251
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Daniel G, Moore DJ. Modeling LRRK2 Pathobiology in Parkinson's Disease: From Yeast to Rodents. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2015; 22:331-368. [PMID: 24850078 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2014_311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2, PARK8) gene represent the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) with autosomal dominant inheritance, whereas common variation at the LRRK2 genomic locus influences the risk of developing idiopathic PD. LRRK2 is a member of the ROCO protein family and contains multiple domains, including Ras-of-Complex (ROC) GTPase, kinase, and protein-protein interaction domains. In the last decade, the biochemical characterization of LRRK2 and the development of animal model s have provided important insight into the pathobiology of LRRK2. In this review, we comprehensively describe the different models employed to understand LRRK2-associated PD, including yeast, invertebrates, transgenic and viral-based rodents, and patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells. We discuss how these models have contributed to understanding LRRK2 pathobiology and the advantages and limitations of each model for exploring aspects of LRRK2-associated PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Daniel
- School of Life Sciences, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
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252
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Phosphorylation of LRRK2 by casein kinase 1α regulates trans-Golgi clustering via differential interaction with ARHGEF7. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5827. [PMID: 25500533 PMCID: PMC4268884 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
LRRK2, a gene relevant to Parkinson's disease, encodes a scaffolding protein with both GTPase and kinase activities. LRRK2 protein is itself phosphorylated and therefore subject to regulation by cell signaling but the kinase(s) responsible for this event have not been definitively identified. Here, using an unbiased siRNA kinome screen, we identify and validate casein kinase 1α (CK1α) as being responsible for LRRK2 phosphorylation, including in the adult mouse striatum. We further show that LRRK2 recruitment to TGN46-positive Golgi-derived vesicles is modulated by constitutive LRRK2 phosphorylation by CK1α. These effects are mediated by differential protein interactions of LRRK2 with a guanine nucleotide exchange factor, ARHGEF7. These pathways are therefore likely involved in the physiological maintenance of the Golgi in cells, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.
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253
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West AB. Ten years and counting: moving leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 inhibitors to the clinic. Mov Disord 2014; 30:180-9. [PMID: 25448543 PMCID: PMC4318704 DOI: 10.1002/mds.26075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The burden that Parkinson's disease (PD) exacts on the population continues to increase year after year. Though refinement of symptomatic treatments continues at a reasonable pace, no accepted therapies are available to slow or prevent disease progression. The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene was identified in PD genetic studies and offers new hope for novel therapeutic approaches. The evidence linking LRRK2 kinase activity to PD susceptibility is presented, as well as seminal discoveries relevant to the prosecution of LRRK2 kinase inhibition. Finally, suggestions are made for predictive preclinical modeling and successful first-in-human trials. © 2014 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B West
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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254
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Henderson JL, Kormos BL, Hayward MM, Coffman KJ, Jasti J, Kurumbail RG, Wager TT, Verhoest PR, Noell GS, Chen Y, Needle E, Berger Z, Steyn SJ, Houle C, Hirst WD, Galatsis P. Discovery and preclinical profiling of 3-[4-(morpholin-4-yl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-5-yl]benzonitrile (PF-06447475), a highly potent, selective, brain penetrant, and in vivo active LRRK2 kinase inhibitor. J Med Chem 2014; 58:419-32. [PMID: 25353650 DOI: 10.1021/jm5014055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has been genetically linked to Parkinson's disease (PD) by genome-wide association studies (GWAS). The most common LRRK2 mutation, G2019S, which is relatively rare in the total population, gives rise to increased kinase activity. As such, LRRK2 kinase inhibitors are potentially useful in the treatment of PD. We herein disclose the discovery and optimization of a novel series of potent LRRK2 inhibitors, focusing on improving kinome selectivity using a surrogate crystallography approach. This resulted in the identification of 14 (PF-06447475), a highly potent, brain penetrant and selective LRRK2 inhibitor which has been further profiled in in vivo safety and pharmacodynamic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn L Henderson
- Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Neuroscience Research Unit, and §Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer Worldwide R&D , 610 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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255
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Taymans JM, Baekelandt V. Phosphatases of α-synuclein, LRRK2, and tau: important players in the phosphorylation-dependent pathology of Parkinsonism. Front Genet 2014; 5:382. [PMID: 25426138 PMCID: PMC4224088 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2014.00382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
An important challenge in the field of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is to develop disease modifying therapies capable of stalling or even halting disease progression. Coupled to this challenge is the need to identify disease biomarkers, in order to identify pre-symptomatic hallmarks of disease and monitor disease progression. The answer to these challenges lies in the elucidation of the molecular causes underlying PD, for which important leads are disease genes identified in studies investigating the underlying genetic causes of PD. LRRK2 and α-syn have been both linked to familial forms of PD as well as associated to sporadic PD. Another gene, microtubule associated protein tau (MAPT), has been genetically linked to a dominant form of frontotemporal dementia and parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17) and genome-wide association studies report a strong association between MAPT and sporadic PD. Interestingly, LRRK2, α-syn, and tau are all phosphorylated proteins, and their phosphorylation patterns are linked to disease. In this review, we provide an overview of the evidence linking LRRK2, α-syn, and tau phosphorylation to PD pathology and focus on studies which have identified phosphatases responsible for dephosphorylation of pathology-related phosphorylations. We also discuss how the LRRK2, α-syn, and tau phosphatases may point to separate or cross-talking pathological pathways in PD. Finally, we will discuss how the study of phosphatases of dominant Parkinsonism proteins opens perspectives for targeting pathological phosphorylation events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Taymans
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Veerle Baekelandt
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
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256
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Dzamko N, Geczy CL, Halliday GM. Inflammation is genetically implicated in Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2014; 302:89-102. [PMID: 25450953 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Revised: 10/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation has long been associated with the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) but the extent to which it is a cause or consequence is sill debated. Over the past decade a number of genes have been implicated in PD. Relatively rare missense mutations in genes such as LRRK2, Parkin, SNCA and PINK1 are causative for familial PD whereas more common variation in genes, including LRRK2, SNCA and GBA, comprise risk factors for sporadic PD. Determining how the function of these genes and the proteins they encode are altered in PD has become a priority, as results will likely provide much needed insights into contributing causes. Accumulating evidence indicates that many of these genes function in pathways that regulate aspects of immunity, particularly inflammation, suggesting close associations between PD and immune homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW 2031, Australia.
| | - C L Geczy
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - G M Halliday
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW 2031, Australia.
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257
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Rudenko IN, Cookson MR. Heterogeneity of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 mutations: genetics, mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Neurotherapeutics 2014; 11:738-50. [PMID: 24957201 PMCID: PMC4391379 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-014-0284-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Variation within and around the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene is associated with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). Here, we discuss the prevalence of LRRK2 substitutions in different populations and their association with PD, as well as molecular and cellular mechanisms of pathologically relevant LRRK2 mutations. Kinase activation was proposed as a universal molecular mechanism for all pathogenic LRRK2 mutations, but later reports revealed heterogeneity in the effect of mutations on different activities of LRRK2. One mutation (G2019S) increases kinase activity, whereas mutations in the Ras of complex proteins (ROC)-C-terminus of ROC (COR) bidomain impair the GTPase function of LRRK2. Some risk factor variants, including G2385R in the WD40 domain, actually decrease the kinase activity of LRRK2. We suggest a model where LRRK2 mutations exert different molecular mechanisms but interfere with normal cellular function of LRRK2 at different levels of the same downstream pathway. Finally, we discuss the current state of therapeutic approaches for LRRK2-related PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iakov N. Rudenko
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Mark R. Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
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258
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Novel insights into the neurobiology underlying LRRK2-linked Parkinson's disease. Neuropharmacology 2014; 85:45-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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259
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Liu Z, Galemmo RA, Fraser KB, Moehle MS, Sen S, Volpicelli-Daley LA, DeLucas LJ, Ross LJ, Valiyaveettil J, Moukha-Chafiq O, Pathak AK, Ananthan S, Kezar H, White EL, Gupta V, Maddry JA, Suto MJ, West AB. Unique functional and structural properties of the LRRK2 protein ATP-binding pocket. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:32937-51. [PMID: 25228699 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.602318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic mutations in the LRRK2 gene can cause late-onset Parkinson disease. The most common mutation, G2019S, resides in the kinase domain and enhances activity. LRRK2 possesses the unique property of cis-autophosphorylation of its own GTPase domain. Because high-resolution structures of the human LRRK2 kinase domain are not available, we used novel high-throughput assays that measured both cis-autophosphorylation and trans-peptide phosphorylation to probe the ATP-binding pocket. We disclose hundreds of commercially available activity-selective LRRK2 kinase inhibitors. Some compounds inhibit cis-autophosphorylation more strongly than trans-peptide phosphorylation, and other compounds inhibit G2019S-LRRK2 more strongly than WT-LRRK2. Through exploitation of structure-activity relationships revealed through high-throughput analyses, we identified a useful probe inhibitor, SRI-29132 (11). SRI-29132 is exquisitely selective for LRRK2 kinase activity and is effective in attenuating proinflammatory responses in macrophages and rescuing neurite retraction phenotypes in neurons. Furthermore, the compound demonstrates excellent potency, is highly blood-brain barrier-permeant, but suffers from rapid first-pass metabolism. Despite the observed selectivity of SRI-29132, docking models highlighted critical interactions with residues conserved in many protein kinases, implying a unique structural configuration for the LRRK2 ATP-binding pocket. Although the human LRRK2 kinase domain is unstable and insoluble, we demonstrate that the LRRK2 homolog from ameba can be mutated to approximate some aspects of the human LRRK2 ATP-binding pocket. Our results provide a rich resource for LRRK2 small molecule inhibitor development. More broadly, our results provide a precedent for the functional interrogation of ATP-binding pockets when traditional approaches to ascertain structure prove difficult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Liu
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and Center for Biophysical Sciences and Engineering, Department of Optometry, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 and
| | - Robert A Galemmo
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Kyle B Fraser
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
| | - Mark S Moehle
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
| | - Saurabh Sen
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
| | - Laura A Volpicelli-Daley
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
| | - Lawrence J DeLucas
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Larry J Ross
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Jacob Valiyaveettil
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Omar Moukha-Chafiq
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Ashish K Pathak
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Subramaniam Ananthan
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Hollis Kezar
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - E Lucile White
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Vandana Gupta
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Joseph A Maddry
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Mark J Suto
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Andrew B West
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
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260
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Genetic and pharmacological evidence that G2019S LRRK2 confers a hyperkinetic phenotype, resistant to motor decline associated with aging. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 71:62-73. [PMID: 25107341 PMCID: PMC4194318 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 mutation G2019S in the kinase-domain is the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease. To investigate the impact of the G2019S mutation on motor activity in vivo, a longitudinal phenotyping approach was developed in knock-in (KI) mice bearing this kinase-enhancing mutation. Two cohorts of G2019S KI mice and wild-type littermates (WT) were subjected to behavioral tests, specific for akinesia, bradykinesia and overall gait ability, at different ages (3, 6, 10, 15 and 19 months). The motor performance of G2019S KI mice remained stable up to the age of 19 months and did not show the typical age-related decline in immobility time and stepping activity of WT. Several lines of evidence suggest that enhanced LRRK2 kinase activity is the main contributor to the observed hyperkinetic phenotype of G2019S KI mice: i) KI mice carrying a LRRK2 kinase-dead mutation (D1994S KD) showed a similar progressive motor decline as WT; ii) two LRRK2 kinase inhibitors, H-1152 and Nov-LRRK2-11, acutely reversed the hyperkinetic phenotype of G2019S KI mice, while being ineffective in WT or D1994S KD animals. LRRK2 target engagement in vivo was further substantiated by reduction of LRRK2 phosphorylation at Ser935 in the striatum and cortex at efficacious doses of Nov-LRRK2-11, and in the striatum at efficacious doses of H-1152. In summary, expression of the G2019S mutation in the mouse LRRK2 gene confers a hyperkinetic phenotype that is resistant to age-related motor decline, likely via enhancement of LRRK2 kinase activity. This study provides an in vivo model to investigate the effects of LRRK2 inhibitors on motor function. The LRRK2 G2019S mutation confers a hyperkinetic phenotype. The LRRK2 D1994S kinase-dead mutation does not affect motor phenotype. The LRRK2 kinase inhibitors reverse motor phenotype of G2019S mice. The LRRK2 kinase inhibitors inhibit LRRK2 phosphorylation at Ser935 ex-vivo.
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261
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Dzamko N, Zhou J, Huang Y, Halliday GM. Parkinson's disease-implicated kinases in the brain; insights into disease pathogenesis. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:57. [PMID: 25009465 PMCID: PMC4068290 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Substantial evidence implicates abnormal protein kinase function in various aspects of Parkinson’s disease (PD) etiology. Elevated phosphorylation of the PD-defining pathological protein, α-synuclein, correlates with its aggregation and toxic accumulation in neurons, whilst genetic missense mutations in the kinases PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2, increase susceptibility to PD. Experimental evidence also links kinases of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways, amongst others, to PD. Understanding how the levels or activities of these enzymes or their substrates change in brain tissue in relation to pathological states can provide insight into disease pathogenesis. Moreover, understanding when and where kinase dysfunction occurs is important as modulation of some of these signaling pathways can potentially lead to PD therapeutics. This review will summarize what is currently known in regard to the expression of these PD-implicated kinases in pathological human postmortem brain tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales Kensington, NSW, Australia ; Neuroscience Research Australia Randwick, NSW, Australia
| | - Jinxia Zhou
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales Kensington, NSW, Australia ; Neuroscience Research Australia Randwick, NSW, Australia
| | - Yue Huang
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales Kensington, NSW, Australia ; Neuroscience Research Australia Randwick, NSW, Australia
| | - Glenda M Halliday
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales Kensington, NSW, Australia ; Neuroscience Research Australia Randwick, NSW, Australia
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262
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Reynolds A, Doggett EA, Riddle SM, Lebakken CS, Nichols RJ. LRRK2 kinase activity and biology are not uniformly predicted by its autophosphorylation and cellular phosphorylation site status. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:54. [PMID: 25009464 PMCID: PMC4068021 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Missense mutations in the Leucine-Rich Repeat protein Kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most common genetic predisposition to develop Parkinson's disease (PD) (Farrer et al., 2005; Skipper et al., 2005; Di Fonzo et al., 2006; Healy et al., 2008; Paisan-Ruiz et al., 2008; Lesage et al., 2010). LRRK2 is a large multi-domain phosphoprotein with a GTPase domain and a serine/threonine protein kinase domain whose activity is implicated in neuronal toxicity; however the precise mechanism is unknown. LRRK2 autophosphorylates on several serine/threonine residues across the enzyme and is found constitutively phosphorylated on Ser910, Ser935, Ser955, and Ser973, which are proposed to be regulated by upstream kinases. Here we investigate the phosphoregulation at these sites by analyzing the effects of disease-associated mutations Arg1441Cys, Arg1441Gly, Ala1442Pro, Tyr1699Cys, Ile2012Thr, Gly2019Ser, and Ile2020Thr. We also studied alanine substitutions of phosphosite serines 910, 935, 955, and 973 and specific LRRK2 inhibition on autophosphorylation of LRRK2 Ser1292, Thr1491, Thr2483 and phosphorylation at the cellular sites. We found that mutants in the Roc-COR domains, including Arg1441Cys, Arg1441His, Ala1442Pro, and Tyr1699Cys, can positively enhance LRRK2 kinase activity, while concomitantly inducing the dephosphorylation of the cellular sites. Mutation of the cellular sites individually did not affect LRRK2 intrinsic kinase activity; however, Ser910/935/955/973Ala mutations trended toward increased kinase activity of LRRK2. Increased cAMP levels did not lead to increased LRRK2 cellular site phosphorylation, 14-3-3 binding or kinase activity. In cells, inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity leads to dephosphorylation of Ser1292 by Calyculin A and Okadaic acid sensitive phosphatases, while the cellular sites are dephosphorylated by Calyculin A sensitive phosphatases. These findings indicate that comparative analysis of both Ser1292 and Ser910/935/955/973 phosphorylation sites will provide important and distinct measures of LRRK2 kinase and biological activity in vitro and in vivo.
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263
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Mamais A, Chia R, Beilina A, Hauser DN, Hall C, Lewis PA, Cookson MR, Bandopadhyay R. Arsenite stress down-regulates phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), promoting self-association and cellular redistribution. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:21386-400. [PMID: 24942733 PMCID: PMC4118103 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.528463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a common genetic cause of Parkinson disease, but the mechanisms whereby LRRK2 is regulated are unknown. Phosphorylation of LRRK2 at Ser910/Ser935 mediates interaction with 14-3-3. Pharmacological inhibition of its kinase activity abolishes Ser910/Ser935 phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding, and this effect is also mimicked by pathogenic mutations. However, physiological situations where dephosphorylation occurs have not been defined. Here, we show that arsenite or H2O2-induced stresses promote loss of Ser910/Ser935 phosphorylation, which is reversed by phosphatase inhibition. Arsenite-induced dephosphorylation is accompanied by loss of 14-3-3 binding and is observed in wild type, G2019S, and kinase-dead D2017A LRRK2. Arsenite stress stimulates LRRK2 self-association and association with protein phosphatase 1α, decreases kinase activity and GTP binding in vitro, and induces translocation of LRRK2 to centrosomes. Our data indicate that signaling events induced by arsenite and oxidative stress may regulate LRRK2 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adamantios Mamais
- From the Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom, the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom, the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892,
| | - Ruth Chia
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, the Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20057
| | - Alexandra Beilina
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - David N Hauser
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, the Brown University/National Institutes of Health Graduate Partnership Program, Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, and
| | - Christine Hall
- the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom, the School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AP, United Kingdom
| | - Mark R Cookson
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Rina Bandopadhyay
- From the Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom, the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom,
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264
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Esteves AR, Swerdlow RH, Cardoso SM. LRRK2, a puzzling protein: insights into Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Exp Neurol 2014; 261:206-16. [PMID: 24907399 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large, ubiquitous protein of unknown function. Mutations in the gene encoding LRRK2 have been linked to familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) cases. The LRRK2 protein is a single polypeptide that displays GTPase and kinase activity. Kinase and GTPase domains are involved in different cellular signaling pathways. Despite several experimental studies associating LRRK2 protein with various intracellular membranes and vesicular structures such as endosomal/lysosomal compartments, the mitochondrial outer membrane, lipid rafts, microtubule-associated vesicles, the golgi complex, and the endoplasmic reticulum its broader physiologic function(s) remain unidentified. Additionally, the cellular distribution of LRRK2 may indicate its role in several different pathways, such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the autophagic-lysosomal pathway, intracellular trafficking, and mitochondrial dysfunction. This review discusses potential mechanisms through which LRRK2 may mediate neurodegeneration and cause PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Raquel Esteves
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Russell H Swerdlow
- University of Kansas Alzheimer's Disease Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Sandra M Cardoso
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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265
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Cirnaru MD, Marte A, Belluzzi E, Russo I, Gabrielli M, Longo F, Arcuri L, Murru L, Bubacco L, Matteoli M, Fedele E, Sala C, Passafaro M, Morari M, Greggio E, Onofri F, Piccoli G. LRRK2 kinase activity regulates synaptic vesicle trafficking and neurotransmitter release through modulation of LRRK2 macro-molecular complex. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:49. [PMID: 24904275 PMCID: PMC4034499 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are associated with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 is a complex protein that consists of multiple domains executing several functions, including GTP hydrolysis, kinase activity, and protein binding. Robust evidence suggests that LRRK2 acts at the synaptic site as a molecular hub connecting synaptic vesicles to cytoskeletal elements via a complex panel of protein-protein interactions. Here we investigated the impact of pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity on synaptic function. Acute treatment with LRRK2 inhibitors reduced the frequency of spontaneous currents, the rate of synaptic vesicle trafficking and the release of neurotransmitter from isolated synaptosomes. The investigation of complementary models lacking LRRK2 expression allowed us to exclude potential off-side effects of kinase inhibitors on synaptic functions. Next we studied whether kinase inhibition affects LRRK2 heterologous interactions. We found that the binding among LRRK2, presynaptic proteins and synaptic vesicles is affected by kinase inhibition. Our results suggest that LRRK2 kinase activity influences synaptic vesicle release via modulation of LRRK2 macro-molecular complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria D Cirnaru
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute and Vita-Salute University Milan, Italy ; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marte
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genova Genova, Italy
| | - Elisa Belluzzi
- Department of Biology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Isabella Russo
- Department of Biology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Martina Gabrielli
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy ; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Longo
- Department of Medical Science and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy
| | - Ludovico Arcuri
- Department of Medical Science and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy
| | - Luca Murru
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy
| | - Luigi Bubacco
- Department of Biology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Michela Matteoli
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan Milan, Italy ; Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Pharmacology and Brain Pathology Rozzano, Italy
| | - Ernesto Fedele
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa Genoa, Italy
| | - Carlo Sala
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy ; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Passafaro
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy
| | - Michele Morari
- Department of Medical Science and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy
| | - Elisa Greggio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Franco Onofri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genova Genova, Italy
| | - Giovanni Piccoli
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute and Vita-Salute University Milan, Italy ; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy
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266
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Lack of correlation between the kinase activity of LRRK2 harboring kinase-modifying mutations and its phosphorylation at Ser910, 935, and Ser955. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97988. [PMID: 24836358 PMCID: PMC4024040 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 04/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is extensively phosphorylated in cells within a region amino-terminal to the leucine-rich repeat domain. Since phosphorylation in this region of LRRK2, including Ser910, Ser935, Ser955, and Ser973, is significantly downregulated upon treatment with inhibitors of LRRK2, it has been hypothesized that signaling pathways downstream of the kinase activity of LRRK2 are involved in regulating the phosphorylation of LRRK2, although the precise mechanism has remained unknown. Here we examined the effects of LRRK2 inhibitors on the phosphorylation state at Ser910, Ser935, and Ser955 in a series of kinase-inactive mutants of LRRK2. We found that the responses of LRRK2 to the inhibitors varied among mutants, in a manner not consistent with the above-mentioned hypothesis. Notably, one of the kinase-inactive mutants, T2035A LRRK2, underwent phosphorylation, as well as the inhibitor-induced dephosphorylation, at Ser910, Ser935, and Ser955, to a similar extent to those observed with wild-type LRRK2. These results suggest that the kinase activity of LRRK2 is not involved in the common mechanism of inhibitor-induced dephosphorylation of LRRK2.
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267
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Ray S, Bender S, Kang S, Lin R, Glicksman MA, Liu M. The Parkinson disease-linked LRRK2 protein mutation I2020T stabilizes an active state conformation leading to increased kinase activity. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:13042-53. [PMID: 24695735 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.537811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mutation I2020T on its kinase activity has been controversial, with both increased and decreased effects being reported. We conducted steady-state and pre-steady-state kinetic studies on LRRKtide and its analog LRRKtide(S). Their phosphorylation differs by the rate-limiting steps: product release is rate-limiting for LRRKtide and phosphoryl transfer is rate-limiting for LRRKtide(S). As a result, we observed that the I2020T mutant is more active than wild type (WT) LRRK2 for LRRKtide(S) phosphorylation, whereas it is less active than WT for LRRKtide phosphorylation. Our pre-steady-state kinetic data suggest that (i) the I2020T mutant accelerates the rates of phosphoryl transfer of both reactions by 3-7-fold; (ii) this increase is masked by a rate-limiting product release step for LRRKtide phosphorylation; and (iii) the observed lower activity of the mutant for LRRKtide phosphorylation is a consequence of its instability: the concentration of the active form of the mutant is 3-fold lower than WT. The I2020T mutant has a dramatically low KATP and therefore leads to resistance to ATP competitive inhibitors. Two well known DFG-out or type II inhibitors are also weaker toward the mutant because they inhibit the mutant in an unexpected ATP competitive mechanism. The I2020 residue lies next to the DYG motif of the activation loop of the LRRK2 kinase domain. Our modeling and metadynamic simulations suggest that the I2020T mutant stabilizes the DYG-in active conformation and creates an unusual allosteric pocket that can bind type II inhibitors but in an ATP competitive fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya Ray
- From the Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, and
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268
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Silva RG, Geoghegan KF, Qiu X, Aulabaugh A. A continuous and direct assay to monitor leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 activity. Anal Biochem 2014; 450:63-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2014.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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269
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Schapansky J, Nardozzi JD, Felizia F, LaVoie MJ. Membrane recruitment of endogenous LRRK2 precedes its potent regulation of autophagy. Hum Mol Genet 2014; 23:4201-14. [PMID: 24682598 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddu138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial and idiopathic Parkinson's disease. However, the mechanisms for activating its physiological function are not known, hindering identification of the biological role of endogenous LRRK2. The recent discovery that LRRK2 is highly expressed in cells of the innate immune system and genetic association is a risk factor for autoimmune disorders implies an important role for LRRK2 in pathology outside of the central nervous system. Thus, an examination of endogenous LRRK2 in immune cells could provide insight into the protein's function. Here, we establish that stimulation of specific Toll-like receptors results in a complex biochemical activation of endogenous LRRK2, with early phosphorylation of LRRK2 preceding its dimerization and membrane translocation. Membrane-associated LRRK2 co-localized to autophagosome membranes following either TLR4 stimulation or mTOR inhibition with rapamycin. Silencing of endogenous LRRK2 expression resulted in deficits in the induction of autophagy and clearance of a well-described macroautophagy substrate, demonstrating the critical role of endogenous LRRK2 in regulating autophagy. Inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity also reduced autophagic degradation and suggested the importance of the kinase domain in the regulation of autophagy. Our results demonstrate a well-orchestrated series of biochemical events involved in the activation of LRRK2 important to its physiological function. With similarities observed across multiple cell types and stimuli, these findings are likely relevant in all cell types that natively express endogenous LRRK2, and provide insights into LRRK2 function and its role in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Schapansky
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jonathan D Nardozzi
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Matthew J LaVoie
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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270
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LRRK2 and neuroinflammation: partners in crime in Parkinson's disease? J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:52. [PMID: 24655756 PMCID: PMC3994422 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It is now well established that chronic inflammation is a prominent feature of several neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson’s disease (PD). Growing evidence indicates that neuroinflammation can contribute greatly to dopaminergic neuron degeneration and progression of the disease. Recent literature highlights that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), a kinase mutated in both autosomal-dominantly inherited and sporadic PD cases, modulates inflammation in response to different pathological stimuli. In this review, we outline the state of the art of LRRK2 functions in microglia cells and in neuroinflammation. Furthermore, we discuss the potential role of LRRK2 in cytoskeleton remodeling and vesicle trafficking in microglia cells under physiological and pathological conditions. We also hypothesize that LRRK2 mutations might sensitize microglia cells toward a pro-inflammatory state, which in turn results in exacerbated inflammation with consequent neurodegeneration.
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271
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Mills RD, Mulhern TD, Liu F, Culvenor JG, Cheng HC. Prediction of the Repeat Domain Structures and Impact of Parkinsonism-Associated Variations on Structure and Function of all Functional Domains of Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2). Hum Mutat 2014; 35:395-412. [DOI: 10.1002/humu.22515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan D. Mills
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute; University of Melbourne; Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Terrence D. Mulhern
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute; University of Melbourne; Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Fei Liu
- Department of Chemistry & Biomolecular Sciences; Macquarie University; NSW Australia
| | - Janetta G. Culvenor
- Department of Pathology; University of Melbourne; Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Heung-Chin Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute; University of Melbourne; Parkville Victoria Australia
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272
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Abstract
Wingless/Int (Wnt) signaling pathways are signal transduction mechanisms that have been widely studied in the field of embryogenesis. Recent work has established a critical role for these pathways in brain development, especially of midbrain dopaminergic neurones. However, the fundamental importance of Wnt signaling for the normal function of mature neurones in the adult central nervous system has also lately been demonstrated by an increasing number of studies. Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease worldwide and is currently incurable. This debilitating disease is characterized by the progressive loss of a subset of midbrain dopaminergic neurones in the substantia nigra leading to typical extrapyramidal motor symptoms. The aetiology of PD is poorly understood but work performed over the last two decades has identified a growing number of genetic defects that underlie this condition. Here we review a growing body of data connecting genes implicated in PD--most notably the PARK genes--with Wnt signaling. These observations provide clues to the normal function of these proteins in healthy neurones and suggest that deregulated Wnt signaling might be a frequent pathomechanism leading to PD. These observations have implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C. Berwick
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Kirsten Harvey
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
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273
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Estrada AA, Chan BK, Baker-Glenn C, Beresford A, Burdick DJ, Chambers M, Chen H, Dominguez SL, Dotson J, Drummond J, Flagella M, Fuji R, Gill A, Halladay J, Harris SF, Heffron TP, Kleinheinz T, Lee DW, Pichon CEL, Liu X, Lyssikatos JP, Medhurst AD, Moffat JG, Nash K, Scearce-Levie K, Sheng Z, Shore DG, Wong S, Zhang S, Zhang X, Zhu H, Sweeney ZK. Discovery of Highly Potent, Selective, and Brain-Penetrant Aminopyrazole Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) Small Molecule Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2014; 57:921-36. [DOI: 10.1021/jm401654j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A. Estrada
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Bryan K. Chan
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Charles Baker-Glenn
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Beresford
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel J. Burdick
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Chambers
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Huifen Chen
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Sara L. Dominguez
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Jennafer Dotson
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Jason Drummond
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Flagella
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Reina Fuji
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Gill
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Jason Halladay
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Seth F. Harris
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy P. Heffron
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Tracy Kleinheinz
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Donna W. Lee
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Claire E. Le Pichon
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Xingrong Liu
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph P. Lyssikatos
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D. Medhurst
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - John G. Moffat
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin Nash
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Kimberly Scearce-Levie
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Zejuan Sheng
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel G. Shore
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Wong
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Shuo Zhang
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Xiaolin Zhang
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Haitao Zhu
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Zachary K. Sweeney
- Departments of †Discovery Chemistry, ‡Neurosciences, §Biochemical and Cellular
Pharmacology, ∥Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, ⊥Safety Assessment, and #Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA
Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
- Departments
of ∇Chemistry, ○Biochemical and
Cellular Pharmacology, and ◆Drug Metabolism
and Pharmacokinetics, BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, CB10 1XL, United Kingdom
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Dey A, Wu J, Kirkpatrick DS. Interrogation of in vivo protein-protein interactions using transgenic mouse models and stable isotope labeling. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1176:179-190. [PMID: 25030928 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0992-6_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Methods in mass spectrometry have evolved in recent years, facilitating proteomic analyses that were previously beyond the limits of the technology. Transgenic mouse models, coupled with mass spectrometry proteomics, have served as valuable platform for elucidating the in vivo function of individual genes and proteins. Here we discuss the methods we have recently employed to characterize protein-protein interactions and posttranslational modifications in tagged knock-in mouse models. These methods can be broadly applied to other systems for various applications in both basic and translational science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwesha Dey
- Department of Molecular Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA,
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276
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Parkinson-related LRRK2 mutation R1441C/G/H impairs PKA phosphorylation of LRRK2 and disrupts its interaction with 14-3-3. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 111:E34-43. [PMID: 24351927 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1312701111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multidomain protein implicated in Parkinson disease (PD); however, the molecular mechanism and mode of action of this protein remain elusive. cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), along with other kinases, has been suggested to be an upstream kinase regulating LRRK2 function. Using MS, we detected several sites phosphorylated by PKA, including phosphorylation sites within the Ras of complex proteins (ROC) GTPase domain as well as some previously described sites (S910 and S935). We systematically mapped those sites within LRRK2 and investigated their functional consequences. S1444 in the ROC domain was confirmed as a target for PKA phosphorylation using ROC single-domain constructs and through site-directed mutagenesis. Phosphorylation at S1444 is strikingly reduced in the major PD-related LRRK2 mutations R1441C/G/H, which are part of a consensus PKA recognition site ((1441)RASpS(1444)). Furthermore, our work establishes S1444 as a PKA-regulated 14-3-3 docking site. Experiments of direct binding to the three 14-3-3 isotypes gamma, theta, and zeta with phosphopeptides encompassing pS910, pS935, or pS1444 demonstrated the highest affinities to phospho-S1444. Strikingly, 14-3-3 binding to phospho-S1444 decreased LRRK2 kinase activity in vitro. Moreover, substitution of S1444 by alanine or by introducing the mutations R1441C/G/H, abrogating PKA phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding, resulted in increased LRRK2 kinase activity. In conclusion, these data clearly demonstrate that LRRK2 kinase activity is modulated by PKA-mediated binding of 14-3-3 to S1444 and suggest that 14-3-3 interaction with LRRK2 is hampered in R1441C/G/H-mediated PD pathogenesis.
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277
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Zhu H, Chen H, Cho W, Estrada AA, Sweeney ZK. From Human Genetics to Drug Candidates: An Industrial Perspective on LRRK2 Inhibition as a Treatment for Parkinson's Disease. METHODS AND PRINCIPLES IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527677252.ch10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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278
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Law BMH, Spain VA, Leinster VHL, Chia R, Beilina A, Cho HJ, Taymans JM, Urban MK, Sancho RM, Blanca Ramírez M, Biskup S, Baekelandt V, Cai H, Cookson MR, Berwick DC, Harvey K. A direct interaction between leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 and specific β-tubulin isoforms regulates tubulin acetylation. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:895-908. [PMID: 24275654 PMCID: PMC3887213 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.507913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in LRRK2, encoding the multifunctional protein leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), are a common cause of Parkinson disease. LRRK2 has been suggested to influence the cytoskeleton as LRRK2 mutants reduce neurite outgrowth and cause an accumulation of hyperphosphorylated Tau. This might cause alterations in the dynamic instability of microtubules suggested to contribute to the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease. Here, we describe a direct interaction between LRRK2 and β-tubulin. This interaction is conferred by the LRRK2 Roc domain and is disrupted by the familial R1441G mutation and artificial Roc domain mutations that mimic autophosphorylation. LRRK2 selectively interacts with three β-tubulin isoforms: TUBB, TUBB4, and TUBB6, one of which (TUBB4) is mutated in the movement disorder dystonia type 4 (DYT4). Binding specificity is determined by lysine 362 and alanine 364 of β-tubulin. Molecular modeling was used to map the interaction surface to the luminal face of microtubule protofibrils in close proximity to the lysine 40 acetylation site in α-tubulin. This location is predicted to be poorly accessible within mature stabilized microtubules, but exposed in dynamic microtubule populations. Consistent with this finding, endogenous LRRK2 displays a preferential localization to dynamic microtubules within growth cones, rather than adjacent axonal microtubule bundles. This interaction is functionally relevant to microtubule dynamics, as mouse embryonic fibroblasts derived from LRRK2 knock-out mice display increased microtubule acetylation. Taken together, our data shed light on the nature of the LRRK2-tubulin interaction, and indicate that alterations in microtubule stability caused by changes in LRRK2 might contribute to the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard M H Law
- From the Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, United Kingdom
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279
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Anania VG, Pham VC, Huang X, Masselot A, Lill JR, Kirkpatrick DS. Peptide level immunoaffinity enrichment enhances ubiquitination site identification on individual proteins. Mol Cell Proteomics 2013; 13:145-56. [PMID: 24142993 PMCID: PMC3879610 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m113.031062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitination is a process that involves the covalent attachment of the 76-residue ubiquitin protein through its C-terminal di-glycine (GG) to lysine (K) residues on substrate proteins. This post-translational modification elicits a wide range of functional consequences including targeting proteins for proteasomal degradation, altering subcellular trafficking events, and facilitating protein-protein interactions. A number of methods exist for identifying the sites of ubiquitination on proteins of interest, including site-directed mutagenesis and affinity-purification mass spectrometry (AP-MS). Recent publications have also highlighted the use of peptide-level immunoaffinity enrichment of K-GG modified peptides from whole cell lysates for global characterization of ubiquitination sites. Here we investigated the utility of this technique for focused mapping of ubiquitination sites on individual proteins. For a series of membrane-associated and cytoplasmic substrates including erbB-2 (HER2), Dishevelled-2 (DVL2), and T cell receptor α (TCRα), we observed that K-GG peptide immunoaffinity enrichment consistently yielded additional ubiquitination sites beyond those identified in protein level AP-MS experiments. To assess this quantitatively, SILAC-labeled lysates were prepared and used to compare the abundances of individual K-GG peptides from samples prepared in parallel. Consistently, K-GG peptide immunoaffinity enrichment yielded greater than fourfold higher levels of modified peptides than AP-MS approaches. Using this approach, we went on to characterize inducible ubiquitination on multiple members of the T-cell receptor complex that are functionally affected by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Together, these data demonstrate the utility of immunoaffinity peptide enrichment for single protein ubiquitination site analysis and provide insights into the ubiquitination of HER2, DVL2, and proteins in the T-cell receptor complex.
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280
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Huang L, Shimoji M, Wang J, Shah S, Kamila S, Biehl ER, Lim S, Chang A, Maguire-Zeiss KA, Su X, Federoff HJ. Development of inducible leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cell lines for therapeutics development in Parkinson's disease. Neurotherapeutics 2013; 10:840-51. [PMID: 23963789 PMCID: PMC3805857 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-013-0208-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenic mechanism(s) contributing to loss of dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD) remain obscure. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mutations are linked, as a causative gene, to PD. LRRK2 mutations are estimated to account for 10% of familial and between 1 % and 3 % of sporadic PD. LRRK2 proximate single nucleotide polymorphisms have also been significantly associated with idiopathic/sporadic PD by genome-wide association studies. LRRK2 is a multidomain-containing protein and belongs to the protein kinase super-family. We constructed two inducible dopaminergic cell lines expressing either human-LRRK2-wild-type or human-LRRK2-mutant (G2019S). Phenotypes of these LRRK2 cell lines were examined with respect to cell viability, morphology, and protein function with or without induction of LRRK2 gene expression. The overexpression of G2019S gene promoted (1) low cellular metabolic activity without affecting cell viability, (2) blunted neurite extension, and (3) increased phosphorylation at S910 and S935. Our observations are consistent with reported general phenotypes in LRRK2 cell lines by other investigators. We used these cell lines to interrogate the biological function of LRRK2, to evaluate their potential as a drug-screening tool, and to investigate screening for small hairpin RNA-mediated LRRK2 G2019S gene knockdown as a potential therapeutic strategy. A proposed LRRK2 kinase inhibitor (i.e., IN-1) decreased LRRK2 S910 and S935 phosphorylation in our MN9DLRRK2 cell lines in a dose-dependent manner. Lentivirus-mediated transfer of LRRK2 G2019S allele-specific small hairpin RNA reversed the blunting of neurite extension caused by LRRK2 G2019S overexpression. Taken together, these inducible LRRK2 cell lines are suitable reagents for LRRK2 functional studies, and the screening of potential LRRK2 therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Huang
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Mika Shimoji
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Juan Wang
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Salim Shah
- />Department of Biochemistry and Molecule & Cellular Biology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Sukanta Kamila
- />Department of Chemistry, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Edward R. Biehl
- />Department of Chemistry, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Seung Lim
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Allison Chang
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | | | - Xiaomin Su
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Howard J. Federoff
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
- />Department of Neurology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
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281
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Taymans JM, Gao F, Baekelandt V. Metabolic labeling of leucine rich repeat kinases 1 and 2 with radioactive phosphate. J Vis Exp 2013:e50523. [PMID: 24084685 DOI: 10.3791/50523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine rich repeat kinases 1 and 2 (LRRK1 and LRRK2) are paralogs which share a similar domain organization, including a serine-threonine kinase domain, a Ras of complex proteins domain (ROC), a C-terminal of ROC domain (COR), and leucine-rich and ankyrin-like repeats at the N-terminus. The precise cellular roles of LRRK1 and LRRK2 have yet to be elucidated, however LRRK1 has been implicated in tyrosine kinase receptor signaling, while LRRK2 is implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. In this report, we present a protocol to label the LRRK1 and LRRK2 proteins in cells with (32)P orthophosphate, thereby providing a means to measure the overall phosphorylation levels of these 2 proteins in cells. In brief, affinity tagged LRRK proteins are expressed in HEK293T cells which are exposed to medium containing (32)P-orthophosphate. The (32)P-orthophosphate is assimilated by the cells after only a few hours of incubation and all molecules in the cell containing phosphates are thereby radioactively labeled. Via the affinity tag (3xflag) the LRRK proteins are isolated from other cellular components by immunoprecipitation. Immunoprecipitates are then separated via SDS-PAGE, blotted to PVDF membranes and analysis of the incorporated phosphates is performed by autoradiography ((32)P signal) and western detection (protein signal) of the proteins on the blots. The protocol can readily be adapted to monitor phosphorylation of any other protein that can be expressed in cells and isolated by immunoprecipitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Taymans
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven and Leuven Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND)
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282
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Kamikawaji S, Ito G, Sano T, Iwatsubo T. Differential Effects of Familial Parkinson Mutations in LRRK2 Revealed by a Systematic Analysis of Autophosphorylation. Biochemistry 2013; 52:6052-62. [DOI: 10.1021/bi400596m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shogo Kamikawaji
- Department of Neuropathology
and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyoku, Tokyo,
113-0033 Japan
| | - Genta Ito
- Department
of Medicine,
Graduate School of Neuropathology, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyoku, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
| | - Tomoko Sano
- Department of Neuropathology
and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyoku, Tokyo,
113-0033 Japan
| | - Takeshi Iwatsubo
- Department of Neuropathology
and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyoku, Tokyo,
113-0033 Japan
- Department
of Medicine,
Graduate School of Neuropathology, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyoku, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
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283
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Comprehensive characterization and optimization of anti-LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) monoclonal antibodies. Biochem J 2013; 453:101-13. [PMID: 23560750 PMCID: PMC3682752 DOI: 10.1042/bj20121742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Missense mutations in LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) are a major cause of PD (Parkinson's disease). Several antibodies against LRRK2 have been developed, but results using these polyclonal antibodies have varied widely leading to conflicting conclusions. To address this challenge, the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research generated a number of monoclonal antibodies targeting epitopes across the LRRK2 protein. In the present paper, we report optimized protocols and results for ten monoclonal antibodies for immunoblotting, immunohistochemistry, immunoprecipitation and kinase activity assays, in rat, mouse and human brain tissue. Several efficacious antibodies were identified, but results demonstrate that the mouse monoclonal N241A/34 is suitable for most applications, with the best overall rabbit monoclonal antibody being c41-2. These antibodies produced a dominant band of the expected size via immunoblotting and a lack of labelling in tissue derived from LRRK2-knockout animals under optimized conditions. A significant proportion of LRRK2 protein localizes to insoluble fractions and no evidence of truncated LRRK2 protein was detected in any fraction from rodent or human tissues. An assay was developed for the robust detection of LRRK2 kinase activity directly from frozen mouse and human brain tissue, but precipitous declines in activity were observed that corresponded to increasing post-mortem intervals and processing times. Finally, we demonstrate the highest levels of brain-localized LRRK2 in the striatum, but note differential expression patterns between rat and mouse in both striatum and cortex. Anti-LRRK2 monoclonal antibodies that are unlimited in availability together with the proposed standardized protocols should aid in the definition of LRRK2 function in both health and disease.
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284
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Discovery of novel indolinone-based, potent, selective and brain penetrant inhibitors of LRRK2. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:4085-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.05.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Revised: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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285
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Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2, PARK8, OMIM 607060) gene represent the most common known cause of hereditary Parkinson's disease (PD) with late-onset and dominant inheritance. LRRK2 protein is composed of multiple domains including two distinct enzymatic domains, a kinase and a Ras-of-complex (Roc) GTPase, connected by a C-terminal-of-Roc (COR) domain, and belongs to the ROCO protein family. Disease-causing mutations located in the kinase domain enhance kinase activity (i.e., G2019S) whereas mutations clustering within the Roc-COR tandem domain impair GTPase activity (i.e., R1441C/G and Y1699C). Familial LRRK2 mutations commonly induce neuronal toxicity that, at least for the frequent G2019S variant, is dependent on kinase activity. The contribution of GTPase activity to LRRK2-dependent neuronal toxicity is not yet clear. Therefore, both GTPase and kinase activity may be important for mediating neurodegeneration in PD due to familial LRRK2 mutations. At present, the physiological function of LRRK2 in the mammalian brain and the regulation of its enzymatic activity are incompletely understood. In this review, we focus on the GTPase domain of LRRK2 and discuss the recent advances in elucidating its function and its interplay with the kinase domain for the regulation of LRRK2 activity and toxicity. GTPase activity is an important feature of LRRK2 biology and pathophysiology and represents an underexplored yet potentially tractable therapeutic target for treating LRRK2-associated PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elpida Tsika
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research; Brain Mind Institute; School of Life Sciences; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Darren J Moore
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research; Brain Mind Institute; School of Life Sciences; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); Lausanne, Switzerland
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286
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Rideout HJ, Stefanis L. The neurobiology of LRRK2 and its role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurochem Res 2013; 39:576-92. [PMID: 23729298 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-013-1073-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large, widely expressed protein of largely unknown function. Mutations in the gene encoding LRRK2 have been linked to multiple diseases, including a prominent association with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD), as well as inflammatory bowel disorders such as Crohn's disease. The LRRK2 protein possesses both kinase and GTPase signaling domains, as well as multiple protein interaction domains. Experimental studies in both cellular and in vivo models of mutant LRRK2-induced neurodegeneration have given clues to potential function(s) of LRRK2, yet much remains unknown. For example, while it is known that intact kinase and GTPase activity are required for mutant forms of the protein to trigger cell death, the specific targets of these enzymatic activities that mediate the death of neurons are not known. In this review, we discuss the evidence linking LRRK2 to various cellular/neuronal activities such as extrinsic death and inflammatory signaling, lysosomal protein degradation, the cytoskeletal system and neurite outgrowth, vesicle trafficking, mitochondrial dysfunction, as well as multiple points of interaction with several other genes linked to the pathogenesis of PD. In order for more effective therapeutic strategies to be envisioned and implemented, the mechanisms underlying LRRK2-mediated neurodegeneration need to be better characterized. Furthermore, insights into LRRK2-associated PD pathogenesis can potentially advance our understanding of the more common sporadic forms of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hardy J Rideout
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Division of Basic Neurosciences, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Soranou Efesiou 4, 11527, Athens, Greece,
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287
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Berwick DC, Harvey K. LRRK2: an éminence grise of Wnt-mediated neurogenesis? Front Cell Neurosci 2013; 7:82. [PMID: 23754980 PMCID: PMC3668263 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The importance of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) to mature neurons is well-established, since mutations in PARK8, the gene encoding LRRK2, are the most common known cause of Parkinson’s disease. Nonetheless, despite the LRRK2 knockout mouse having no overt neurodevelopmental defect, numerous lines of in vitro data point toward a central role for this protein in neurogenesis. Roles for LRRK2 have been described in many key processes, including neurite outgrowth and the regulation of microtubule dynamics. Moreover, LRRK2 has been implicated in cell cycle control, suggesting additional roles in neurogenesis that precede terminal differentiation. However, we contend that the suggested function of LRRK2 as a scaffolding protein at the heart of numerous Wnt signaling cascades provides the most tantalizing link to neurogenesis in the developing brain. Numerous lines of evidence show a critical requirement for multiple Wnt pathways in the development of certain brain regions, not least the dopaminergic neurons of the ventral mid-brain. In conclusion, these observations indicate a function of LRRK2 as a subtle yet critical mediator of the action of Wnt ligands on developing neurons. We suggest that LRRK2 loss- or gain-of-function are likely modifiers of developmental phenotypes seen in animal models of Wnt signaling deregulation, a hypothesis that can be tested by cross-breeding relevant genetically modified experimental strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Berwick
- Department of Pharmacology, University College London School of Pharmacy, University College London London, UK
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288
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Sepulveda B, Mesias R, Li X, Yue Z, Benson DL. Short- and long-term effects of LRRK2 on axon and dendrite growth. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61986. [PMID: 23646112 PMCID: PMC3640004 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) underlie an autosomal-dominant form of Parkinson's disease (PD) that is clinically indistinguishable from idiopathic PD. The function of LRRK2 is not well understood, but it has become widely accepted that LRRK2 levels or its kinase activity, which is increased by the most commonly observed mutation (G2019S), regulate neurite growth. However, growth has not been measured; it is not known whether mean differences in length correspond to altered rates of growth or retraction, whether axons or dendrites are impacted differentially or whether effects observed are transient or sustained. To address these questions, we compared several developmental milestones in neurons cultured from mice expressing bacterial artificial chromosome transgenes encoding mouse wildtype-LRRK2 or mutant LRRK2-G2019S, Lrrk2 knockout mice and non-transgenic mice. Over the course of three weeks of development on laminin, the data show a sustained, negative effect of LRRK2-G2019S on dendritic growth and arborization, but counter to expectation, dendrites from Lrrk2 knockout mice do not elaborate more rapidly. In contrast, young neurons cultured on a slower growth substrate, poly-L-lysine, show significantly reduced axonal and dendritic motility in Lrrk2 transgenic neurons and significantly increased motility in Lrrk2 knockout neurons with no significant changes in length. Our findings support that LRRK2 can regulate patterns of axonal and dendritic growth, but they also show that effects vary depending on growth substrate and stage of development. Such predictable changes in motility can be exploited in LRRK2 bioassays and guide exploration of LRRK2 function in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan Sepulveda
- Department of Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Roxana Mesias
- Department of Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Xianting Li
- Department of Neurology, Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Zhenyu Yue
- Department of Neurology, Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Deanna L. Benson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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289
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Abstract
![]()
Quantitative
measurement of proteins is one of the most fundamental analytical
tasks in a biochemistry laboratory, but widely used immunochemical
methods often have limited specificity and high measurement variation.
In this review, we discuss applications of multiple-reaction monitoring
(MRM) mass spectrometry, which allows sensitive, precise quantitative
analyses of peptides and the proteins from which they are derived.
Systematic development of MRM assays is permitted by databases of
peptide mass spectra and sequences, software tools for analysis design
and data analysis, and rapid evolution of tandem mass spectrometer
technology. Key advantages of MRM assays are the ability to target
specific peptide sequences, including variants and modified forms,
and the capacity for multiplexing that allows analysis of dozens to
hundreds of peptides. Different quantitative standardization methods
provide options that balance precision, sensitivity, and assay cost.
Targeted protein quantitation by MRM and related mass spectrometry
methods can advance biochemistry by transforming approaches to protein
measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Liebler
- Department of Biochemistry and Jim Ayers Institute for Precancer Detection and Diagnosis, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-6350, United States.
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