the host range of pCTX-M3 by showing that its conjugative transfer system has a much broader host range than its replicon.

Plasmid conjugative transfer systems comprise type IV secretion systems (T4SS) coupled to DNA processing and replication. The T4SSs are divided into two phylogenetic subfamilies, namely, IVA and IVB, or on the basis of the phylogeny of the VirB4 ATPase, into eight groups. The conjugation system of the IncM group plasmid pCTX-M3, from Citrobacter freundii, is classified in the IVB subfamily and in the MPF_I group, as are the conjugation systems of IncI1 group plasmids. Although the majority of the conjugative genes of the IncM and IncI1 plasmids display conserved synteny, there are several differences. Here, we present a deletion analysis of 27 genes in the conjugative transfer regions of pCTX-M3. Notably, the deletion of either of two genes dispensable for conjugative transfer, namely, orf35 and orf36, resulted in an increased plasmid mobilization efficiency. Transcriptional analysis of the orf35 and orf36 deletion mutants suggested an involvement of these genes in regulating the expression of conjugative transfer genes. We also revised the host range of the pCTX-M3 replicon by finding that this replicon is unable to support replication in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Ralstonia eutropha, and Pseudomonas putida, though its conjugation system is capable of introducing plasmids bearing oriT_pCTX-M3 into these bacteria, which are representatives of Alpha-, Beta-, and Gammaproteobacteria, respectively. Thus, the conjugative transfer system of pCTX-M3 has a much broader host range than its replicon.

IMPORTANCE Horizontal gene transfer is responsible for rapid changes in bacterial genomes, and the conjugative transfer of plasmids has a great impact on the plasticity of bacteria. Here, we present a deletion analysis of the conjugative transfer system genes of the pCTX-M3 plasmid of the IncM group, which is responsible for the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes in Enterobacteriaceae. We found that the deletion of either of the orf35 and orf36 genes, which are dispensable for conjugative transfer, increased the plasmid mobilization efficiency. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis suggested the involvement of orf35 and orf36 in regulating the expression of transfer genes. We also revised the host range of pCTX-M3 by showing that its conjugative transfer system has a much broader host range than its replicon.

Bases moléculaires de l’infection de plantes parAgrobacterium tumefaciensvia un système de sécrétion de type IV

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a well studied phytopathogen given its various applications for deciphering host-pathogen interactions, bacterial communication, and capacity to transfer DNA fragments into host cells via a membrane protein system, the type IV secretion system (T4SS). T4SS mechanism is similar to the one responsible for antibiotic resistance gene transmission, and new knowledge gained could be applied to other organisms using such a mechanism. As well, A. tumefaciens is of economic importance in biotechnology due to its capacity to generate genetically modified plants. Agrobacterium tumefaciens harbours a plasmid known as Ti plasmid encoding T4SS function genes used for transferring genetic information and plant colonization. In this review, the authors describe the molecular basis of infection, from detection of host signals, to the description of different regions of Ti plasmid key to infection, ending with substrate transfer through bacterial wall. [Journal translation].

The type IV secretion system in Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) has an essential role in the pathogenesis of gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma and gastric cancer. The severity of the host inflammatory responses against the bacteria have been straightly associated with a special bacterial virulence factor, the cag pathogenicity island, which is a type IV secretion system (T4SS) to deliver CagA into the host cells. Besides cag-T4SS, the chromosomes of H. pylori can encode another three T4SSs, including comB, tfs3 and tfs4. In this review, we systematically reviewed the four T4SSs of H. pylori and explored their roles in the pathogenesis of gastroduodenal diseases. The information summarized in this review might provide valuable insights into the pathogenic mechanism for H. pylori.

Broad-host-range Inc18 plasmids: Occurrence, spread and transfer mechanisms

Conjugative plasmid transfer is one of the major mechanisms responsible for the spread of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes. The incompatibility (Inc) 18 group of plasmids is a family of plasmids replicating by the theta-mechanism, whose members have been detected frequently in enterococci and streptococci. Inc18 plasmids encode a variety of antibiotic resistances, including resistance to vancomycin, chloramphenicol and the macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramine (MLS) group of antibiotics. These plasmids comprising insertions of Tn1546 were demonstrated to be responsible for the transfer of vancomycin resistance encoded by the vanA gene from vancomycin resistant enterococci (VRE) to methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Thereby vancomycin resistant S. aureus (VRSA) were generated, which are serious multi-resistant pathogens challenging the health care system. Inc18 plasmids are widespread in the clinic and frequently have been detected in the environment, especially in domestic animals and wastewater. pIP501 is one of the best-characterized conjugative Inc18 plasmids. It was originally isolated from a clinical Streptococcus agalactiae strain and is, due to its small size and simplicity, a model to study conjugative plasmid transfer in Gram-positive bacteria. Here, we report on the occurrence and spread of Inc18-type plasmids in the clinic and in different environments as well as on the exchange of the plasmids among them. In addition, we discuss molecular details on the transfer mechanism of Inc18 plasmids and its regulation, as exemplified by the model plasmid pIP501. We finish with an outlook on promising approaches on how to reduce the emerging spread of antibiotic resistances.

Metagenomic insights into the roles of Proteobacteria in the gastrointestinal microbiomes of healthy dogs and cats

Interests in the impact of the gastrointestinal microbiota on health and wellbeing have extended from humans to that of companion animals. While relatively fewer studies to date have examined canine and feline gut microbiomes, analysis of the metagenomic DNA from fecal communities using next‐generation sequencing technologies have provided insights into the microbes that are present, their function, and potential to contribute to overall host nutrition and health. As carnivores, healthy dogs and cats possess fecal microbiomes that reflect the generally higher concentrations of protein and fat in their diets, relative to omnivores and herbivores. The phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes are highly abundant, and Fusobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria also feature prominently. Proteobacteria is the most diverse bacterial phylum and commonly features in the fecal microbiota of healthy dogs and cats, although its reputation is often sullied as its members include a number of well‐known opportunistic pathogens, such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Campylobacter, which may impact the health of the host and its owner. Furthermore, in other host species, high abundances of Proteobacteria have been associated with dysbiosis in hosts with metabolic or inflammatory disorders. In this review, we seek to gain further insight into the prevalence and roles of the Proteobacteria within the gastrointestinal microbiomes of healthy dogs and cats. We draw upon the growing number of metagenomic DNA sequence‐based studies which now allow us take a culture‐independent approach to examine the functions that this more minor, yet important, group contribute to normal microbiome function.

The fecal microbiomes of healthy dogs and cats often include Proteobacteria at varying abundances. This phylum can have a sullied reputation as it contains a number of well‐known pathogenic members. We explored the functions of the Proteobacteria in fecal shotgun metagenome datasets from healthy dogs and cats. The Proteobacteria appeared to be enriched for functions that are consistent with a role in helping to maintain the anaerobic environment of the gut for normal microbiome function.

Integrated Stress Responses to Bacterial Pathogenesis Patterns

Activation of an appropriate innate immune response to bacterial infection is critical to limit microbial spread and generate cytokines and chemokines to instruct appropriate adaptive immune responses. Recognition of bacteria or bacterial products by pattern recognition molecules is crucial to initiate this response. However, it is increasingly clear that the context in which this recognition occurs can dictate the quality of the response and determine the outcome of an infection. The cross talk established between host and pathogen results in profound alterations on cellular homeostasis triggering specific cellular stress responses. In particular, the highly conserved integrated stress response (ISR) has been shown to shape the host response to bacterial pathogens by sensing cellular insults resulting from infection and modulating transcription of key genes, translation of new proteins and cell autonomous antimicrobial mechanisms such as autophagy. Here, we review the growing body of evidence demonstrating a role for the ISR as an integral part of the innate immune response to bacterial pathogens.

A streamlined method for transposon mutagenesis of Rickettsia parkeri yields numerous mutations that impact infection

The rickettsiae are obligate intracellular alphaproteobacteria that exhibit a complex infectious life cycle in both arthropod and mammalian hosts. As obligate intracellular bacteria, rickettsiae are highly adapted to living inside a variety of host cells, including vascular endothelial cells during mammalian infection. Although it is assumed that the rickettsiae produce numerous virulence factors that usurp or disrupt various host cell pathways, they have been challenging to genetically manipulate to identify the key bacterial factors that contribute to infection. Motivated to overcome this challenge, we sought to expand the repertoire of available rickettsial loss-of-function mutants, using an improved mariner-based transposon mutagenesis scheme. Here, we present the isolation of over 100 transposon mutants in the spotted fever group species Rickettsia parkeri. Transposon insertions disrupted genes whose products are implicated in a variety of pathways, including bacterial replication and metabolism, the type IV secretion system, factors with previously established roles in host cell interactions and pathogenesis, or are of unknown function. Given the need to identify critical virulence factors, forward genetic screens such as this will provide an excellent platform to more directly investigate rickettsial biology and pathogenesis.

Quorum Sensing and Quorum Quenching in Agrobacterium: A "Go/No Go System"?

The pathogen Agrobacterium induces gall formation on a wide range of dicotyledonous plants. In this bacteria, most pathogenicity determinants are borne on the tumour inducing (Ti) plasmid. The conjugative transfer of this plasmid between agrobacteria is regulated by quorum sensing (QS). However, processes involved in the disturbance of QS also occur in this bacteria under the molecular form of a protein, TraM, inhibiting the sensing of the QS signals, and two lactonases BlcC (AttM) and AiiB that degrade the acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) QS signal. In the model Agrobacteriumfabrum strain C58, several data, once integrated, strongly suggest that the QS regulation may not be reacting only to cell concentration. Rather, these QS elements in association with the quorum quenching (QQ) activities may constitute an integrated and complex “go/no go system” that finely controls the biologically costly transfer of the Ti plasmid in response to multiple environmental cues. This decision mechanism permits the bacteria to sense whether it is in a gall or not, in a living or decaying tumor, in stressed plant tissues, etc. In this scheme, the role of the lactonases selected and maintained in the course of Ti plasmid and agrobacterial evolution appears to be pivotal.

A novel T4SS-mediated DNA transfer used by pXO16, a conjugative plasmid from Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis

The entomopathogenic Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis displays peculiar conjugative transfer capabilities, accounted for by the large conjugative plasmid pXO16 (350 kb). The efficient and fast conjugative transfers are accompanied by a macroscopic aggregation of bacterial partners. Moreover, pXO16 has proven capable of effective mobilization and the retro-transfer of both mobilizable and 'non-mobilizable' plasmids. In this work, the aggregation phenomenon is shown to promote pXO16 transfer while not being mandatory for transfer. Transfer of pXO16 to B. thuringiensis recipient strains that do not display aggregation is observed as well, hence enlarging the previously defined host range. The use of variant calling analysis of transconjugants allowed for observation of up to 791 kb chromosomal regions mobilization. Previous analysis of pXO16 did not reveal any Type IV Secretion System (T4SS) homologs, which suggested the presence of an unusual conjugative system. A FtsK/SpOIIIE ATPase gene proved here to be necessary for conjugative transfer. Additionally, the analysis of natural restriction-modification systems in both conjugative partners gave credit to a ssDNA transfer mechanism. A 'transfer israelensis plasmid' (tip) region containing this ATPase gene was shown to code for other potential T4SS proteins, illustrating a conjugative system distantly related to the other known Gram-positive T4SSs.

The Agrobacterium VirB/VirD4 T4SS: Mechanism and Architecture Defined Through In Vivo Mutagenesis and Chimeric Systems

The Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/VirD4 translocation machine is a member of a superfamily of translocators designated as type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) that function in many species of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. T4SSs evolved from ancestral conjugation systems for specialized purposes relating to bacterial colonization or infection. A. tumefaciens employs the VirB/VirD4 T4SS to deliver oncogenic DNA (T-DNA) and effector proteins to plant cells, causing the tumorous disease called crown gall. This T4SS elaborates both a cell-envelope-spanning channel and an extracellular pilus for establishing target cell contacts. Recent mechanistic and structural studies of the VirB/VirD4 T4SS and related conjugation systems in Escherichia coli have defined T4SS architectures, bases for substrate recruitment, the translocation route for DNA substrates, and steps in the pilus biogenesis pathway. In this review, we provide a brief history of A. tumefaciens VirB/VirD4 T4SS from its discovery in the 1980s to its current status as a paradigm for the T4SS superfamily. We discuss key advancements in defining VirB/VirD4 T4SS function and structure, and we highlight the power of in vivo mutational analyses and chimeric systems for identifying mechanistic themes and specialized adaptations of this fascinating nanomachine.

Relaxases and Plasmid Transfer in Gram-Negative Bacteria

All plasmids that spread by conjugative transfer encode a relaxase. That includes plasmids that encode the type IV secretion machinery necessary to mediate cell to cell transfer, as well as mobilizable plasmids that exploit the existence of other plasmids' type IV secretion machinery to enable their own lateral spread. Relaxases perform key functions in plasmid transfer by first binding to their cognate plasmid as part of a multiprotein complex called the relaxosome, which is then specifically recognized by a receptor protein at the opening of the secretion channel. Relaxases catalyze a site- and DNA-strand-specific cleavage reaction on the plasmid then pilot the single strand of plasmid DNA through the membrane-spanning type IV secretion channel as a nucleoprotein complex. In the recipient cell, relaxases help terminate the transfer process efficiently and stabilize the incoming plasmid DNA. Here, we review the well-studied MOB_F family of relaxases to describe the biochemistry of these versatile enzymes and integrate current knowledge into a mechanistic model of plasmid transfer in Gram-negative bacteria.

Type IV Secretion in Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Development of Specific Inhibitors

The Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/D4 type IV secretion system (T4SS) comprises 12 membrane-bound proteins, and it assembles a surface-exposed T-pilus. It is considered to be the archetypical system that is generally used to orient the nomenclature of other T4SS. Whereas the sequence similarities between T4SSs from different organisms are often limited, the general mechanism of action appears to be conserved, and the evolutionary relationship to bacterial conjugation systems and to T4SSs from animal pathogens is well established. Agrobacterium is a natural genetic engineer that is extensively used for the generation of transgenic plants for research and for agro-biotechnological applications. It also served as an early model for the understanding of pathogen-host interactions and for the transfer of macromolecular virulence factors into host cells. The knowledge on the mechanism of its T4SS inspired the search for small molecules that inhibit the virulence of bacterial pathogens and of bacterial conjugation. Inhibitors of bacterial virulence and of conjugation have interesting potential as alternatives to antibiotics and as inhibitors of antimicrobial resistance gene transfer. Mechanistic work on the Agrobacterium T4SS will continue to inspire the search for inhibitor target sites and drug design.

Coupling Proteins in Type IV Secretion

Type IV coupling proteins (T4CPs) are essential constituents of most type IV secretion systems (T4SSs), and probably the most intriguing component in terms of their evolutionary origin and functional role. Coupling proteins have coevolved with their cognate secretion system and translocated substrates. They are present in all conjugative systems, leading to the suggestion that they play a specific role in DNA transfer. However, they are also part of many T4SSs involved in bacterial virulence, where they are required for protein translocation, with no apparent involvement in DNA secretion. Their name reflects genetic and biochemical evidence of a connecting role between the substrate and the T4SS, thus probably playing a major role in substrate recruitment. Increasing evidence supports also a role in signal transmission leading to activation of secretion. Most studies have addressed conjugative coupling proteins of the VirD4-like protein family. Their conserved features include a nucleotide-binding domain, essential for substrate translocation, a C-terminal domain involved in substrate interactions, and a transmembrane domain anchoring them to the inner membrane, which is an important regulator of protein function. Purified soluble deletion mutants display ATP hydrolysis activity and unspecific DNA binding. Elucidation of the 3D structure of the soluble deletion mutant of the conjugative coupling protein TrwB, TrwBΔN70, provided the basis for further mutagenesis studies rendering interesting insights into the structure-function of these proteins. Their key role as couplers between substrate and transporter provides biotechnological potential as targets for anti-virulence strategies, as well as for customization of substrate delivery through heterologous secretion systems.

Beginning to Understand the Role of the Type IV Secretion System Effector Proteins in Coxiella burnetii Pathogenesis

Coxiella burnetii is the etiological agent of the zoonotic disease Q fever, which manifests in severe outbreaks and is associated with important health and economic burden. Moreover, C. burnetii belongs to the list of class B bioterrorism organisms, as it is an airborne and highly infective pathogen with remarkable resistance to environmental stresses. Detailed study of the host-pathogen interaction during C. burnetii infection has been hampered due to the obligate intracellular nature of this pathogen. However, the development of an axenic culture medium, together with the implementation of bioinformatics tools and high-content screening approaches, have significantly progressed C. burnetii research in the last decade. This has facilitated identification of the Dot/Icm type IV secretion system (T4SS) as an essential virulence factor. T4SS is used to deliver an arsenal of effector proteins into the cytoplasm of the host cell. These effectors mediate the survival of the host cell and the development of very large replicative compartments called Coxiella-containing vacuoles (CCVs). Biogenesis of the CCV relies on T4SS-dependent re-routing of numerous intracellular trafficking pathways to deliver membranes and nutrients that are essential for bacterial replication. This review aims to illustrate the key milestones that have contributed to ascribe C. burnetii as a model organism for the study of host/pathogen interactions as well as presenting an up-to-date description of our knowledge of the cell biology of C. burnetii infections.

Mechanisms of Conjugative Transfer and Type IV Secretion-Mediated Effector Transport in Gram-Positive Bacteria

Conjugative DNA transfer is the most important means to transfer antibiotic resistance genes and virulence determinants encoded by plasmids, integrative conjugative elements (ICE), and pathogenicity islands among bacteria. In gram-positive bacteria, there exist two types of conjugative systems, (i) type IV secretion system (T4SS)-dependent ones, like those encoded by the Enterococcus, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, and Clostridia mobile genetic elements and (ii) T4SS-independent ones, as those found on Streptomyces plasmids. Interestingly, very recently, on the Streptococcus suis genome, the first gram-positive T4SS not only involved in conjugative DNA transfer but also in effector translocation to the host was detected. Although no T4SS core complex structure from gram-positive bacteria is available, several structures from T4SS protein key factors from Enterococcus and Clostridia plasmids have been solved. In this chapter, we summarize the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms and structure-function relationships of the diverse conjugation machineries and emerging research needs focused on combatting infections and spread of multiple resistant gram-positive pathogens.