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Yang VB, Rando HJ, Menta AK, Zhao X, Blum J, Battafarano R, Broderick S, Yang SC, Ha J. Maryland's Global Budget Revenue Program and Equitable Access to Esophagectomy for Esophageal Cancer. J Surg Res 2024; 302:403-410. [PMID: 39153362 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2024.07.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/19/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We evaluated equity in access to esophagectomy after Maryland's 2014 "Global Budget Revenue" (GBR) implementation, which equalizes reimbursement rates irrespective of patient insurance and employs an annual hospital revenue ceiling to incentivize reductions in unnecessary resource utilization. We hypothesized that more traditionally underserved patients would undergo surgical treatment for esophageal cancers after GBR. METHODS Using Maryland's Health Services Cost Review Commission database, we retrospectively analyzed patient demographics, insurance statuses, inflation-adjusted hospital charges, postoperative outcomes, and discharge dispositions for esophagectomies for neoplasms between 2012 and 2018. RESULTS Four hundred eighty six patients were included: 22.0% (107) pre-GBR and 78.0% (379) post-GBR. The proportion of African-American patients increased post-GBR (5.6% versus 12.9%, P = 0.035) and subsequently exhibited year-over-year increases. While not statistically significant, the proportion of Medicaid patients increased from 4.7% to 10.0% (P = 0.085). The post-GBR era also saw patients from 10 new counties, six of which were in Maryland's bottom half of counties ranked by median household income, receive operative esophageal cancer treatment without losing representation from pre-GBR counties. Patient age and sex were comparable between the two groups, and there were no significant differences in mortality or 30-day readmissions. Inflation-adjusted hospital charges and length of hospital stay did not appreciably change post-GBR, including after adjusting for age, comorbidities, and surgical approach. CONCLUSIONS GBR increased access to esophagectomy for African-Americans, those insured by Medicaid, and those from lower socioeconomic status counties. Contrary to prior studies of outpatient and emergency room settings, we found the GBR program's goal of reduction of resource utilization and cost were not apparent in this complex surgical population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor B Yang
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland.
| | - Hannah J Rando
- Division of Cardiac Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Arjun K Menta
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Xiyu Zhao
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jacob Blum
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Richard Battafarano
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Stephen Broderick
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Stephen C Yang
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jinny Ha
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Martínez-Pérez JE, Quesada-Torres JA, Martínez-Gabaldón E. Predicting healthcare expenditure based on Adjusted Morbidity Groups to implement a needs-based capitation financing system. HEALTH ECONOMICS REVIEW 2024; 14:33. [PMID: 38717699 PMCID: PMC11077809 DOI: 10.1186/s13561-024-00508-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to population aging, healthcare expenditure is projected to increase substantially in developed countries like Spain. However, prior research indicates that health status, not merely age, is a key driver of healthcare costs. This study analyzed data from over 1.25 million residents of Spain's Murcia region to develop a capitation-based healthcare financing model incorporating health status via Adjusted Morbidity Groups (AMGs). The goal was to simulate an equitable area-based healthcare budget allocation reflecting population needs. METHODS Using 2017 data on residents' age, sex, AMG designation, and individual healthcare costs, generalized linear models were built to predict healthcare expenditure based on health status indicators. Multiple link functions and distribution families were tested, with model selection guided by information criteria, residual analysis, and goodness-of-fit statistics. The selected model was used to estimate adjusted populations and simulate capitated budgets for the 9 healthcare districts in Murcia. RESULTS The gamma distribution with logarithmic link function provided the best model fit. Comparisons of predicted and actual average costs revealed underfunded and overfunded areas within Murcia. If implemented, the capitation model would decrease funding for most districts (up to 15.5%) while increasing it for two high-need areas, emphasizing allocation based on health status and standardized utilization rather than historical spending alone. CONCLUSIONS AMG-based capitated budgeting could improve equity in healthcare financing across regions in Spain. By explicitly incorporating multimorbidity burden into allocation formulas, resources can be reallocated towards areas with poorer overall population health. Further policy analysis and adjustment is needed before full-scale implementation of such need-based global budgets.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Juan-Antonio Quesada-Torres
- Department of Health of the Region of Murcia, 4 Pinares Street, Murcia, 30001, Spain
- International Doctorate School of the University of Murcia (EIDUM), PhD Program in Economics (DEcIDE), Murcia, Spain
| | - Eduardo Martínez-Gabaldón
- Department of Financial Economics and Accounting. University of Alicante, Carrer San Vicente de Raspeig, Alicante, 03690, Spain
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Brownlee SA, Tsai TC. Maryland's Global Budget Revenue Model: Looking to the Future Beyond Inpatient Surgical Care. Ann Surg 2023; 277:549-550. [PMID: 36727843 DOI: 10.1097/sla.0000000000005805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Brownlee
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Thomas C Tsai
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA
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Offodile AC, Lin YL, Shah SA, Swisher SG, Jain A, Butler CE, Aliu O. Is the Centralization of Complex Surgical Procedures an Unintended Spillover Effect of Global Capitation? - Insights from the Maryland Global Budget Revenue Program. Ann Surg 2023; 277:535-541. [PMID: 36512741 PMCID: PMC9994796 DOI: 10.1097/sla.0000000000005737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine if global budget revenue (GBR) models incent the centralization of complex surgical care. SUMMARY BACKGROUND In 2014, Maryland initiated a statewide GBR model. While prior research has shown improvements in cost and outcomes for surgical care post-GBR implementation, the mechanism remains unclear. METHODS Utilizing state inpatient databases, we compared the proportion of adults undergoing elective complex surgeries (gastrectomy, pneumonectomy/lobectomy, proctectomies, and hip/knee revision) at high-concentration hospitals (HCHs) in Maryland and control states. Annual concentration, per procedure, was defined as hospital volume divided by state volume. HCHs were defined as hospitals with a concentration at least at the 75 th percentile in 2010. We estimated the difference-in-differences (DiD) of the probability of patients undergoing surgery at HCHs before and after GBR implementation. FINDINGS Our sample included 122,882 surgeries. Following GBR implementation, all procedures were increasingly performed at HCHs in Maryland. States satisfied the parallel trends assumption for the centralization of gastrectomy and pneumonectomy/lobectomy. Post-GBR, patients were more likely to undergo gastrectomy (DiD: 5.5 p.p., 95% CI [2.2, 8.8]) and pneumonectomy/lobectomy (DiD: 12.4 p.p., 95% CI [10.0, 14.8]) at an HCH in Maryland compared with control states. For our hip/knee revision analyses, we assumed persistent counterfactuals and noted a positive DiD post-GBR implementation (DiD: 4.8 p.p., 95% CI [1.3, 8.2]). No conclusion could be drawn for proctectomy due to different pre-GBR trends. CONCLUSIONS GBR implementation is associated with increased centralization for certain complex surgeries. Future research is needed to explore the impact of centralization on patient experience and access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anaeze C. Offodile
- Department of Plastic Surgery
- Department of Health Services Research
- Baker Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, Houston, TX
| | - Yu-Li Lin
- Department of Health Services Research
| | | | - Stephen G. Swisher
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | | | | | - Oluseyi Aliu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
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Shammas RL, Coroneos CJ, Ortiz-Babilonia C, Graton M, Jain A, Offodile AC. Implementation of the Maryland Global Budget Revenue Model and Variation in the Expenditures and Outcomes of Surgical Care: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Ann Surg 2023; 277:542-548. [PMID: 36314127 DOI: 10.1097/sla.0000000000005744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the effect of the Global Budget Revenue (GBR) program on outcomes after surgery. BACKGROUND There is limited data summarizing the effect of the GBR program on surgical outcomes as compared with traditional fee-for-service systems. METHODS The Medline, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were used to conduct a systematic literature search on April 5, 2022. We identified full-length reports of comparative studies involving patients who underwent surgery in Maryland after implementation of the GBR program. A random effects model calculated the overall pooled estimate for each outcome which included complications, rates of readmission and mortality, length of stay, and costs. RESULTS Fourteen studies were included in the qualitative synthesis, with 8 unique studies included in the meta-analysis. Our analytical sample was comprised of 170,011 Maryland patients, 78,171 patients in the pre-GBR group, and 91,840 patients in the post-GBR group. The pooled analysis identified modest reductions in costs [standardized mean difference (SMD) -0.34; 95% CI, -0.42, -0.25; P <0.001], complications [odds ratio (OR): 0.57; 95% CI, 0.36-0.92, P =0.02], readmission (OR: 0.78; 95% CI, 0.72-0.85, P <0.001), mortality (OR: 0.58; 95% CI, 0.47-0.72, P <0.001), and length of stay (standardized mean difference: -0.26; 95% CI, -0.32, -0.2, P <0.001) after surgery. CONCLUSIONS Implementation of the GBR program is associated with improved outcomes and reductions in costs among Maryland patients who underwent surgical procedures. This is particularly salient given the increasing need to disseminate and scale population-based payment models that improve patient care while controlling health care costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronnie L Shammas
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, NC
| | - Christopher J Coroneos
- Department of Surgery and Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | | | - Margaret Graton
- Medical Center Library and Archives, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Amit Jain
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Anaeze C Offodile
- Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
- Department of Health Services Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
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Melamed A, Lin YL, Hassan AM, Rauh-Hain JA, Herring B, Keating NL, Offodile AC. Trends in Episode-of-Care Spending for Cancer-Directed Surgery Among US Medicare Beneficiaries From 2011 to 2019. JAMA Surg 2023; 158:216-218. [PMID: 36477545 PMCID: PMC9856890 DOI: 10.1001/jamasurg.2022.4493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This cross-sectional study examines trends in the number of cancer-directed surgeries from 2011 to 2019 among US patients aged 65 years or older and in Medicare spending for those surgeries overall and by inpatient vs outpatient sites of care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Melamed
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
| | - Yu-Li Lin
- Department of Health Services Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Abbas M. Hassan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - J. Alejandro Rauh-Hain
- Department of Health Services Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas,Department of Gynecologic Oncology & Reproductive Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Bradley Herring
- Peter T. Paul College of Business and Economics, University of New Hampshire, Durham
| | - Nancy L. Keating
- Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts,Division of General Internal Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Anaeze C. Offodile
- Department of Health Services Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas,Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas,Baker Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, Houston, Texas
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Maganty A, Hollenbeck BK. Analyzing Trends in Urethral Suspension Procedures After Changes in Medicare Payment Policy. JAMA Netw Open 2022; 5:e2233646. [PMID: 36194417 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.33646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Avinash Maganty
- Dow Division of Health Services Research, Department of Urology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Brent K Hollenbeck
- Dow Division of Health Services Research, Department of Urology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Offodile AC, Lin YL, Melamed A, Rauh-Hain JA, Kinzer D, Keating NL. Association of Maryland Global Budget Revenue With Spending and Outcomes Related to Surgical Care for Medicare Beneficiaries With Cancer. JAMA Surg 2022; 157:e220135. [PMID: 35385085 PMCID: PMC8988019 DOI: 10.1001/jamasurg.2022.0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Importance In 2014, Maryland initiated the global budget revenue (GBR) model, placing caps on total hospital expenditures across all care sites. The GBR program aims to reduce unnecessary utilization while maintaining or improving care quality. To date, there has been limited examination of program effects on cancer care. Objective To compare changes in spending, clinical outcomes, and acute care utilization through 4 years of the GBR program among Medicare beneficiaries who undergo cancer-directed surgery in Maryland vs matched control states. Design, Setting, and Participants Drawing from a matched pool of hospitals in Maryland (n = 35) and 24 control states with a similar timing of Medicaid expansion (n = 101), we identified Medicare beneficiaries from Maryland and control states who underwent any cancer-directed surgery from 2011 through 2018. Using difference-in-differences analysis, we compared changes in outcomes from before (2011-2013) to after (2015-2018) GBR implementation between patients treated in Maryland and control states. We also performed a subgroup analysis among patients who underwent major surgical procedures that are usually performed in the inpatient setting (cystectomy, esophagectomy, gastrectomy, colorectal resection, nephrectomy, pancreatectomy, and lung resection). Main Outcomes and Measures Thirty-day episode spending, mortality, readmissions, and emergency department (ED) visits. Results Relative to Medicare beneficiaries undergoing cancer surgery in control states (n = 4737; 3323 [70.1%] female; 571 [12.1%] dual-eligible; mean [SD] age 74.9 [6.5] years), patients in Maryland (n = 20 320; 14 068 [69.2%] female; 1705 [8.4%] dual-eligible; mean [SD] age 74.9 [6.5] years) had a statistically significant reduction of 2.2 percentage points (95% CI, -4.3 to -0.1) in the 30-day readmission rate. We found no statistically significant changes in 30-day spending, mortality, or ED visits. We report no significant results in the subgroup analysis of patients undergoing major surgical procedures. Conclusions and Relevance Global budget revenue was not associated with changes in expenditures, ED utilization, or clinical outcomes after cancer-directed surgery through 4 years. There was a modest decline in 30-day readmissions. Specialty-specific definitions of care quality and better alignment across the entire care delivery value chain (ie, physician incentives) may be strategies that could improve delivery of high-value care for beneficiaries undergoing cancer surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anaeze C Offodile
- Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston.,Baker Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, Houston, Texas.,Department of Health Services Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston
| | - Yu-Li Lin
- Department of Health Services Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston
| | - Alexander Melamed
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - J Alejandro Rauh-Hain
- Department of Health Services Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston.,Department of Gynecologic Oncology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston
| | | | - Nancy L Keating
- Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.,Division of General Internal Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Skinner
- From the Department of Economics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH (J.S.); the National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA (J.S.); New York University, New York (E.C.); and Stanford University (E.C.) and the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (V.R.F.), Stanford, and the Schaeffer Center for Health Policy and Economics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles (V.R.F.) - all in California
| | - Eli Cahan
- From the Department of Economics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH (J.S.); the National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA (J.S.); New York University, New York (E.C.); and Stanford University (E.C.) and the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (V.R.F.), Stanford, and the Schaeffer Center for Health Policy and Economics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles (V.R.F.) - all in California
| | - Victor R Fuchs
- From the Department of Economics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH (J.S.); the National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA (J.S.); New York University, New York (E.C.); and Stanford University (E.C.) and the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (V.R.F.), Stanford, and the Schaeffer Center for Health Policy and Economics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles (V.R.F.) - all in California
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Wu Y, Fung H, Shum HM, Zhao S, Wong ELY, Chong KC, Hung CT, Yeoh EK. Evaluation of Length of Stay, Care Volume, In-Hospital Mortality, and Emergency Readmission Rate Associated With Use of Diagnosis-Related Groups for Internal Resource Allocation in Public Hospitals in Hong Kong. JAMA Netw Open 2022; 5:e2145685. [PMID: 35119464 PMCID: PMC8817200 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.45685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Importance Hong Kong's internal resource allocation system for public inpatient care changed from a global budget system to one based on diagnosis-related groups (DRGs) in 2009 and returned to a global budget system in 2012. Changes in patient and hospital outcomes associated with moving from a DRG-based system to a global budget system for inpatient care have rarely been evaluated. Objective To examine associations between the introduction and discontinuation of DRGs and changes in length of stay, volume of care, in-hospital mortality rates, and emergency readmission rates in the inpatient population in acute care hospitals overall, stratified by age group, and across 5 medical conditions. Design, Setting, and Participants This cross-sectional study included data from patients aged 45 years or older who were hospitalized in public acute care settings in Hong Kong before the introduction (April 2006 to March 2009), during implementation (April 2009 to March 2012), and after discontinuation (April 2012 to November 2014) of the DRG scheme. Data analysis was conducted from January to June 2021. Exposures Public hospitals transitioned from a global budget payment system to a DRG-based system in April 2009 and returned to a global budget system in April 2014. Main Outcomes and Measures The main outcome was the association of use of DRGs with patient-level length of stay, in-hospital mortality rate, 1-month emergency readmission rate, and population-level number of admissions per month. An interrupted time series design was used to estimate changes in the level and slope of outcome variables after introduction and discontinuation of DRGs, accounting for pretrends. Results This study included 7 604 390 patient episodes. Overall, the mean (SD) age of patients was 68.97 (13.20) years, and 52.17% were male. The introduction of DRGs was associated with a 1.77% (95% CI, 1.23%-2.32%) decrease in the mean length of stay, a 2.90% (95% CI, 2.52%-3.28%) increase in the number of patients admitted, a 4.12% (95% CI, 1.89%-6.35%) reduction in in-hospital mortality, and a 2.37% (95% CI, 1.28%-3.46%) decrease in emergency readmissions. Discontinuation of the DRG scheme was associated with a 0.93% (95% CI, 0.42%-1.44%) increase in the mean length of stay and a 1.82% (95% CI, 1.47%-2.17%) reduction in the number of patients treated after adjusting for covariates; no statistically significant change was observed in in-hospital mortality (-0.14%; 95% CI, -2.29% to 2.01%) or emergency readmission rate (-0.29%; 95% CI, -1.30% to 0.71%). Conclusions and Relevance In this cross-sectional study, the introduction of DRGs was associated with shorter lengths of stay and increased hospital volume, and discontinuation was associated with longer lengths of stay and decreased hospital volume. In-hospital mortality and emergency readmission rates did not significantly change after discontinuation of DRGs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yushan Wu
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Centre for Health Systems & Policy Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hong Fung
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Chinese University of Hong Kong Medical Centre, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ho-Man Shum
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Centre for Health Systems & Policy Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shi Zhao
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Eliza Lai-Yi Wong
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Centre for Health Systems & Policy Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ka-Chun Chong
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Centre for Health Systems & Policy Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Chi-Tim Hung
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Centre for Health Systems & Policy Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
| | - Eng-Kiong Yeoh
- Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
- Centre for Health Systems & Policy Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, China
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