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Haile B, Tafess K, Zewude A, Yenew B, Siu G, Ameni G. Spoligotyping and drug sensitivity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolated from pulmonary tuberculosis patients in the Arsi Zone of southeastern Ethiopia. New Microbes New Infect 2019; 33:100620. [PMID: 31908780 PMCID: PMC6938991 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2019.100620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in different zones of Ethiopia. This study was undertaken to identify the strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and evaluate their drug sensitivity profiles in the Arsi Zone. A total of 111 isolates of M. tuberculosis from individuals with pulmonary TB were included and speciation and strain identification were performed using Region of difference 9 and spoligotyping, respectively. The drug sensitivity patterns were assessed using Bactec MGIT 960 SIRE and GenoType MTBDRplus line probe assays. Of 111 isolates, 83% were interpretable and 56 different spoligotype patterns were identified. From these, 22 patterns were shared types while the remaining 34 were orphans. The predominant shared types were spoligotype international type (SIT) 149 and SIT53, comprising 12 and 11 isolates, respectively. Euro-American lineage was the dominant lineage followed by East-African-Indian. Phenotypically, 17.2% of tested isolates were resistant to any first-line drugs and 3.1% were multidrug-resistant. Higher (6.2%) mono-resistance was observed to streptomycin, and no resistance was observed to rifampicin or ethambutol. Genotypically, five (5.4%) isolates were resistant to isoniazid and mutated at codon S315T1 of katG. In contrast, only 1.1% of the isolates were resistant to rifampicin and were mutated at codon S531L of rpoB gene. In this study, a high proportion of orphan strains were isolated, which could suggest the presence of new strains and a high percentage of mono-resistance, warranting the need to strengthen control efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Haile
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.,College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - K Tafess
- Department of Health Technology and Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Department of Medical Laboratory, College of Health Sciences, Arsi University, Asella, Ethiopia
| | - A Zewude
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - B Yenew
- Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - G Siu
- Department of Health Technology and Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - G Ameni
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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202
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The conical shape of DIM lipids promotes Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of macrophages. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:25649-25658. [PMID: 31757855 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1910368116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phthiocerol dimycocerosate (DIM) is a major virulence factor of the pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). While this lipid promotes the entry of Mtb into macrophages, which occurs via phagocytosis, its molecular mechanism of action is unknown. Here, we combined biophysical, cell biology, and modeling approaches to reveal the molecular mechanism of DIM action on macrophage membranes leading to the first step of Mtb infection. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry showed that DIM molecules are transferred from the Mtb envelope to macrophage membranes during infection. Multiscale molecular modeling and 31P-NMR experiments revealed that DIM adopts a conical shape in membranes and aggregates in the stalks formed between 2 opposing lipid bilayers. Infection of macrophages pretreated with lipids of various shapes uncovered a general role for conical lipids in promoting phagocytosis. Taken together, these results reveal how the molecular shape of a mycobacterial lipid can modulate the biological response of macrophages.
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203
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Bigi M, Vazquez CL, Castelão ABC, García EA, Cataldi AA, Jackson M, McNeil M, Soria M, Zumárraga MJ, Cabruja M, Gago G, Blanco FC, Nishibe C, Almeida NF, de Araújo FR, Bigi F. Analysing nonsynonymous mutations between two Mycobacterium bovis strains with contrasting pathogenic profiles. Vet Microbiol 2019; 239:108482. [PMID: 31759775 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.108482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) is the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis, a chronic infectious disease that can affect cattle, other domesticated species, wild animals and humans. This disease produces important economic losses worldwide. Two M. bovis strains (04-303 and 534) have been isolated in Argentina. Whereas the 04-303 strain was isolated from a wild boar, the 534 strain was obtained from cattle. In a previous study, six weeks after infection, the 04-303 strain induced 100% mortality in mice. By contrast, mice infected with the 534 strain survived, with limited tissue damage, after four months. In this study we compared all predictive proteins encoded in both M. bovis genomes. The comparative analysis revealed 141 polymorphic proteins between both strains. From these proteins, nine virulence proteins showed polymorphisms in 04-303, whereas five did it in the 534 strain. Remarkably, both strains contained a high level of polymorphism in proteins related to phthiocerol dimycocerosate (PDIM) synthesis or transport. Further experimental evidence indicated that only mutations in the 534 strain have an impact on PDIM synthesis. The observed reduction in PDIM content in the 534 strain, together with its low capacity to induce phagosome arrest, may be associated with the reported deficiency of this strain to replicate and survive inside bovine macrophages. The findings of this study could contribute to a better understanding of pathogenicity and virulence aspects of M. bovis, which is essential for further studies aiming at developing new vaccines and diagnostic techniques for bovines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Bigi
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Agronomía, Cátedra de Microbiología Agrícola, INBA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | | | - Ana Beatriz C Castelão
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.
| | | | | | - Mary Jackson
- Colorado State University, Dept. of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, USA.
| | - Michael McNeil
- Colorado State University, Dept. of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, USA.
| | - Marcelo Soria
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Agronomía, Cátedra de Microbiología Agrícola, INBA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | | | - Matias Cabruja
- Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Actinomycetes, Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina.
| | - Gabriela Gago
- Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Actinomycetes, Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina.
| | | | - Christiane Nishibe
- Faculdade de Computação, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.
| | - Nalvo F Almeida
- Faculdade de Computação, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.
| | | | - Fabiana Bigi
- Instituto de Biotecnología, IABIMO, CICVyA/INTA, Argentina.
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204
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Rizvi A, Shankar A, Chatterjee A, More TH, Bose T, Dutta A, Balakrishnan K, Madugulla L, Rapole S, Mande SS, Banerjee S, Mande SC. Rewiring of Metabolic Network in Mycobacterium tuberculosis During Adaptation to Different Stresses. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2417. [PMID: 31736886 PMCID: PMC6828651 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic adaptation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) to microbicidal intracellular environment of host macrophages is fundamental to its pathogenicity. However, an in-depth understanding of metabolic adjustments through key reaction pathways and networks is limited. To understand how such changes occur, we measured the cellular metabolome of M. tuberculosis subjected to four microbicidal stresses using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric multiple reactions monitoring (LC-MRM/MS). Overall, 87 metabolites were identified. The metabolites best describing the separation between stresses were identified through multivariate analysis. The coupling of the metabolite measurements with existing genome-scale metabolic model, and using constraint-based simulation led to several new concepts and unreported observations in M. tuberculosis; such as (i) the high levels of released ammonia as an adaptive response to acidic stress was due to increased flux through L-asparaginase rather than urease activity; (ii) nutrient starvation-induced anaplerotic pathway for generation of TCA intermediates from phosphoenolpyruvate using phosphoenolpyruvate kinase; (iii) quenching of protons through GABA shunt pathway or sugar alcohols as possible mechanisms of early adaptation to acidic and oxidative stresses; and (iv) usage of alternate cofactors by the same enzyme as a possible mechanism of rewiring metabolic pathways to overcome stresses. Besides providing new leads and important nodes that can be used for designing intervention strategies, the study advocates the strength of applying flux balance analyses coupled with metabolomics to get a global picture of complex metabolic adjustments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshad Rizvi
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | - Arvind Shankar
- Bio-Sciences R&D Division, TCS Research, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd., Pune, India
| | | | | | - Tungadri Bose
- Bio-Sciences R&D Division, TCS Research, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd., Pune, India
| | - Anirban Dutta
- Bio-Sciences R&D Division, TCS Research, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd., Pune, India
| | - Kannan Balakrishnan
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | - Lavanya Madugulla
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | | | - Sharmila S Mande
- Bio-Sciences R&D Division, TCS Research, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd., Pune, India
| | - Sharmistha Banerjee
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
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205
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Ruan C, Li J, Niu J, Li P, Huang Y, Li X, Duan W, Yan S, Zhen J, Xie J. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Rv0426c promotes recombinant mycobacteria intracellular survival via manipulating host inflammatory cytokines and suppressing cell apoptosis. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 77:104070. [PMID: 31614213 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.104070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is still a leading cause of death worldwide. M. tuberculosis has evolved multipronged strategies to subvert host immune defenses and establish an immunologically privileged niche in macrophages. Rv0426c has been predicted to be an effector involved in the Mtb-host interactions. To investigate the potential role played by Rv0426c, we constructed recombinant M. smegmatis strains with heterologous expression of Rv0426c. We observed that Rv0426c recombinants became more susceptible to various stresses by increasing cell wall permeability, however with elevated early survival rate within macrophages. This was accompanied by decreased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and host cell apoptosis. The data suggested that Rv0426c was a new player involved in the interactions between Mtb and macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cao Ruan
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jiang Li
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jingjing Niu
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ping Li
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yu Huang
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xue Li
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei Duan
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shuangquan Yan
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Junfeng Zhen
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jianping Xie
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
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206
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Veyron-Churlet R, Locht C. In Vivo Methods to Study Protein-Protein Interactions as Key Players in Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Virulence. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8040173. [PMID: 31581602 PMCID: PMC6963305 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8040173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies on protein–protein interactions (PPI) can be helpful for the annotation of unknown protein functions and for the understanding of cellular processes, such as specific virulence mechanisms developed by bacterial pathogens. In that context, several methods have been extensively used in recent years for the characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis PPI to further decipher tuberculosis (TB) pathogenesis. This review aims at compiling the most striking results based on in vivo methods (yeast and bacterial two-hybrid systems, protein complementation assays) for the specific study of PPI in mycobacteria. Moreover, newly developed methods, such as in-cell native mass resonance and proximity-dependent biotinylation identification, will have a deep impact on future mycobacterial research, as they are able to perform dynamic (transient interactions) and integrative (multiprotein complexes) analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Veyron-Churlet
- Institut Pasteur de Lille, CHU Lille, CNRS, Inserm, Université de Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, F-59000 Lille, France.
| | - Camille Locht
- Institut Pasteur de Lille, CHU Lille, CNRS, Inserm, Université de Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, F-59000 Lille, France.
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207
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Bao Y, Zhao X, Wang L, Qian W, Sun J. Morphology-based classification of mycobacteria-infected macrophages with convolutional neural network: reveal EsxA-induced morphologic changes indistinguishable by naked eyes. Transl Res 2019; 212:1-13. [PMID: 31287998 PMCID: PMC6755059 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2019.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
EsxA is an essential virulence factor for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) pathogenesis as well as an important biomarker for Mtb detection. In this study, we use light microscopy and deep learning-based image analysis to classify the morphologic changes of macrophages infected by Mycobacterium marinum (Mm), a surrogate model for Mtb. Macrophages were infected either with the mCherry-expressing Mm wild type strain (Mm(WT)), or a mutant strain with deletion of the esxA-esxB operon (Mm(ΔEsxA:B)). The mCherry serves as an infection marker to train the convolution neural network (CNN) and to validate the classification results. Data show that CNN can distinguish the Mm(WT)-infected cells from uninfected cells with an accuracy of 92.4% at 2 hours postinfection (hpi). However, the accuracy at 12 and 24 hpi is decreased to ∼75% and ∼83%, respectively, suggesting dynamic morphologic changes through different stages of infection. The accuracy of discriminating Mm(ΔEsxA:B)-infected cells from uninfected cells is lower than 80% at all time, which is consistent to attenuated virulence of Mm(ΔEsxA:B). Interestingly, CNN distinguishes Mm(WT)-infected cells from Mm(ΔEsxA:B)-infected cells with ∼90% accuracy, implicating EsxA induces unique morphologic changes in macrophages. Deconvolutional analysis successfully reconstructed the morphologic features used by CNN for classification, which are indistinguishable to naked eyes and distinct from intracellular mycobacteria. This study presents a deep learning-aided imaging analytical tool that can accurately detect virulent mycobacteria-infected macrophages by cellular morphologic changes. The observed morphologic changes induced by EsxA warrant further studies to fill the gap from molecular actions of bacterial virulence factors to cellular morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Bao
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas
| | - Xinzhuo Zhao
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas; Sino-Dutch Biomedical and Information Engineering School, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas
| | - Wei Qian
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas
| | - Jianjun Sun
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas.
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208
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Elucidating the Efficacy of the Bacille Calmette-Guérin Vaccination in Conjunction with First Line Antibiotics and Liposomal Glutathione. J Clin Med 2019; 8:jcm8101556. [PMID: 31569759 PMCID: PMC6833006 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8101556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) is the etiological agent that is responsible for causing tuberculosis (TB). Although every year M. tb infection affects millions of people worldwide, the only vaccine that is currently available is the Bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine. However, the BCG vaccine has varying efficacy. Additionally, the first line antibiotics administered to patients with active TB often cause severe complications and side effects. To improve upon the host response mechanism in containing M. tb infection, our lab has previously shown that the addition of the biological antioxidant glutathione (GSH) has profound antimycobacterial effects. The aim of this study is to understand the additive effects of BCG vaccination and ex-vivo GSH enhancement in improving the immune responses against M. tb in both groups; specifically, their ability to mount an effective immune response against M. tb infection, maintain CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the granulomas, their response to liposomal glutathione (L-GSH), with varying suboptimal levels of the first line antibiotics isoniazid (INH) and pyrazinamide (PZA), the expressions of programmed death receptor 1 (PD-1), and their ability to induce autophagy. Our results revealed that BCG vaccination, along with GSH enhancement, can prevent the loss of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the granulomas and improve the control of M. tb infection by decreasing the expressions of PD-1 and increasing autophagy and production of the cytokines interferon gamma IFN-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α).
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209
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Zakharevich NV, Zaychikova MV, Shur KV, Bekker OB, Maslov DA, Danilenko VN. Sequencing and Analysis of Three Mycobacterium tuberculosis Genomes of the B0/N-90 Sublineage. Microbiol Resour Announc 2019; 8:e00796-19. [PMID: 31558630 PMCID: PMC6763645 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00796-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the draft genome sequences of three Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates belonging to the B0/N-90 sublineage, EKB34, EKB53, and EKB79. The B0/N-90 sublineage belongs to the prevalent (in Russia) and highly virulent Beijing-B0/W148 sublineage. Isolates EKB34 and EKB79 were obtained from people with immune deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marina V Zaychikova
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Kirill V Shur
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga B Bekker
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitry A Maslov
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Valery N Danilenko
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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210
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Kirubakar G, Murugaiyan J, Schaudinn C, Dematheis F, Holland G, Eravci M, Weise C, Roesler U, Lewin A. Proteome Analysis of a M. avium Mutant Exposes a Novel Role of the Bifunctional Protein LysX in the Regulation of Metabolic Activity. J Infect Dis 2019; 218:291-299. [PMID: 29471363 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol is one of the components of the mycobacterial membrane that contributes to the resistance to cationic antimicrobial peptides, a host-induced frontline defense against invading pathogens. Its production is catalyzed by LysX, a bifunctional protein with lysyl transferase and lysyl transfer RNA synthetase activity. Comparative proteome analysis of a lysX mutant of Mycobacterium avium strain 104 and the wild type indicated that the lysX mutant strain undergoes a transition in phenotype by switching the carbon metabolism to β-oxidation of fatty acids, along with accumulation of lipid inclusions. Surprisingly, proteins associated with intracellular survival were upregulated in the lysX mutant, even during extracellular growth, preparing bacteria for the conditions occurring inside host cells. In line with this, the lysX mutant exhibited enhanced intracellular growth in human-blood-derived monocytes. Thus, our study exposes the significance of lysX in the metabolism and virulence of the environmental pathogen M. avium hominissuis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greana Kirubakar
- Division 16, Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jayaseelan Murugaiyan
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health, Centre for Infectious Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph Schaudinn
- Division ZBS 4, Advanced Light and Electron Microscopy, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Gudrun Holland
- Division ZBS 4, Advanced Light and Electron Microscopy, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Murat Eravci
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph Weise
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Uwe Roesler
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health, Centre for Infectious Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Astrid Lewin
- Division 16, Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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211
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Mishra M, Adhyapak P, Dadhich R, Kapoor S. Dynamic Remodeling of the Host Cell Membrane by Virulent Mycobacterial Sulfoglycolipid-1. Sci Rep 2019; 9:12844. [PMID: 31492926 PMCID: PMC6731295 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-49343-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipids dictate membrane properties to modulate lateral membrane organization, lipid/protein diffusion and lipid-protein interactions, thereby underpinning proper functioning of cells. Mycobacterium tuberculosis harnesses the power of its atypical cell wall lipids to impact immune surveillance machinery centered at the host cell membrane. However, the role of specific virulent lipids in altering host cellular functions by modulating membrane organization and the associated signaling response are still pertinent unresolved questions. Here, combining membrane biophysics and cell biology, we elucidate how virulent Mtb sulfoglycolipids hijack the host cell membrane, affecting its order, fluidity, and stiffness along with manipulating the linked cytoskeleton. The functional outcome of this perturbation was assayed by monitoring membrane-associated autophagy signaling. These actions form a part of the overall response to commandeer host membrane-associated immune processes during infection. The findings on the mechanism of action of Mtb lipids on host cell membrane structure and downstream signaling will deepen the collective understanding of their functional aspects in membrane-dictated bacterial survival, pathogenesis and drug resistance and reveal suitable membrane driven-therapeutic intervention points and diagnostic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjari Mishra
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, India
| | - Pranav Adhyapak
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, India
| | - Ruchika Dadhich
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, India
| | - Shobhna Kapoor
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, India.
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212
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Amin M, Yanti B, Harapan H, Mertaniasih NM. The role of Mycobacterium tuberculosis lineages on lung tissue damage and TNF-α level among tuberculosis patients, Indonesia. CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY AND GLOBAL HEALTH 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cegh.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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213
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Goenka A, Casulli J, Hussell T. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Joyrides Alveolar Macrophages into the Pulmonary Interstitium. Cell Host Microbe 2019; 24:331-333. [PMID: 30212645 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Alveolar macrophages reside in the airway lumen, where they are thought to remain. However, in this issue of Cell Host & Microbe,Cohen et al. (2018) show that Mycobacterium tuberculosis may induce their translocation into the lung interstitium, potentially acting as a Trojan horse for bacillary dissemination to other phagocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Goenka
- Lydia Becker Institute of Infection and Immunology, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Joshua Casulli
- Lydia Becker Institute of Infection and Immunology, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Tracy Hussell
- Lydia Becker Institute of Infection and Immunology, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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214
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Dutta D, Srivastava V, Tripathi A, Singh V, Ansari MM, Pant G, Mishra M, Sharma S, Thota JR, Singh PK, Singh BN. Mycobacterium bovis sigF mutant exhibits altered surface phenotype and compromised pathogenesis. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2019; 118:101855. [PMID: 31430695 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2019.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Debashis Dutta
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, 3C1, FL33458, USA; Division of Microbiology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
| | - Vishal Srivastava
- Division of Microbiology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
| | - Ashutosh Tripathi
- Division of Microbiology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
| | - Vandana Singh
- Division of Microbiology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
| | - Mohd Mustkim Ansari
- Division of Microbiology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
| | - Garima Pant
- Electron Microscopy Unit, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
| | - Manisha Mishra
- CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India.
| | - Sharad Sharma
- Division of Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
| | - Jagadehswar Reddy Thota
- Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
| | | | - Bhupendra N Singh
- Division of Microbiology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226031, India.
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215
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Welker M, Van Belkum A, Girard V, Charrier JP, Pincus D. An update on the routine application of MALDI-TOF MS in clinical microbiology. Expert Rev Proteomics 2019; 16:695-710. [PMID: 31315000 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2019.1645603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has entered clinical diagnostics and is today a generally accepted and integral part of the workflow for microbial identification. MALDI-TOF MS identification systems received approval from national and international institutions, such as the USA-FDA, and are continuously improved and adopted to other fields like veterinary and industrial microbiology. The question is whether MALDI-TOF MS also has the potential to replace other conventional and molecular techniques operated in routine diagnostic laboratories. Areas covered: We give an overview of new advancements of mass spectral analysis in the context of microbial diagnostics. In particular, the expansion of databases to increase the range of readily identifiable bacteria and fungi, the refined discrimination of species complexes, subspecies, and types, the testing for antibiotic resistance or susceptibility, progress in sample preparation including automation, and applications of other mass spectrometry techniques are discussed. Expert opinion: Although many new approaches of MALDI-TOF MS are still in the stage of proof of principle, it is expectable that MALDI-TOF MS will expand its role in the clinical microbiology laboratory of the future. New databases, instruments and analytical software modules will continue to be developed to further improve diagnostic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Welker
- bioMérieux, Microbiology R&D , La Balme Les Grottes , France
| | - Alex Van Belkum
- bioMérieux, Microbiology R&D , La Balme Les Grottes , France
| | - Victoria Girard
- bioMérieux, Microbiology R&D , La Balme Les Grottes , France
| | | | - David Pincus
- bioMérieux, Microbiology Innovation , Hazelwood , MO , USA
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216
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Multiplex Real-Time PCR-short TUB Assay for Detection of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Smear-Negative Clinical Samples with Low Mycobacterial Loads. J Clin Microbiol 2019; 57:JCM.00733-19. [PMID: 31189585 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00733-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major health problem worldwide. Control of TB requires rapid, accurate diagnosis of active disease. However, extrapulmonary TB is very difficult to diagnose because the clinical specimens have very low bacterial loads. Several molecular methods involving direct detection of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) have emerged in recent years. Real-time PCR amplification simultaneously combines the amplification and detection of candidate sequences by using fluorescent probes (mainly TaqMan or Molecular Beacons) in automated systems. The multiplex real-time PCR-short assay is performed using locked nucleic acid (LNA) probes (length, 8 to 9 nucleotides) in combination with CodUNG to detect multiple pathogens in clinical samples. In this study, we evaluated the performance of this novel multiplex assay for detecting the MTBC in comparison with that of the conventional culture-based method. The multiplex real-time PCR-shortTUB assay targets two genes, whiB3 (redox-responsive transcriptional regulator) and pstS1 (phosphate-specific transporter), yielding limits of detection (LOD) of 10 copies and 100 copies, respectively, and amplification efficiencies of 92% and 99.7%, respectively. A total of 94 extrapulmonary samples and pulmonary samples with low mycobacterial loads (all smear negative; 75 MTBC culture positive) were analyzed using the test, yielding an overall sensitivity of 88% and a specificity of 95%. For pleural fluid and tissues/biopsy specimens, the sensitivity was 83% and 85%, respectively. In summary, this technique could be implemented in routine clinical microbiology testing to reduce the overall turnaround time for MTBC detection and may therefore be a useful tool for the diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis and diagnosis using pulmonary samples with low mycobacterial loads.
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217
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Personalized Approach as a Basis for the Future Diagnosis of Tuberculosis (Literature Review). ACTA BIOMEDICA SCIENTIFICA 2019. [DOI: 10.29413/abs.2019-4.3.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The global spread of tuberculosis remains one of actual problems of public health despite of introduction of public health safety programs. Early, rapid and accurate identification of M. tuberculosis and determination of drug susceptibility are essential for treatment and management of this disease. Delay in delivering results prolongs potentially inappropriate antituberculosis therapy, contributing to emergence of drug resistance, reducing treatment options and increasing treatment duration and associated costs, resulting in increased mortality and morbidity. Faster, more comprehensive diagnostics will enable earlier use of the most appropriate drug regimen, thus improving patient outcomes and reducing overall healthcare costs. The treatment of infection based on the using of massive antimicrobial therapy with analysis of bacterial strains resistance to first line drugs (FLD) isoniazid (INH), rifampin (RIF), pyrazinamide (PZA), ethambutol (EMB) and streptomycin (SM). However, the public health practitioners pay no attention to functional activity of human immune system genes. The interaction of bacterial genomes and immune system genes plays the major role in infection progress. There is growing evidence that, together with human and environmental factors, Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex strain diversity contributes to the variable outcome of infection and disease in human TB. We suppose that the future of diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis lies in the field of personal medicine with comprehensive analysis of host and pathogen genes.
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218
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Yang X, Yuan T, Ma R, Chacko KI, Smith M, Deikus G, Sebra R, Kasarskis A, van Bakel H, Franzblau SG, Sampson NS. Mce3R Stress-Resistance Pathway Is Vulnerable to Small-Molecule Targeting That Improves Tuberculosis Drug Activities. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:1239-1251. [PMID: 31012313 PMCID: PMC6630528 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.9b00099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
![]()
One-third of the world’s population
carries Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the infectious agent that causes tuberculosis (TB), and every
17 s someone dies of TB. After infection, Mtb can
live dormant for decades in a granuloma structure arising from the
host immune response, and cholesterol is important for this persistence
of Mtb. Current treatments require long-duration
drug regimens with many associated toxicities, which are compounded
by the high doses required. We phenotypically screened 35 6-azasteroid
analogues against Mtb and found that, at low micromolar
concentrations, a subset of the analogues sensitized Mtb to multiple TB drugs. Two analogues were selected for further study
to characterize the bactericidal activity of bedaquiline and isoniazid
under normoxic and low-oxygen conditions. These two 6-azasteroids
showed strong synergy with bedaquiline (fractional inhibitory concentration
index = 0.21, bedaquiline minimal inhibitory concentration = 16 nM
at 1 μM 6-azasteroid). The rate at which spontaneous resistance
to one of the 6-azasteroids arose in the presence of bedaquiline was
approximately 10–9, and the 6-azasteroid-resistant
mutants retained their isoniazid and bedaquiline sensitivity. Genes
in the cholesterol-regulated Mce3R regulon were required for 6-azasteroid
activity, whereas genes in the cholesterol catabolism pathway were
not. Expression of a subset of Mce3R genes was down-regulated upon
6-azasteroid treatment. The Mce3R regulon is implicated in stress
resistance and is absent in saprophytic mycobacteria. This regulon
encodes a cholesterol-regulated stress-resistance pathway that we
conclude is important for pathogenesis and contributes to drug tolerance,
and this pathway is vulnerable to small-molecule targeting in live
mycobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Yang
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, 100 John S. Toll Drive, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
| | - Tianao Yuan
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, 100 John S. Toll Drive, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
| | - Rui Ma
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, 425 PHARM, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Kieran I. Chacko
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York 10029, United States
| | - Melissa Smith
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York 10029, United States
- Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York, 10029-6574, United States
| | - Gintaras Deikus
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York 10029, United States
- Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York, 10029-6574, United States
| | - Robert Sebra
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York 10029, United States
- Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York, 10029-6574, United States
| | - Andrew Kasarskis
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York 10029, United States
- Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York, 10029-6574, United States
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York 10029, United States
- Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1498, New York City, New York, 10029-6574, United States
| | - Scott G. Franzblau
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, 425 PHARM, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Nicole S. Sampson
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, 100 John S. Toll Drive, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Stony Brook University, 100 John S. Toll Drive, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
- Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study (STIAS), Wallenberg Research Centre at Stellenbosch University, 10 Marais Street, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
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219
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Hodgkinson JW, Belosevic M, Elks PM, Barreda DR. Teleost contributions to the understanding of mycobacterial diseases. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 96:111-125. [PMID: 30776420 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Few pathogens have shaped human medicine as the mycobacteria. From understanding biological phenomena driving disease spread, to mechanisms of host-pathogen interactions and antibiotic resistance, the Mycobacterium genus continues to challenge and offer insights into the basis of health and disease. Teleost fish models of mycobacterial infections have progressed significantly over the past three decades, now supplying a range of unique tools and new opportunities to define the strategies employed by these Gram-positive bacteria to overcome host defenses, as well as those host antimicrobial pathways that can be used to limit its growth and spread. Herein, we take a comparative perspective and provide an update on the contributions of teleost models to our understanding of mycobacterial diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan W Hodgkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Miodrag Belosevic
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Philip M Elks
- The Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, United Kingdom; Department of Infection and Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel R Barreda
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
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220
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Dewi DNSS, Mertaniasih NM, Soedarsono, Ozeki Y, Artama WT, Fihiruddin, Niki M, Tateishi Y, Ato M, Matsumoto S. Characteristic profile of antibody responses to PPD, ESAT-6, and CFP-10 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in pulmonary tuberculosis suspected cases in Surabaya, Indonesia. Braz J Infect Dis 2019; 23:246-253. [PMID: 31421107 PMCID: PMC9428029 DOI: 10.1016/j.bjid.2019.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate and rapid diagnostic tools are important aspects of managing tuberculosis (TB) cases appropriately. However, the sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic kits based on immune response such as the tuberculin skin test (TST) and interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) are still debated. Thus, the exploration and assessment of specific biomarker-targeted antibodies are needed for the development of an accurate and rapid diagnostic tool. The present study was conducted in patients with a respiratory problem suspected to be TB at Dr. Soetomo Hospital, Surabaya, Indonesia. Among 102 patients tested by GeneXpert and AFB, 59 serum samples were from cases retrospectively determined to have active TB. A total of 102 serum of healthy controls (HC) was also collected. The PPD antigen and the recombinant CFP-10 and ESAT-6 proteins were prepared. Antibody responses against these proteins were evaluated by ELISA. All samples were also screened for the possibility of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex (MAC) infection using Capilla MaC kit. The results showed that TB patients had a significantly higher concentration of IgG antibody in response to PPD than the HC. In addition, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed that PPD was acceptable for diagnostic purposes with an AUC value of 0.835 (95% CI 0.770-0.900, p < 0.0001). However, ESAT-6 and CFP-10 had low AUCs, and 32 samples from both groups showed a low concentration of IgA antibody against all antigens. The MAC detection results also showed that the concentration of IgA in the HC group was the highest. The current results indicate that PPD is a better antigen for antibody-based detection of TB than ESAT-6 and CFP-10. Based on the MAC detection assay, 53 people in the HC group were probably infected with rapidly growing nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), although antibody response to PPD was low.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ni Made Mertaniasih
- Universitas Airlangga, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, Surabaya, Indonesia; Universitas Airlangga, Institute of Tropical Disease, Laboratory of Tuberculosis, Surabaya, Indonesia.
| | - Soedarsono
- Universitas Airlangga, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pulmonology and Respiratory Medicine, Surabaya, Indonesia.
| | - Yuriko Ozeki
- Niigata University, School of Medicine, Department of Bacteriology, Niigata, Japan.
| | - Wayan Tunas Artama
- Universitas Gadjah Mada, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Yogyakarta, Indonesia; Universitas Gadjah Mada, One Health/Eco-health Resource Center, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
| | - Fihiruddin
- Universitas Gadjah Mada, Doctoral Program, Research Center of Biotechnology, Yogyakarta, Indonesia; Politeknik Kesehatan Mataram, Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Mataram, Indonesia.
| | - Mamiko Niki
- Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Department of Bacteriology, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Yoshitaka Tateishi
- Niigata University, School of Medicine, Department of Bacteriology, Niigata, Japan.
| | - Manabu Ato
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Department of Mycobacteriology, Leprosy Research Center, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Sohkichi Matsumoto
- Niigata University, School of Medicine, Department of Bacteriology, Niigata, Japan; Universitas Airlangga, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, Surabaya, Indonesia.
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221
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Zhou L, He ZG, Li W. AraR, an L-Arabinose-Responding Transcription Factor, Negatively Regulates Resistance of Mycobacterium smegmatis to Isoniazid. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2019; 84:540-552. [PMID: 31234768 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297919050080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
L-Arabinose is an important component of mycobacterial cell wall. L-Arabinose is involved in the synthesis of arabinogalactan, lipoarabinomannan, and other sugar compounds, which suggests that it can modulate cell wall permeability and drug resistance. However, whether L-arabinose affects mycobacterial antibiotic resistance and the underlying regulatory mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we characterized a new transcription factor of Mycobacterium smegmatis, AraR, that responds to L-arabinose and regulates mycobacterial sensitivity to isoniazid (INH). AraR specifically recognizes two conserved 15-bp motifs within the upstream regulatory region of the arabinose (araR) operon. AraR functions as a transcriptional repressor that negatively regulates araR expression. In contrast to the effect of AraR, overexpression of the araR operon contributes to the mycobacterial INH resistance. L-arabinose acts as an effector and derepresses transcriptional inhibition by AraR. The araR-deficient strain is more resistant to INH than the wild-type strain, whereas the araR-overexpressing strain is more sensitive to INH. Addition of L-arabinose to the medium can significantly increase the resistance to INH of the wild-type strain, but not of the araR knockout strain. Therefore, we identified a new L-arabinose-responding transcription factor and revealed its effect on the bacterial antibiotic resistance. These findings can provide new insights in the regulatory mechanisms mediated by sugar molecules and their relationship with drug resistance in mycobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Zhou
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Z-G He
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - W Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China. .,State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, China
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222
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van den Esker MH, Koets AP. Application of Transcriptomics to Enhance Early Diagnostics of Mycobacterial Infections, with an Emphasis on Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis. Vet Sci 2019; 6:vetsci6030059. [PMID: 31247942 PMCID: PMC6789504 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci6030059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacteria cause a wide variety of disease in human and animals. Species that infect ruminants include M. bovis and M. avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP). MAP is the causative agent of Johne’s disease in ruminants, which is a chronic granulomatous enteric infection that leads to severe economic losses worldwide. Characteristic of MAP infection is the long, latent phase in which intermittent shedding can take place, while diagnostic tests are unable to reliably detect an infection in this stage. This leads to unnoticed dissemination within herds and the presence of many undetected, silent carriers, which makes the eradication of Johne’s disease difficult. To improve the control of MAP infection, research is aimed at improving early diagnosis. Transcriptomic approaches can be applied to characterize host-pathogen interactions during infection, and to develop novel biomarkers using transcriptional profiles. Studies have focused on the identification of specific RNAs that are expressed in different infection stages, which will assist in the development and clinical implementation of early diagnostic tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marielle H van den Esker
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Ad P Koets
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands.
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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223
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Mendum TA, Chandran A, Williams K, Vordermeier HM, Villarreal-Ramos B, Wu H, Singh A, Smith AA, Butler RE, Prasad A, Bharti N, Banerjee R, Kasibhatla SM, Bhatt A, Stewart GR, McFadden J. Transposon libraries identify novel Mycobacterium bovis BCG genes involved in the dynamic interactions required for BCG to persist during in vivo passage in cattle. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:431. [PMID: 31138110 PMCID: PMC6540422 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5791-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND BCG is the most widely used vaccine of all time and remains the only licensed vaccine for use against tuberculosis in humans. BCG also protects other species such as cattle against tuberculosis, but due to its incompatibility with current tuberculin testing regimens remains unlicensed. BCG's efficacy relates to its ability to persist in the host for weeks, months or even years after vaccination. It is unclear to what degree this ability to resist the host's immune system is maintained by a dynamic interaction between the vaccine strain and its host as is the case for pathogenic mycobacteria. RESULTS To investigate this question, we constructed transposon mutant libraries in both BCG Pasteur and BCG Danish strains and inoculated them into bovine lymph nodes. Cattle are well suited to such an assay, as they are naturally susceptible to tuberculosis and are one of the few animal species for which a BCG vaccination program has been proposed. After three weeks, the BCG were recovered and the input and output libraries compared to identify mutants with in vivo fitness defects. Less than 10% of the mutated genes were identified as affecting in vivo fitness, they included genes encoding known mycobacterial virulence functions such as mycobactin synthesis, sugar transport, reductive sulphate assimilation, PDIM synthesis and cholesterol metabolism. Many other attenuating genes had not previously been recognised as having a virulence phenotype. To test these genes, we generated and characterised three knockout mutants that were predicted by transposon mutagenesis to be attenuating in vivo: pyruvate carboxylase, a hypothetical protein (BCG_1063), and a putative cyclopropane-fatty-acyl-phospholipid synthase. The knockout strains survived as well as wild type during in vitro culture and in bovine macrophages, yet demonstrated marked attenuation during passage in bovine lymph nodes confirming that they were indeed involved in persistence of BCG in the host. CONCLUSION These data show that BCG is far from passive during its interaction with the host, rather it continues to employ its remaining virulence factors, to interact with the host's innate immune system to allow it to persist, a property that is important for its protective efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom A. Mendum
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
| | - Aneesh Chandran
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
| | - Kerstin Williams
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
| | | | | | - H. Wu
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
| | - Albel Singh
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
| | - Alex A. Smith
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
| | - Rachel E. Butler
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
| | - Aravind Prasad
- HPC-Medical and Bioinformatics Applications Group, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Innovation Park, Panchavati, Pashan, Pune, Maharashtra 411008 India
| | - Neeraj Bharti
- HPC-Medical and Bioinformatics Applications Group, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Innovation Park, Panchavati, Pashan, Pune, Maharashtra 411008 India
| | - Ruma Banerjee
- HPC-Medical and Bioinformatics Applications Group, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Innovation Park, Panchavati, Pashan, Pune, Maharashtra 411008 India
| | - Sunitha M. Kasibhatla
- HPC-Medical and Bioinformatics Applications Group, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Innovation Park, Panchavati, Pashan, Pune, Maharashtra 411008 India
| | - Apoorva Bhatt
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
| | - Graham R. Stewart
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
| | - Johnjoe McFadden
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
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224
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Hauer A, Michelet L, Cochard T, Branger M, Nunez J, Boschiroli ML, Biet F. Accurate Phylogenetic Relationships Among Mycobacterium bovis Strains Circulating in France Based on Whole Genome Sequencing and Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Analysis. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:955. [PMID: 31130937 PMCID: PMC6509552 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years the diversity of the French Mycobacterium bovis population responsible for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) outbreaks since 1970 has been described in detail. To further understand bTB evolution in France, we used single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) based on whole genome sequence versus classical genotyping methods in order to identify accurate phylogenetic relationships between M. bovis strains. Whole genome sequencing was carried out on a selection of 87 strains which reflect the French M. bovis population’s genetic diversity. Sequences were compared to the M. bovis reference genome AF2122/97. Comparison among the 87 genomes revealed 9,170 sites where at least one strain shows a SNP with respect to the reference genome; 1,172 are intergenic and 7,998 in coding sequences, of which 2,880 are synonymous and 5,118 non-synonymous. SNP-based phylogenetic analysis using these 9,170 SNP is congruent with the cluster defined by spoligotyping and multilocus variable number of tandem repeat analysis typing. In addition, some SNPs were identified as specific to genotypic groups. These findings suggest new SNP targets that can be used for the development of high-resolving methods for genotyping as well as for studying M. bovis evolution and transmission patterns. The detection of non-synonymous SNPs on virulence genes enabled us to distinguish different clusters. Our results seem to indicate that genetically differentiated clusters could also display distinctive phenotypic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Hauer
- University Paris-Est - ANSES, French Reference Laboratory for Tuberculosis, Maisons-Alfort, France.,ISP, INRA, UMR 1282, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Lorraine Michelet
- University Paris-Est - ANSES, French Reference Laboratory for Tuberculosis, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | | | - Maxime Branger
- ISP, INRA, UMR 1282, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Javier Nunez
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Maria-Laura Boschiroli
- University Paris-Est - ANSES, French Reference Laboratory for Tuberculosis, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Franck Biet
- ISP, INRA, UMR 1282, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
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225
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Zhu J, Liu R, Cao N, Yu J, Liu X, Yu Z. Mycobacterial metabolic characteristics in a water meter biofilm revealed by metagenomics and metatranscriptomics. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 153:315-323. [PMID: 30739073 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacteria represent one of the most persistent bacterial populations in drinking water distribution system (DWDS) biofilm communities; however, mycobacterial in situ metabolic profiles are largely unknown. In this study, the metabolic characteristics of mycobacteria in a household water meter biofilm were unveiled using a coupled metagenomic/metatranscriptomic approach. The water meter biofilm appeared to express nitrogenase genes (nifDKH) and a full complement of genes coding for several carbon-fixation pathways, especially the Calvin cycle, suggesting the CO2 sequestration and dinitrogen fixation potential of the biofilm. These findings indicate that it may be difficult to prevent the formation of DWDS biofilms simply by controlling the availability of organic carbon or nitrogen. The composite genome of mycobacteria (CG-M) was reconstructed based on the obtained omics data. CG-M shared similar genome phylogeny and virulence-factor profiles with Mycobacterium avium complex, suggesting that population CG-M might represent a member of mycobacteria with pathogenicity. According to the gene expression patterns, population CG-M showed the metabolic potential to assimilate CO2 via the Calvin cycle and/or anaplerotic reactions, and even to grow autotrophically with CO as the sole carbon and energy source. This suggests that organic carbon may not be a limiting factor for mycobacterial growth in DWDSs. Moreover, our results suggest that mycobacterial aromatic degradation is primarily achieved through the catechol meta-cleavage pathway, and biofilm mycobacteria could prefer phosphate as the phosphorus source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junge Zhu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ruyin Liu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Nan Cao
- Beijing Waterworks Group, Beijing, China
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Research Center for Eco-environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xinchun Liu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhisheng Yu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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226
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Miryala SK, Anbarasu A, Ramaiah S. Impact of bedaquiline and capreomycin on the gene expression patterns of multidrug‐resistant
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
H37Rv strain and understanding the molecular mechanism of antibiotic resistance. J Cell Biochem 2019; 120:14499-14509. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.28711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sravan Kumar Miryala
- Department of Bio‐Sciences, Medical and Biological Computing Laboratory, School of Bio Sciences and Technology Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore Tamil Nadu India
| | - Anand Anbarasu
- Department of Bio‐Sciences, Medical and Biological Computing Laboratory, School of Bio Sciences and Technology Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore Tamil Nadu India
| | - Sudha Ramaiah
- Department of Bio‐Sciences, Medical and Biological Computing Laboratory, School of Bio Sciences and Technology Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore Tamil Nadu India
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227
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Wee WY, Dutta A, Jayaraj J, Choo SW. Comparative genome sequencing and analyses of Mycobacterium cosmeticum reveal potential for biodesulfization of gasoline. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0214663. [PMID: 30964891 PMCID: PMC6456199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium cosmeticum is a nontuberculous Mycobacterium recovered from different water sources including household potable water and water collected at nail salon. Individual cases of this bacterium have been reported to be associated with gastrointestinal tract infections. Here we present the first whole-genome study and comparative analysis of two new clinically-derived Mycobacterium sp. UM_RHS (referred as UM_RHS after this) and Mycobacterium sp. UM_NYF (referred as UM_NYF after this) isolated from patients in Indonesia and Malaysia respectively to have a better understanding of the biological characteristic of these isolates. Both strains are likely Mycobacterium cosmeticum as supported by the evidence from molecular phylogenetic, comparative genomic and Average Nucleotide Identity (ANI) analyses. We found the presence of a considerably large number of putative virulence genes in the genomes of UM_RHS and UM_NYF. Interestingly, we also found a horizontally transferred genomic island carrying a putative dsz operon proposing that they may have potential to perform biodesulfization of dibenzothiophene (DBT) that may be effective in cost reduction and air pollution during fuel combustion. This comparative study may provide new insights into M. cosmeticum and serve as an important reference for future functional studies of this bacterial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Yee Wee
- Monash University Malaysia, School of Science, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Avirup Dutta
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Human Genomics and Metagenomics in Metabolism, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Siew Woh Choo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou Dushu Lake Science and Education Innovation District, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, P. R. China
- Suzhou Genome Centre (SGC), Health Technologies University Research Centre (HT-URC), Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou Dushu Lake Science and Education Innovation District, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, P. R. China
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228
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Chen C, Yan Q, Tao M, Shi H, Han X, Jia L, Huang Y, Zhao L, Wang C, Ma X, Ma Y. Characterization of serine acetyltransferase (CysE) from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and inhibitory effect of two natural products on CysE. Microb Pathog 2019; 131:218-226. [PMID: 30974158 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major hospital-acquired infective pathogen that has developed resistance to many antibiotics. It is imperious to develop novel anti-MRSA drugs to control the emergence of drug resistance. The biosynthesis of cysteine in bacteria is catalyzed by CysE and CysK. CysE was predicted to be important for bacterial viability, it could be a potential drug target. The serine acetyltransferase activity of CysE was detected and its catalytic properties were also determined. CysE homology model was built to investigate interaction sites between CysE and substrate L-Ser or inhibitors by molecular docking. Docking data showed that residues Asp94 and His95 were essential for serine acetyltransferase activity of CysE, which were confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis. Colorimetric assay was used to screen natural products and six compounds which inhibited CysE activity (IC50 ranging from 29.83 μM to 203.13 μM) were found. Inhibition types of two compounds 4 (11-oxo-ebracteolatanolide B) and 30 ((4R,4aR)-dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-7,7,10a-trimethyl-2,4,4a,5,6,6a,7,8,9,10,10a,l0b-dodecahydrophenanthro[3,2-b]furan-2-one) on CysE were determined. Compounds 4 and 30 showed inhibitory effect on MRSA growth (MIC at 12.5 μg/ml and 25 μg/ml) and mature biofilm. The established colorimetric assay will facilitate further high-throughput screening of CysE inhibitors from different compound libraries. The compounds 4 and 30 may offer structural basis for developing new anti-MRSA drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changming Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Qiulong Yan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Mengxing Tao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Huaying Shi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Xiuyan Han
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Liqiu Jia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Yukun Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Lizhe Zhao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Chao Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Xiaochi Ma
- College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Yufang Ma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China.
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229
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Saelens JW, Viswanathan G, Tobin DM. Mycobacterial Evolution Intersects With Host Tolerance. Front Immunol 2019; 10:528. [PMID: 30967867 PMCID: PMC6438904 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past 200 years, tuberculosis (TB) has caused more deaths than any other infectious disease, likely infecting more people than it has at any other time in human history. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the etiologic agent of TB, is an obligate human pathogen that has evolved through the millennia to become an archetypal human-adapted pathogen. This review focuses on the evolutionary framework by which Mtb emerged as a specialized human pathogen and applies this perspective to the emergence of specific lineages that drive global TB burden. We consider how evolutionary pressures, including transmission dynamics, host tolerance, and human population patterns, may have shaped the evolution of diverse mycobacterial genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph W. Saelens
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Gopinath Viswanathan
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - David M. Tobin
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
- Department of Immunology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
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230
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Immunoscreening of the M. tuberculosis F15/LAM4/KZN secretome library against TB patients' sera identifies unique active- and latent-TB specific biomarkers. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2019; 115:161-170. [PMID: 30948172 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2019.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) protein biomarkers are urgently needed for the development of point-of-care diagnostics, new drugs and vaccines. Mycobacterium tuberculosis extracellular and secreted proteins play an important role in host-pathogen interactions. Antibodies produced against M. tuberculosis proteins before the onset of clinical symptoms can be used in proteomic studies to identify their target proteins. In this study, M. tuberculosis F15/LAM4/KZN strain phage secretome library was screened against immobilized polyclonal sera from active TB patients (n = 20), TST positive individuals (n = 15) and M. tuberculosis uninfected individuals (n = 20) to select and identify proteins recognized by patients' antibodies. DNA sequence analysis from randomly selected latent TB and active TB specific phage clones revealed 118 and 96 ORFs, respectively. Proteins essential for growth, virulence and metabolic pathways were identified using different TB databases. The identified active TB specific biomarkers included five proteins, namely, TrpG, Alr, TreY, BfrA and EspR, with no human homologs, whilst latent TB specific biomarkers included NarG, PonA1, PonA2 and HspR. Future studies will assess potential applications of identified protein biomarkers as TB drug or vaccine candidates/targets and diagnostic markers with the ability to discriminate LTBI from active TB.
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231
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Ample glycosylation in membrane and cell envelope proteins may explain the phenotypic diversity and virulence in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2927. [PMID: 30814666 PMCID: PMC6393673 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39654-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple regulatory mechanisms including post-translational modifications (PTMs) confer complexity to the simpler genomes and proteomes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). PTMs such as glycosylation play a significant role in Mtb adaptive processes. The glycoproteomic patterns of clinical isolates of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) representing the lineages 3, 4, 5 and 7 were characterized by mass spectrometry. A total of 2944 glycosylation events were discovered in 1325 proteins. This data set represents the highest number of glycosylated proteins identified in Mtb to date. O-glycosylation constituted 83% of the events identified, while 17% of the sites were N-glycosylated. This is the first report on N-linked protein glycosylation in Mtb and in Gram-positive bacteria. Collectively, the bulk of Mtb glycoproteins are involved in cell envelope biosynthesis, fatty acid and lipid metabolism, two-component systems, and pathogen-host interaction that are either surface exposed or located in the cell wall. Quantitative glycoproteomic analysis revealed that 101 sites on 67 proteins involved in Mtb fitness and survival were differentially glycosylated between the four lineages, among which 64% were cell envelope and membrane proteins. The differential glycosylation pattern may contribute to phenotypic variabilities across Mtb lineages. The study identified several clinically important membrane-associated glycolipoproteins that are relevant for diagnostics as well as for drug and vaccine discovery.
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232
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Rani N, Hazra S, Singh A, Surolia A. Functional annotation of putative fadE9 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis as isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase involved in valine catabolism. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 122:45-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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233
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Sarmiento ME, Alvarez N, Chin KL, Bigi F, Tirado Y, García MA, Anis FZ, Norazmi MN, Acosta A. Tuberculosis vaccine candidates based on mycobacterial cell envelope components. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2019; 115:26-41. [PMID: 30948174 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Even after decades searching for a new and more effective vaccine against tuberculosis, the scientific community is still pursuing this goal due to the complexity of its causative agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Mtb is a microorganism with a robust variety of survival mechanisms that allow it to remain in the host for years. The structure and nature of the Mtb envelope play a leading role in its resistance and survival. Mtb has a perfect machinery that allows it to modulate the immune response in its favor and to adapt to the host's environmental conditions in order to remain alive until the moment to reactivate its normal growing state. Mtb cell envelope protein, carbohydrate and lipid components have been the subject of interest for developing new vaccines because most of them are responsible for the pathogenicity and virulence of the bacteria. Many indirect evidences, mainly derived from the use of monoclonal antibodies, support the potential protective role of Mtb envelope components. Subunit and DNA vaccines, lipid extracts, liposomes and membrane vesicle formulations are some examples of technologies used, with encouraging results, to evaluate the potential of these antigens in the protective response against Mtb.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Sarmiento
- School of Health Sciences (PPSK), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - N Alvarez
- Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Public Health Research Institute, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - K L Chin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Therapeutic, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (FPSK), Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), Sabah, Malaysia
| | - F Bigi
- Institute of Biotechnology, INTA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Y Tirado
- Finlay Institute of Vaccines, La Habana, Cuba
| | - M A García
- Finlay Institute of Vaccines, La Habana, Cuba
| | - F Z Anis
- School of Health Sciences (PPSK), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - M N Norazmi
- School of Health Sciences (PPSK), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia.
| | - A Acosta
- School of Health Sciences (PPSK), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia.
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234
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Woodman M, Haeusler IL, Grandjean L. Tuberculosis Genetic Epidemiology: A Latin American Perspective. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10010053. [PMID: 30654542 PMCID: PMC6356704 DOI: 10.3390/genes10010053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
There are an estimated 10 million new cases of tuberculosis worldwide annually, with 282,000 new or relapsed cases each year reported from the Americas. With improvements in genome sequencing technology, it is now possible to study the genetic diversity of tuberculosis with much greater resolution. Although tuberculosis bacteria do not engage in horizontal gene transfer, the genome is far more variable than previously thought. The study of genome-wide variation in tuberculosis has improved our understanding of the evolutionary origins of tuberculosis, the arrival of tuberculosis in Latin America, the genetic determinants of drug resistance, and lineage-specific associations with important clinical phenotypes. This article reviews what is known about the arrival of tuberculosis in Latin America, the genetic diversity of tuberculosis in Latin America, and the genotypic determinants of clinical phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Woodman
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London WC1N 3JH, UK.
| | - Ilsa L Haeusler
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London WC1N 3JH, UK.
| | - Louis Grandjean
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London WC1N 3JH, UK.
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London W2 1NY, UK.
- Great Ormond Street Hospital, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London WC1N 3JH, UK.
- Laboratorio de Investigacion y Desarollo, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Av. Honorio Delgado 430, San Martin de Porres 15102, Lima, Peru.
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235
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Arthur PK, Amarh V, Cramer P, Arkaifie GB, Blessie EJS, Fuseini MS, Carilo I, Yeboah R, Asare L, Robertson BD. Characterization of Two New Multidrug-Resistant Strains of Mycobacterium smegmatis: Tools for Routine In Vitro Screening of Novel Anti-Mycobacterial Agents. Antibiotics (Basel) 2019; 8:antibiotics8010004. [PMID: 30609766 PMCID: PMC6466533 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics8010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a pathogen of global public health concern. This threat is exacerbated by the emergence of multidrug-resistant and extremely-drug-resistant strains of the pathogen. We have obtained two distinct clones of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium smegmatis after gradual exposure of Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2 155 to increasing concentrations of erythromycin. The resulting resistant strains of Mycobacterium smegmatis exhibited robust viability in the presence of high concentrations of erythromycin and were found to be resistant to a wide range of other antimicrobials. They also displayed a unique growth phenotype in comparison to the parental drug-susceptible Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2 155, and a distinct colony morphology in the presence of cholesterol. We propose that these two multidrug-resistant clones of Mycobacterium smegmatis could be used as model organisms at the inceptive phase of routine in vitro screening of novel antimicrobial agents targeted against multidrug-resistant Mycobacterial tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick K Arthur
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Vincent Amarh
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Precious Cramer
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Gloria B Arkaifie
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Ethel J S Blessie
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Mohammed-Sherrif Fuseini
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Isaac Carilo
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Rebecca Yeboah
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Leonard Asare
- West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 54, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Brian D Robertson
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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236
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Kolbe K, Veleti SK, Reiling N, Lindhorst TK. Lectins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis - rarely studied proteins. Beilstein J Org Chem 2019; 15:1-15. [PMID: 30680034 PMCID: PMC6334816 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.15.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of bacterial lectins for adhesion, pathogenicity, and biofilm formation is well established for many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. However, there is very little information available about lectins of the tuberculosis-causing bacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). In this paper we review previous studies on the carbohydrate-binding characteristics of mycobacteria and related Mtb proteins, discussing their potential relevance to Mtb infection and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Kolbe
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 33 North Drive, Bethesda, 20892, MD, United States
| | - Sri Kumar Veleti
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 33 North Drive, Bethesda, 20892, MD, United States
| | - Norbert Reiling
- Microbial Interface Biology, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, Parkallee 22, 23845 Borstel, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Borstel Site, 23845 Borstel, Germany
| | - Thisbe K Lindhorst
- Otto Diels Institute of Organic Chemistry, Christiana Albertina University of Kiel, Otto-Hahn-Platz 3-4, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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237
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Cell wall enrichment unveils proteomic changes in the cell wall during treatment of Mycobacterium smegmatis with sub-lethal concentrations of rifampicin. J Proteomics 2019; 191:166-179. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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238
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de Martino M, Lodi L, Galli L, Chiappini E. Immune Response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A Narrative Review. Front Pediatr 2019; 7:350. [PMID: 31508399 PMCID: PMC6718705 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2019.00350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The encounter between Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and the host leads to a complex and multifaceted immune response possibly resulting in latent infection, tubercular disease or to the complete clearance of the pathogen. Macrophages and CD4+ T lymphocytes, together with granuloma formation, are traditionally considered the pillars of immune defense against Mtb and their role stands out clearly. However, there is no component of the immune system that does not take part in the response to this pathogen. On the other side, Mtb displays a complex artillery of immune-escaping mechanisms capable of responding in an equally varied manner. In addition, the role of each cellular line has become discussed and uncertain further than ever before. Each defense mechanism is based on a subtle balance that, if altered, can lean to one side to favor Mtb proliferation, resulting in disease progression and on the other to the host tissue damage by the immune system itself. Through a brief and complete overview of the role of each cell type involved in the Mtb response, we aimed to highlight the main literature reviews and the most relevant studies in order to facilitate the approach to such a complex and changeable topic. In conclusion, this narrative mini-review summarizes the various immunologic mechanisms which modulate the individual ability to fight Mtb infection taking in account the major host and pathogen determinants in the susceptibility to tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lorenzo Lodi
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Luisa Galli
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Elena Chiappini
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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239
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Advani J, Verma R, Chatterjee O, Devasahayam Arokia Balaya R, Najar MA, Ravishankara N, Suresh S, Pachori PK, Gupta UD, Pinto SM, Chauhan DS, Tripathy SP, Gowda H, Prasad TK. Rise of Clinical Microbial Proteogenomics: A Multiomics Approach to Nontuberculous Mycobacterium—The Case ofMycobacterium abscessusUC22. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 23:1-16. [DOI: 10.1089/omi.2018.0116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jayshree Advani
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, India
- Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Renu Verma
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, India
| | - Oishi Chatterjee
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, India
- Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, India
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam, India
| | - Rex Devasahayam Arokia Balaya
- Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, India
| | - Mohd Altaf Najar
- Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, India
| | - Namitha Ravishankara
- Department of Biotechnology, M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
| | - Sneha Suresh
- Department of Biotechnology, M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
| | - Praveen Kumar Pachori
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, ICMR-National JALMA Institute for Leprosy & Other Mycobacterial Diseases, Agra, India
| | - Umesh D. Gupta
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, ICMR-National JALMA Institute for Leprosy & Other Mycobacterial Diseases, Agra, India
| | - Sneha M. Pinto
- Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, India
| | - Devendra S. Chauhan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, ICMR-National JALMA Institute for Leprosy & Other Mycobacterial Diseases, Agra, India
| | - Srikanth Prasad Tripathy
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, ICMR-National JALMA Institute for Leprosy & Other Mycobacterial Diseases, Agra, India
| | - Harsha Gowda
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, India
| | - T.S. Keshava Prasad
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, India
- Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, India
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240
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Shur KV, Bekker OB, Zaichikova MV, Maslov DA, Akimova NI, Zakharevich NV, Chekalina MS, Danilenko VN. Genetic Aspects of Drug Resistance and Virulence in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. RUSS J GENET+ 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s1022795418120141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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241
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Ufimtseva E, Eremeeva N, Bayborodin S, Umpeleva T, Vakhrusheva D, Skornyakov S. Mycobacterium tuberculosis with different virulence reside within intact phagosomes and inhibit phagolysosomal biogenesis in alveolar macrophages of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2018; 114:77-90. [PMID: 30711161 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2018.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a dangerous airborne disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and characterized by a tight interplay between pathogen and host cells, mainly alveolar macrophages. Studies of the mechanisms of Mtb survival within human cells during TB disease are extremely important for the development of new strategies and drugs for TB treatment. We have used the ex vivo cultures of alveolar macrophages and histological sections obtained from the resected lungs of patients with pulmonary TB to establish the unique features of Mtb lifestyle in host cells. Our data indicate that Mtb with different virulence, as single and in colonies, with or without cording morphology, are exclusively intravacuolar pathogens with intact phagosomal membranes in viable host cells of TB patients and Mtb-infected guinea pig. Mycobacteria were detected in the cytoplasm and/or damaged vacuoles only in alveolar macrophages with morphological signs of cell death after prolonged ex vivo culture, however Mtb were found inside phagosomes in viable alveolar macrophages or cells with apoptotic/necrotic morphology in the same ex vivo cell culture. The Mtb phagosomes interacted with human different endocytic pathways, but inhibited phagolysosomal biogenesis, while intracellular vesicles containing Mtb products were fused with lysosomes in the same host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Ufimtseva
- Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology, Research Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, 2 Timakova Street, 630117, Novosibirsk, Russia; Scientific Department, Ural Research Institute for Phthisiopulmonology, National Medical Research Center of Tuberculosis and Infectious Diseases of Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 50 XXII Partsyezda Street, 620039, Yekaterinburg, Russia.
| | - Natalya Eremeeva
- Scientific Department, Ural Research Institute for Phthisiopulmonology, National Medical Research Center of Tuberculosis and Infectious Diseases of Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 50 XXII Partsyezda Street, 620039, Yekaterinburg, Russia.
| | - Sergey Bayborodin
- Shared Center for Microscopic Analysis of Biological Objects, Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics, 10 Lavrentyeva Prospect, 630090, Novosibirsk, Russia.
| | - Tatiana Umpeleva
- Scientific Department, Ural Research Institute for Phthisiopulmonology, National Medical Research Center of Tuberculosis and Infectious Diseases of Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 50 XXII Partsyezda Street, 620039, Yekaterinburg, Russia.
| | - Diana Vakhrusheva
- Scientific Department, Ural Research Institute for Phthisiopulmonology, National Medical Research Center of Tuberculosis and Infectious Diseases of Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 50 XXII Partsyezda Street, 620039, Yekaterinburg, Russia.
| | - Sergey Skornyakov
- Scientific Department, Ural Research Institute for Phthisiopulmonology, National Medical Research Center of Tuberculosis and Infectious Diseases of Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 50 XXII Partsyezda Street, 620039, Yekaterinburg, Russia.
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242
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Magombedze G, Marino S. Mathematical and computational approaches in understanding the immunobiology of granulomatous diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coisb.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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243
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Rana A, Thakur S, Kumar G, Akhter Y. Recent Trends in System-Scale Integrative Approaches for Discovering Protective Antigens Against Mycobacterial Pathogens. Front Genet 2018; 9:572. [PMID: 30538722 PMCID: PMC6277634 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterial infections are one of the deadliest infectious diseases still posing a major health burden worldwide. The battle against these pathogens needs to focus on novel approaches and key interventions. In recent times, availability of genome scale data has revolutionized the fields of computational biology and immunoproteomics. Here, we summarize the cutting-edge ‘omics’ technologies and innovative system scale strategies exploited to mine the available data. These may be targeted using high-throughput technologies to expedite the identification of novel antigenic candidates for the rational next generation vaccines and serodiagnostic development against mycobacterial pathogens for which traditional methods have been failing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Rana
- School of Life Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Shahpur, India
| | - Shweta Thakur
- School of Life Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Shahpur, India
| | - Girish Kumar
- School of Life Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Shahpur, India
| | - Yusuf Akhter
- Department of Biotechnology, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India
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244
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis ClpC1 N-Terminal Domain Is Dispensable for Adaptor Protein-Dependent Allosteric Regulation. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19113651. [PMID: 30463272 PMCID: PMC6274998 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
ClpC1 hexamers couple the energy of ATP hydrolysis to unfold and, subsequently, translocate specific protein substrates into the associated ClpP protease. Substrate recognition by ATPases associated with various cellular activities (AAA+) proteases is driven by the ATPase component, which selectively determines protein substrates to be degraded. The specificity of these unfoldases for protein substrates is often controlled by an adaptor protein with examples that include MecA regulation of Bacillus subtilis ClpC or ClpS-mediated control of Escherichia coli ClpA. No adaptor protein-mediated control has been reported for mycobacterial ClpC1. Using pulldown and stopped-flow fluorescence methods, we report data demonstrating that Mycobacterium tuberculosis ClpC1 catalyzed unfolding of an SsrA-tagged protein is negatively impacted by association with the ClpS adaptor protein. Our data indicate that ClpS-dependent inhibition of ClpC1 catalyzed SsrA-dependent protein unfolding does not require the ClpC1 N-terminal domain but instead requires the presence of an interaction surface located in the ClpC1 Middle Domain. Taken together, our results demonstrate for the first time that mycobacterial ClpC1 is subject to adaptor protein-mediated regulation in vitro.
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245
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Bekale RB, Du Plessis SM, Hsu NJ, Sharma JR, Sampson SL, Jacobs M, Meyer M, Morse GD, Dube A. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis and Interactions with the Host Immune System: Opportunities for Nanoparticle Based Immunotherapeutics and Vaccines. Pharm Res 2018; 36:8. [PMID: 30411187 PMCID: PMC6362825 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-018-2528-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains a deadly infectious disease. The thin pipeline of new drugs for TB, the ineffectiveness in adults of the only vaccine available, i.e. the Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine, and increasing global antimicrobial resistance, has reinvigorated interest in immunotherapies. Nanoparticles (NPs) potentiate the effect of immune modulating compounds (IMC), enabling cell targeting, improved transfection of antigens, enhanced compound stability and provide opportunities for synergistic action, via delivery of multiple IMCs. In this review we describe work performed in the application of NPs towards achieving immune modulation for TB treatment and vaccination. Firstly, we present a comprehensive review of M. tuberculosis and how the bacterium modulates the host immune system. We find that current work suggest great promise of NP based immunotherapeutics as novel treatments and vaccination systems. There is need to intensify research efforts in this field, and rationally design novel NP immunotherapeutics based on current knowledge of the mycobacteriology and immune escape mechanisms employed by M. tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymonde B Bekale
- Discipline of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Su-Mari Du Plessis
- NRF-DST Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Nai-Jen Hsu
- Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jyoti R Sharma
- National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Samantha L Sampson
- NRF-DST Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Muazzam Jacobs
- Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Immunology of Infectious Disease Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Mervin Meyer
- DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre (NIC), Biolabels Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Gene D Morse
- AIDS Clinical Trials Group Pharmacology Specialty Laboratory, New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Admire Dube
- Discipline of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa.
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246
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Shokri M, Najafi R, Niromand J, Babazadeh A, Javanian M, Bayani M, Afra ZG, Ebrahimpour S. The frequency of risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis in tuberculosis patients in Babol, Northern Iran, during 2008-2015. CURRENT ISSUES IN PHARMACY AND MEDICAL SCIENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.1515/cipms-2018-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
In the current study, we investigated the risk factors for tuberculosis in patients admitted to the Ayatollah Rouhani Hospital in Babol, north of Iran. This cross-sectional study was conducted on 207 patients with proven tuberculosis during the years 2008-2015. Demographic data such as age and sex, smoking, history of underlying illness, illness symptoms, and laboratory results were collected and analyzed at a significant level of less than 0.05. From 207 patients, 136 were male (65.7%), 71 were female (34.3%), and 76 of them (37.3%) were smokers. It is notable that most patients (29.5%) were over the age of 71. The relation between age profile and being tuberculosis has been studied, but the co-relation was found to be not significant. The most common complaint has been coughing (60.9%).
While investigating underling diseases, the most common illness has found to be Diabetes (11.3%). Based our finding, there was a significant relationship between gender and smoking with tuberculosis. Accordingly, as smoking is one of the risk factors for tuberculosis, smokers and non-smokers should be informed that smoking carries the risk for tuberculosis. Such a program should be particularly addressed to males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehran Shokri
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute , Babol University of Medical Sciences , Babol , I.R. Iran
| | - Rahmatollah Najafi
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute , Babol University of Medical Sciences , Babol , I.R. Iran
| | - Jalal Niromand
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute , Babol University of Medical Sciences , Babol , I.R. Iran
| | - Arefeh Babazadeh
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute , Babol University of Medical Sciences , Babol , I.R. Iran
| | - Mostafa Javanian
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute , Babol University of Medical Sciences , Babol , I.R. Iran
| | - Masomeh Bayani
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute , Babol University of Medical Sciences , Babol , I.R. Iran
| | - Zahra Geraili Afra
- Department of Statistic and Epidmiology, School of Medicine , Babol University of Medical Sciences , Babol , I.R Iran
| | - Soheil Ebrahimpour
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute , Babol University of Medical Sciences , Babol , I.R. Iran
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247
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Ahmad I, Kudi CA, Magaji AA, Yakubu Y, Salisu MD, Shuaibu S, Daninna ZM. Disseminated tuberculosis in a cow and a dromedary bull-camel in Zamfara State in Nigeria. Vet Med Sci 2018; 5:93-98. [PMID: 30358174 PMCID: PMC6376141 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2017, cases of generalized tuberculosis (TB) were identified in a cow and a bull-camel, slaughtered at the Gusau abattoir in Zamfara State Nigeria. The objective of this study was to identify the cause of the gross pathology on the account of disseminated lesions widely distributed in different body parts of the animals. Tissue samples were analysed using Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) stain and region of difference (RD) deletion typing. Results obtained by laboratory investigations revealed infection with acid-fast tubercle bacilli in affected tissues from the cow and the dromedary bull-camel. This study presents the first molecular evidence of Mycobacterium bovis infection in a Nigerian dromedary camel, demonstrated the ease of identification of the acid-fast bacilli using molecular method which improves diagnosis and can aid epidemiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim Ahmad
- Directorate of Animal Health and Livestock Development, Gusau, Zamfara, Nigeria
| | - Caleb A Kudi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Zaria, Kaduna, Nigeria
| | - Abdullahi A Magaji
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Yusuf Yakubu
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Mansur D Salisu
- National Animal Production Research Institute, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Zaria, Kaduna, Nigeria
| | - Samuel Shuaibu
- Directorate of Animal Health and Livestock Development, Gusau, Zamfara, Nigeria
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248
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Vincent AT, Nyongesa S, Morneau I, Reed MB, Tocheva EI, Veyrier FJ. The Mycobacterial Cell Envelope: A Relict From the Past or the Result of Recent Evolution? Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2341. [PMID: 30369911 PMCID: PMC6194230 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacteria are well known for their taxonomic diversity, their impact on global health, and for their atypical cell wall and envelope. In addition to a cytoplasmic membrane and a peptidoglycan layer, the cell envelope of members of the order Corynebacteriales, which include Mycobacterium tuberculosis, also have an arabinogalactan layer connecting the peptidoglycan to an outer membrane, the so-called “mycomembrane.” This unusual cell envelope composition of mycobacteria is of prime importance for several physiological processes such as protection from external stresses and for virulence. Although there have been recent breakthroughs in the elucidation of the composition and organization of this cell envelope, its evolutionary origin remains a mystery. In this perspectives article, the characteristics of the cell envelope of mycobacteria with respect to other actinobacteria will be dissected through a molecular evolution framework in order to provide a panoramic view of the evolutionary pathways that appear to be at the origin of this unique cell envelope. In combination with a robust molecular phylogeny, we have assembled a gene matrix based on the presence or absence of key determinants of cell envelope biogenesis in the Actinobacteria phylum. We present several evolutionary scenarios regarding the origin of the mycomembrane. In light of the data presented here, we also propose a novel alternative hypothesis whereby the stepwise acquisition of core enzymatic functions may have allowed the sequential remodeling of the external cell membrane during the evolution of Actinobacteria and has led to the unique mycomembrane of slow-growing mycobacteria as we know it today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antony T Vincent
- INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, Bacterial Symbionts Evolution, Laval, QC, Canada.,McGill International TB Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sammy Nyongesa
- INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, Bacterial Symbionts Evolution, Laval, QC, Canada
| | - Isabelle Morneau
- Faculty of Dentistry, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Michael B Reed
- McGill International TB Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Elitza I Tocheva
- Faculty of Dentistry, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Frederic J Veyrier
- INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, Bacterial Symbionts Evolution, Laval, QC, Canada.,McGill International TB Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
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249
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Perumal J, Dinish US, Bendt AK, Kazakeviciute A, Fu CY, Ong ILH, Olivo M. Identification of mycolic acid forms using surface-enhanced Raman scattering as a fast detection method for tuberculosis. Int J Nanomedicine 2018; 13:6029-6038. [PMID: 30323590 PMCID: PMC6177374 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s171400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Tuberculosis (TB) is the ninth leading cause of death worldwide and the leading cause from a single infectious agent, based on the WHO Global Tuberculosis Report in 2017. TB causes massive health care burdens in many parts of the world, specifically in the resource constrained developing world. Most deaths from TB could be prevented with cost effective early diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Purpose Conventional TB detection methods are either too slow as it takes a few weeks for diagnosis or they lack the specificity and accuracy. Thus the objective of this study was to develop a fast and efficient detection for TB using surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) technique. Methods SERS spectra for different forms of mycolic acids (MAs) that are both synthetic origin and actual extracts from the mycobacteria species were obtained by label-free direct detection mode. Similarly, we collected SERS spectra for γ-irradiated whole bacteria (WB). Measurements were done using silver (Ag) coated silicon nanopillar (Ag SNP) as SERS substrate. Results We report the SERS based detection of MA, which is a biomarker for mycobacteria species including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. For the first time, we also establish the SERS spectral characterization of the three major forms of MA - αMA, methoxy-MA, and keto-MA, in bacterial extracts and also in γ-irradiated WB. We validated our findings by mass spectrometry. SERS detection of these three forms of MA could be useful in differentiating pathogenic and nonpathogenic Mycobacterium spp. Conclusions We have demonstrated the direct detection of three major forms of MA - αMA, methoxy-MA, and keto-MA, in two different types of MA extracts from MTB bacteria, namely delipidated MA and undelipidated MA and finally in γ-irradiated WB. In the near future, this study could pave the way for a fast and efficient detection method for TB, which is of high clinical significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayakumar Perumal
- Laboratory of Bio-optical Imaging, Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (ASTAR), Singapore, ;
| | - U S Dinish
- Laboratory of Bio-optical Imaging, Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (ASTAR), Singapore, ;
| | - Anne K Bendt
- Singapore Lipidomics Incubator, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Agne Kazakeviciute
- Laboratory of Bio-optical Imaging, Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (ASTAR), Singapore, ; .,Department of Statistical Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Chit Yaw Fu
- Laboratory of Bio-optical Imaging, Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (ASTAR), Singapore, ;
| | | | - Malini Olivo
- Laboratory of Bio-optical Imaging, Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (ASTAR), Singapore, ;
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250
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Manicheva OA, Dogonadze MZ, Melnikova NN, Vishnevskiy BI, Manichev SA. THE GROWTH RATE PHENOTYPIC PROPERTY OF MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS CLINICAL STRAINS: DEPENDENCE ON TUBERCULOSIS LOCALIZATION, TREATMENT, DRUG SUSCEPTIBILITY. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF INFECTION AND IMMUNITY 2018. [DOI: 10.15789/2220-7619-2018-2-175-186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The phenotypic properties of the M. tuberculosis strains obtained from patients with pulmonary or extra-pulmonary tuberculosis are determined by a complex set of factors: the genetic characteristics of the pathogen, its ability to adapt in vivo and in vitro, the influence of the host’s immune system and chemotherapy. The growth rate as the phenotypic property is the most accessible for the study of the host-pathogen relationships at the level of host/strain population interactions. The aim of the study is to assess in vitro of the growth rate of M. tuberculosis strains isolated from patients with pulmonary and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis: untreated and treated (with surgical and non-surgical treatment) and also sensitive and resistant isolates in comparison with the reference strain H37Rv. To estimate the growth rate of 116 clinical isolates we have used the modified method originally developed by von Groll and co-authors: to get the bacteria growth curve the fluorescence intensity of growing strains (with indicator resazurin) has been measured daily for 8 days in 96- well plate. The growth rate is determined as the slope of the growth curve. The mean values of the growth rate have been calculated in the following groups of patients: 1 — untreated patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (PT), respiratory material; 2 — non-surgical treated PT patients, respiratory material; 3 — surgical treated PT patients (mainly with chronic and hyperchronic process), respiratory material; 4 — patients like in 3rd group, surgical material; 5 — bone and joint tuberculosis (BJT), surgical material. In addition, groups of sensitive and resistant strains have been examined, but there are no significant differences in growth rates. It has been obtained that the growth rate of strains isolated from the PT patients is higher than in BJT patients: it can be explained less favorable conditions for the pathogen vegetation in the BJT. In the case of a closed tuberculous lesion where the pathogen transmission to another host is impossible, then the selection of strains with the property to survive in the tissues of the osteoarticular system is impossible too, therefor it should be observed only an adaptation of the pathogen strain population to the individual host. The growth rate of isolates from untreated PT patients is higher than that of the treated ones. Comparison of the growth parameters of only MDR strains 1–5 groups to eliminate the influence of the sensitivity/resistance has resulted in the same conclusions. We suggest that the decrease in the growth rate of strains from the treated PT patients is in not only result of the treatment, but also is conditioned by adaptation of the pathogen to its external environment, which is the internal environment of the macroorganism. To confirm this assumption, the bacterial load of 1,083 diagnostic specimens grouped in a similar manner has been estimated, taking into account only MDR/XDR strains. In the group of treated patients the frequency of high bacterial load (CFU ≥ 100) reached 52.5–63.8% that shows the conserved fitness of bacteria in such patients. The mean values of the growth rate of the strain H37Rv non-adapted to the macroorganism (due to numerous passages on artificial media) are higher than in all groups of clinical strains. Thus, heterogeneity of phenotypic properties of M. tuberculosis clinical strains on the basis of growth rate has been obtained. The growth rate of M. tuberculosis clinical strains is depended on the tuberculosis localization (PT, BJT) and on the joint effect of patient treatment and pathogen adaptation to the host.
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