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Lingwood C. Therapeutic Uses of Bacterial Subunit Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060378. [PMID: 34073185 PMCID: PMC8226680 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The B subunit pentamer verotoxin (VT aka Shiga toxin-Stx) binding to its cellular glycosphingolipid (GSL) receptor, globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb3) mediates internalization and the subsequent receptor mediated retrograde intracellular traffic of the AB5 subunit holotoxin to the endoplasmic reticulum. Subunit separation and cytosolic A subunit transit via the ER retrotranslocon as a misfolded protein mimic, then inhibits protein synthesis to kill cells, which can cause hemolytic uremic syndrome clinically. This represents one of the most studied systems of prokaryotic hijacking of eukaryotic biology. Similarly, the interaction of cholera AB5 toxin with its GSL receptor, GM1 ganglioside, is the key component of the gastrointestinal pathogenesis of cholera and follows the same retrograde transport pathway for A subunit cytosol access. Although both VT and CT are the cause of major pathology worldwide, the toxin–receptor interaction is itself being manipulated to generate new approaches to control, rather than cause, disease. This arena comprises two areas: anti neoplasia, and protein misfolding diseases. CT/CTB subunit immunomodulatory function and anti-cancer toxin immunoconjugates will not be considered here. In the verotoxin case, it is clear that Gb3 (and VT targeting) is upregulated in many human cancers and that there is a relationship between GSL expression and cancer drug resistance. While both verotoxin and cholera toxin similarly hijack the intracellular ERAD quality control system of nascent protein folding, the more widespread cell expression of GM1 makes cholera the toxin of choice as the means to more widely utilise ERAD targeting to ameliorate genetic diseases of protein misfolding. Gb3 is primarily expressed in human renal tissue. Glomerular endothelial cells are the primary VT target but Gb3 is expressed in other endothelial beds, notably brain endothelial cells which can mediate the encephalopathy primarily associated with VT2-producing E. coli infection. The Gb3 levels can be regulated by cytokines released during EHEC infection, which complicate pathogenesis. Significantly Gb3 is upregulated in the neovasculature of many tumours, irrespective of tumour Gb3 status. Gb3 is markedly increased in pancreatic, ovarian, breast, testicular, renal, astrocytic, gastric, colorectal, cervical, sarcoma and meningeal cancer relative to the normal tissue. VT has been shown to be effective in mouse xenograft models of renal, astrocytoma, ovarian, colorectal, meningioma, and breast cancer. These studies are herein reviewed. Both CT and VT (and several other bacterial toxins) access the cell cytosol via cell surface ->ER transport. Once in the ER they interface with the protein folding homeostatic quality control pathway of the cell -ERAD, (ER associated degradation), which ensures that only correctly folded nascent proteins are allowed to progress to their cellular destinations. Misfolded proteins are translocated through the ER membrane and degraded by cytosolic proteosome. VT and CT A subunits have a C terminal misfolded protein mimic sequence to hijack this transporter to enter the cytosol. This interface between exogenous toxin and genetically encoded endogenous mutant misfolded proteins, provides a new therapeutic basis for the treatment of such genetic diseases, e.g., Cystic fibrosis, Gaucher disease, Krabbe disease, Fabry disease, Tay-Sachs disease and many more. Studies showing the efficacy of this approach in animal models of such diseases are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clifford Lingwood
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada;
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine & Pathobiology, and Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
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2
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Global gene regulation during activation of immunoglobulin class switching in human B cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37988. [PMID: 27897229 PMCID: PMC5126563 DOI: 10.1038/srep37988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunoglobulin class switch recombination (CSR) to IgE is a tightly regulated process central to atopic disease. To profile the B-cell transcriptional responses underlying the activation of the germinal centre activities leading to the generation of IgE, naïve human B-cells were stimulated with IL-4 and anti-CD40. Gene expression and alternative splicing were profiled over 12 days using the Affymetrix Human Exon 1.0 ST Array. A total of 1,399 genes, forming 13 temporal profiles were differentially expressed. CCL22 and CCL17 were dramatically induced but followed a temporal trajectory distinct from classical mediators of isotype switching. AICDA, NFIL3, IRF4, XBP1 and BATF3 shared a profile with several genes involved in innate immunity, but with no recognised role in CSR. A transcription factor BHLHE40 was identified at the core of this profile. B-cell activation was also accompanied by variation in exon retention affecting >200 genes including CCL17. The data indicate a circadian component and central roles for the Th2 chemokines CCL22 and CCL17 in the activation of CSR.
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3
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Nakanishi K, Narimatsu S, Ichikawa S, Tobisawa Y, Kurohane K, Niwa Y, Kobayashi H, Imai Y. Production of hybrid-IgG/IgA plantibodies with neutralizing activity against Shiga toxin 1. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80712. [PMID: 24312238 PMCID: PMC3842918 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 10/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin 1 (Stx1) is a virulence factor of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, such as the O157:H7 strain. In the intestines, secretory IgA (SIgA) is a major component of the immune defense against pathogens and toxins. To form SIgA, the production of dimeric IgA that retains biological activity is an important step. We previously established hybrid-IgG/IgA having variable regions of the IgG specific for the binding subunit of Stx1 (Stx1B) and the heavy chain constant region of IgA. If hybrid-IgG/IgA cDNAs can be expressed in plants, therapeutic or preventive effects may be expected in people eating those plants containing a “plantibody”. Here, we established transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana expressing dimeric hybrid-IgG/IgA. The heavy and light chain genes were placed under the control of a bidirectional promoter and terminator of the chlorophyll a/b-binding protein of Arabidopsis thaliana (expression cassette). This expression cassette and the J chain gene were subcloned into a single binary vector, which was then introduced into A. thaliana by means of the Agrobacterium method. Expression and assembly of the dimeric hybrid-IgG/IgA in plants were revealed by ELISA and immunoblotting. The hybrid-IgG/IgA bound to Stx1B and inhibited Stx1B binding to Gb3, as demonstrated by ELISA. When Stx1 holotoxin was pre-treated with the resulting plantibody, the cytotoxicity of Stx1 was inhibited. The toxin neutralization was also demonstrated by means of several assays including Stx1-induced phosphatidylserine translocation on the plasma membrane, caspase-3 activation and 180 base-pair DNA ladder formation due to inter-nucleosomal cleavage. These results indicate that edible plants containing hybrid-IgG/IgA against Stx1B have the potential to be used for immunotherapy against Stx1-caused food poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuhiro Nakanishi
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Sanshiro Narimatsu
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Shiori Ichikawa
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Yuki Tobisawa
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Kohta Kurohane
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical and Nutritional Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Yasuo Niwa
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Improvement, Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical and Nutritional Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Improvement, Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical and Nutritional Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Imai
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical and Nutritional Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka, Japan
- * E-mail:
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4
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Nedbal J, Hobson PS, Fear DJ, Heintzmann R, Gould HJ. Comprehensive FISH probe design tool applied to imaging human immunoglobulin class switch recombination. PLoS One 2012; 7:e51675. [PMID: 23272136 PMCID: PMC3522715 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Accepted: 11/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a web engine boosted fluorescence in-situ hybridization (webFISH) algorithm using a genome-wide sequence similarity search to design target-specific single-copy and repetitive DNA FISH probes. The webFISH algorithm featuring a user-friendly interface (http://www.webfish2.org/) maximizes the coverage of the examined sequences with FISH probes by considering locally repetitive sequences absent from the remainder of the genome. The highly repetitive human immunoglobulin heavy chain sequence was analyzed using webFISH to design three sets of FISH probes. These allowed direct simultaneous detection of class switch recombination in both immunoglobulin-heavy chain alleles in single cells from a population of cultured primary B cells. It directly demonstrated asynchrony of the class switch recombination in the two alleles in structurally preserved nuclei while permitting parallel readout of protein expression by immunofluorescence staining. This novel technique offers the possibility of gaining unprecedented insight into the molecular mechanisms involved in class switch recombination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Nedbal
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, Guy’s Hospital, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (JN); (HJG)
| | - Philip S. Hobson
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, Guy’s Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - David J. Fear
- MRC and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, Guy’s Hospital, London, United Kingdom
- Division of Asthma, Allergy and Lung Biology, Guy’s Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rainer Heintzmann
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Photonics Technology, Jena, Germany
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Hannah J Gould
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, Guy’s Hospital, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (JN); (HJG)
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5
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Tobisawa Y, Maruyama T, Tanikawa T, Nakanishi K, Kurohane K, Imai Y. Establishment of recombinant hybrid-IgG/IgA immunoglobulin specific for Shiga toxin. Scand J Immunol 2011; 74:574-84. [PMID: 21883352 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2011.02617.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Shiga toxin 1 produced by enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli is an AB(5) toxin that is involved in the life-threatening haemolytic-uraemic syndrome. The B subunits (Stx1B) are cell-binding subunits. We previously established mouse hybridoma cell line producing IgA and IgG monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against Stx1B. Here, we cloned cDNAs encoding each of the heavy, light and joining (J) chains from the hybridoma cell lines by means of the 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) PCR method. Upon assignment of the variable regions of the heavy and light chains to known germline sequences, we found substantial somatic hypermutation in the complementarity-determining regions in both the IgA and IgG mAbs. We also established a hybrid-IgG/IgA heavy chain having variable regions of the IgG mAb by means of recombinant PCR methods. Upon transient expression of the hybrid-IgG/IgA heavy, IgG-associated light and J chains in COS-1 cells, the translated dimeric hybrid-IgG/IgA bound to immobilized Stx1B, as revealed on ELISA. The production of dimeric hybrid-IgG/IgA was revealed on immunoblot analysis. The dimeric hybrid-IgG/IgA inhibited the binding of digoxigenin-conjugated Stx1B to natural ligands (CD77) displayed on Burkitt's lymphoma cell line Ramos. These results indicate that the replacement of variable regions resulted in the production of more useful recombinant dimeric IgA against Stx1B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Tobisawa
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology and the Global COE program, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, Japan
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Dayal S, Nedbal J, Hobson P, Cooper AM, Gould HJ, Gellert M, Felsenfeld G, Fear DJ. High resolution analysis of the chromatin landscape of the IgE switch region in human B cells. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24571. [PMID: 21949728 PMCID: PMC3176761 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibodies are assembled by a highly orchestrated series of recombination events during B cell development. One of these events, class switch recombination, is required to produce the IgG, IgE and IgA antibody isotypes characteristic of a secondary immune response. The action of the enzyme activation induced cytidine deaminase is now known to be essential for the initiation of this recombination event. Previous studies have demonstrated that the immunoglobulin switch regions acquire distinct histone modifications prior to recombination. We now present a high resolution analysis of these histone modifications across the IgE switch region prior to the initiation of class switch recombination in primary human B cells and the human CL-01 B cell line. These data show that upon stimulation with IL-4 and an anti-CD40 antibody that mimics T cell help, the nucleosomes of the switch regions are highly modified on histone H3, accumulating acetylation marks and tri-methylation of lysine 4. Distinct peaks of modified histones are found across the switch region, most notably at the 5′ splice donor site of the germline (I) exon, which also accumulates AID. These data suggest that acetylation and K4 tri-methylation of histone H3 may represent marks of recombinationally active chromatin and further implicates splicing in the regulation of AID action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Dayal
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jakub Nedbal
- Division of Asthma, Allergy and Lung Biology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Philip Hobson
- Division of Asthma, Allergy and Lung Biology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alison M. Cooper
- Division of Asthma, Allergy and Lung Biology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah J. Gould
- Division of Asthma, Allergy and Lung Biology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Gellert
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gary Felsenfeld
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DJF); (GF)
| | - David J. Fear
- Division of Asthma, Allergy and Lung Biology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (DJF); (GF)
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7
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Tanikawa T, Ishikawa T, Maekawa T, Kuronane K, Imai Y. Characterization of monoclonal immunoglobulin a and g against shiga toxin binding subunits produced by intranasal immunization. Scand J Immunol 2008; 68:414-22. [PMID: 18782271 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02153.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is considered to play a major role in protection of the mucosal surface. However, its immunological and biological properties have not been extensively studied because the production of IgA class monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is difficult. We compared the properties of IgA and IgG mAbs against Shiga toxin B subunits (Stx1B). These mAbs were secreted from hybridomas that had been produced from mice after intranasal immunization with recombinant Stx1B and cholera toxin. The dose response curves for the binding of the IgA (clone G2G7) and IgG (clone D11C6) mAbs to immobilized Stx1B were similar, as revealed on ELISA. The majority of the IgA mAb formed dimers while the IgG mAb was monomeric, as judged by immunoblot analysis. The IgG mAb completely inhibited the binding of Stx1B to Burkitt's lymphoma cell line Ramos, while the inhibition by the IgA mAb was only partial. The IgG mAb was able to neutralize the cytotoxicity of Stx1 holotoxin towards Vero cells, whereas the IgA mAb was not. The binding affinity of each binding site was compared by means of surface plasmon resonance analysis involving a capture method, with which the binding of soluble Stx1B to immobilized mAb was detected. The association rate was similar but the dissociation rate was twofold faster in the case of the IgA mAb, resulting in twofold higher affinity of the IgG mAb. These results suggest that one can obtain high affinity IgA mAb but toxin neutralization is another challenge as to therapeutic antibodies of the IgA class.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Tanikawa
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology and the Global COE Program, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shizuoka-shi, Shizuoka, Japan
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8
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Analysis of intergenic transcription and histone modification across the human immunoglobulin heavy-chain locus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:15872-7. [PMID: 18836073 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0808462105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Ig class switch recombination (CSR) is initiated by activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) mediated deamination of the switch (S) regions; the resultant mismatch is processed to yield the DNA breaks required for recombination. Whereas many of the pathways involved in the mechanism of recombination have been identified, little is known about how CSR is regulated. AID action is known to require transcription of the Ig heavy-chain genes. However, it is not understood how AID is restricted to the Ig genes. Many aspects of gene expression are known to be regulated by modification of chromatin structure. In turn, chromatin is known to be regulated by several RNA-dependent activities. We have mapped the transcriptional and chromatin landscape of the human Ig heavy-chain locus to investigate the effect these activities have on CSR. We demonstrate that the Ig heavy-chain constant genes and 3'-regulatory regions are in an active chromatin conformation in unstimulated total human B cells: the locus undergoes both genic and intergenic transcription and possesses histone modifications associated with "active" chromatin (acetylated H3 and H4 and lysine 4 trimethylated H3). However, on cytokine stimulation, these modifications spread into the S regions, demonstrating a chromatin remodeling activity associated with switching. Surprisingly, after stimulation, the S regions also accumulate lysine 9 trimethylated H3, a modification previously associated with gene silencing. These data demonstrates that the Ig locus is maintained with a complex pattern of both positive and negative histone marks and suggest that some of these marks may have dual functions.
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Allen CDC, Cyster JG. Follicular dendritic cell networks of primary follicles and germinal centers: phenotype and function. Semin Immunol 2008; 20:14-25. [PMID: 18261920 PMCID: PMC2366796 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2007.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) were identified decades ago by their ability to retain immune complexes and more recent findings indicate that they are a source of B cell attractants and trophic factors. New imaging studies have shown that B cells closely associate with their dendritic processes during migration. Here we will review the properties of these specialized follicular stromal cells and provide an update on the requirements for their maturation into phenotypically distinct cells within germinal center light and dark zones. We will then discuss current understanding of how they help support the B cell immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D C Allen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, 513 Parnassus Avenue, Box 0414, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0414, USA.
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10
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Meredith EJ, Holder MJ, Rosén A, Lee AD, Dyer MJS, Barnes NM, Gordon J. Dopamine targets cycling B cells independent of receptors/transporter for oxidative attack: Implications for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:13485-90. [PMID: 16938864 PMCID: PMC1569189 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0605993103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Human B lymphocytes and derived lines from a spectrum of B cell malignancy were studied for expression of dopaminergic pathway components and for their cytostatic response to the catecholamine and related, potentially therapeutic compounds. Proliferating normal lymphocytes and dividing malignant clones rapidly arrested on exposure to dopamine in the low (</=10 muM) micromolar range. The antiparkinsonian drugs l-DOPA and apomorphine (particularly) were similarly antiproliferative. With the exception of D4, dopamine receptors D1-D5 were variably expressed among normal and neoplastic B cell populations, as was the dopamine transporter. Transcripts for D1 and D2 were frequently found, whereas D3 and D5 revealed restricted expression; dopamine transporter was detected in most cases. Nevertheless, pharmacological analysis disclosed that dopamine targeted cycling B cells independent of these structures. Rather, oxidative stress constituted the primary mechanism: the catecholamine's actions being mimicked by hydrogen peroxide and reversed by exogenous catalase, and evidence for the intracellular redox protein thioredoxin contributing protection. Among proliferating clones, growth arrest was accompanied by cell death in populations deplete in antiapoptotic Bcl-2: resting lymphocytes escaping low micromolar dopamine toxicity. Dysregulated bcl-2 expression, although preventing oxidative-induced caspase-dependent apoptosis, by itself conferred only minor protection against dopamine cytostasis. The selective impact of dopamine on lymphocytes that are in active cycle indicates an axis for therapeutic intervention not only in B cell neoplasia but also in lymphoproliferative disturbances generally. Rational tailoring of drug delivery systems already in development for Parkinson's disease could provide ideal vehicles for carrying the oxidative hit directly to the target populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth J. Meredith
- *Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, Division of Immunity and Infection, The Medical School, University of Birmingham, Vincent Drive, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle J. Holder
- *Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, Division of Immunity and Infection, The Medical School, University of Birmingham, Vincent Drive, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Anders Rosén
- Department of Biomedicine and Surgery, University of Linköping, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Adrian Drake Lee
- Ear, Nose, and Throat (ENT) Department, University Hospital, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TH, United Kingdom
| | - Martin J. S. Dyer
- Medical Research Council Toxicology Unit, Leicester University, Leicester LE1 9HN, United Kingdom; and
| | - Nicholas M. Barnes
- Division of Neuroscience, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - John Gordon
- *Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, Division of Immunity and Infection, The Medical School, University of Birmingham, Vincent Drive, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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11
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Lesley R, Kelly LM, Xu Y, Cyster JG. Naive CD4 T cells constitutively express CD40L and augment autoreactive B cell survival. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:10717-22. [PMID: 16815973 PMCID: PMC1484418 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0601539103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic engagement of the B cell receptor by soluble autoantigen leads to reduced B cell survival. Using the Ig and hen egg lysozyme double transgenic mouse model, we demonstrate that the survival of soluble autoantigen-engaged B cells is further reduced in mice lacking CD4 T cells or deficient in CD40. Mixed bone marrow chimera experiments reveal that, under homeostatic conditions, the CD40L-CD40 pathway can augment autoreactive B cell survival in a non-cell-autonomous manner. Naive CD4 T cells are shown to constitutively express CD40L mRNA and protein, although cell surface CD40L abundance is low because of engagement with CD40 on other cells. These observations indicate that the CD40L-CD40 pathway can augment the survival of autoantigen-engaged B cells in the absence of T cell activation. We propose that constitutive CD40L expression by naive CD4 T cells influences the composition of the B cell repertoire and may also affect the homeostasis of other cell types such as regulatory T cells in lymphoid organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Lesley
- *Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and
- Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-7242
| | - Lisa M. Kelly
- *Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and
- Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-7242
| | - Ying Xu
- *Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and
| | - Jason G. Cyster
- *Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at:
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143-0414. E-mail:
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12
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Imai Y, Ishikawa T, Tanikawa T, Nakagami H, Maekawa T, Kurohane K. Production of IgA monoclonal antibody against Shiga toxin binding subunits employing nasal-associated lymphoid tissue. J Immunol Methods 2005; 302:125-35. [PMID: 15992815 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2005.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2005] [Revised: 05/05/2005] [Accepted: 05/11/2005] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We established an IgA monoclonal antibody (mAb) against Shiga toxin 1 B subunits (Stx1B) from mouse nasal-associated lymphoid tissues (NALT) of BALB/c mice. We have developed an improved protocol in which cross-linked Stx1B is intranasally administered together with cholera toxin. Surface IgA-positive NALT lymphocytes from mice immunized in this manner were enriched and then fused with mouse myeloma cells to produce hybridoma cells. Hybridoma culture supernatants were examined to see if they contain IgA against Stx1B and if they can inhibit carbohydrate recognition by Stx1B. For the latter purpose, we prepared carbohydrate ligands in which globotriose is present on the poly-lysine backbone. The established IgA mAb exhibited saturable and dose-dependent binding to the immobilized Stx1B. Inversely, the binding of the carbohydrate ligands to the immobilized Stx1B was inhibited by the mAb pretreatment. Immunoblotting and SDS-PAGE analysis revealed dimeric IgA. The IgA mAb inhibited the binding of digoxigenin-conjugated Stx1B to natural ligands displayed on a Burkitt's lymphoma cell line, Ramos. These results suggested that surface IgA-positive B cells in the inductive sites of the mucosal immune system in the upper respiratory tract are a potent source for producing IgA mAb against protein antigens with weak immunogenicity such as Stx1B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Imai
- Department of Microbiology and COE Program in the 21st Century, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka-shi, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan.
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13
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Meredith EJ, Holder MJ, Chamba A, Challa A, Drake-Lee A, Bunce CM, Drayson MT, Pilkington G, Blakely RD, Dyer MJS, Barnes NM, Gordon J. The serotonin transporter (SLC6A4) is present in B-cell clones of diverse malignant origin: probing a potential anti-tumor target for psychotropics. FASEB J 2005; 19:1187-9. [PMID: 15870169 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-3477fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Following our previous description of the serotonin transporter (SERT) acting as a conduit to 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)-mediated apoptosis, specifically in Burkitt's lymphoma, we now detail its expression among a broad spectrum of B cell malignancy, while exploring additional SERT substrates for potential therapeutic activity. SERT was readily detected in derived B cell lines with origins as diverse as B cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia, mantle cell lymphoma, diffuse large B cell lymphoma, and multiple myeloma. Concentration and timecourse kinetics for the antiproliferative and proapoptotic activities of the amphetamine derivatives fenfluramine (an appetite suppressant) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; "Ecstasy") revealed them as being similar to the endogenous indoleamine. A tricyclic antidepressant, clomipramine, instead mirrored the behavior of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine, both being effective in the low micromolar range. A majority of neoplastic clones were sensitive to one or more of the serotonergic compounds. Dysregulated bcl-2 expression, either by t(14;18)(q32;q21) translocation or its introduction as a constitutively active transgene, provided protection from proapoptotic but not antiproliferative outcomes. These data indicate a potential for SERT as a novel anti-tumor target for amphetamine analogs, while evidence is presented that the seemingly more promising antidepressants are likely impacting malignant B cells independently of the transporter itself.
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14
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Basso K, Klein U, Niu H, Stolovitzky GA, Tu Y, Califano A, Cattoretti G, Dalla-Favera R. Tracking CD40 signaling during germinal center development. Blood 2004; 104:4088-96. [PMID: 15331443 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-12-4291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Substantial evidence indicates that signaling through the CD40 receptor (CD40) is required for germinal center (GC) and memory B-cell formation. However, it is not fully understood at which stages of B-cell development the CD40 pathway is activated in vivo. To address this question, we induced CD40 signaling in human transformed GC B cells in vitro and identified a CD40 gene expression signature by DNA microarray analysis. This signature was then investigated in the gene expression profiles of normal B cells and found in pre- and post-GC B cells (naive and memory) but, surprisingly, not in GC B cells. This finding was validated in lymphoid tissues by showing that the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) transcription factors, which translocate to the nucleus upon CD40 stimulation, are retained in the cytoplasm in most GC B cells, indicating the absence of CD40 signaling. Nevertheless, a subset of centrocytes and B cells in the subepithelium showed nuclear staining of multiple NF-kappaB subunits, suggesting that a fraction of naive and memory B cells may be subject to CD40 signaling or to other signals that activate NF-kappaB. Together, these results show that GC expansion occurs in the absence of CD40 signaling, which may act only in the initial and final stages of the GC reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Basso
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Department of Pathology and Genetics and Development, Joint Centers for Systems Biology, Columbia University, 1150 St Nicholas Ave, New York, NY 10032, USA
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15
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O'Nions J, Allday MJ. Proliferation and differentiation in isogenic populations of peripheral B cells activated by Epstein-Barr virus or T cell-derived mitogens. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:881-895. [PMID: 15039531 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.19704-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human B cells isolated from peripheral blood were activated and induced to proliferate by either Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) or the T cell-derived mitogens CD40 ligand (CD40L) plus interleukin (IL)-4. Although both populations initially proliferated as B-blasts, significant differences were revealed over a longer period. EBV infection resulted in continuously proliferating lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs), whereas most of the CD40L/IL-4-stimulated B cells had a finite proliferative lifespan of 3-4 weeks. Cell cycle analysis, trypan blue staining and Western blot analysis for cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) all demonstrated that the decrease in proliferation in CD40L/IL-4-stimulated B cells is not due to cell death. Instead, these cells arrest, accumulate in G(0)/G(1) and undergo alterations in cell surface marker expression, cellular morphology and immunoglobulin production, all consistent with plasmacytoid differentiation. In contrast, B cells infected with EBV continued to proliferate and retained a blast-like phenotype. Differences in both cytokine production and the expression of cell cycle regulators were identified between the two B-cell populations, which might contribute to the differentiation of the CD40L/IL-4-stimulated B cells and suggest potential mechanisms by which EBV may overcome this. The study has also identified a window of opportunity during which a comparison of isogenic populations of EBV- and mitogen-driven B blasts can be made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny O'Nions
- Department of Virology and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Wright-Fleming Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Martin J Allday
- Department of Virology and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Wright-Fleming Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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16
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Imai Y, Nagai R, Ono Y, Ishikawa T, Nakagami H, Tanikawa T, Kurohane K. Production of secretory immunoglobulin A against Shiga toxin-binding subunits in mice by mucosal immunization. Infect Immun 2004; 72:889-95. [PMID: 14742533 PMCID: PMC321607 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.2.889-895.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2003] [Revised: 08/28/2003] [Accepted: 10/23/2003] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The toxicity of Shiga toxins (Stx) depends on the binding of their B subunits to carbohydrate ligands on host cells. The production of antibodies against B subunits, especially immunoglobulin A (IgA) secreted on the mucosal surface, should contribute to host defense. One of the major problems in attempts to produce IgA against Stx was the poor immunogenicity of B subunits. We were able to produce serum IgA as well as IgG against Stx1B in mice of the H-2d haplotype by means of intranasal immunization with recombinant B subunits of Stx (Stx1B) together with cholera toxin as a mucosal adjuvant. Secretory IgA (S-IgA) was detected in nasal washes but not in feces. We prepared chemically cross-linked Stx1B for use as an immunogen, and the formation of stable oligomers was revealed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry. When the cross-linked Stx1B was used together with cholera toxin for the intranasal immunization of BALB/c mice, strong enhancement of the immune response was observed. The S-IgA titers in nasal washes were 16- to more than 64-fold higher than those in mice immunized with native Stx1B plus cholera toxin. Furthermore, fecal IgA was detectable when the cross-linked Stx1B was used. The use of cholera toxin was necessary for the induction of high titers of S-IgA in the nasal washes. However, the effect of cross-linking was dependent on the major histocompatibility complex haplotype; that is, no enhancement of IgA production was observed in C57BL/6 mice. The present results provide a practical means of producing IgA against Stx1B in BALB/c mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Imai
- Department of Microbiology and COE Program in the 21st Century, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan.
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17
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Marusić A, Markotić A, Kovacić N, Müthing J. Expression of glycosphingolipids in lymph nodes of mice lacking TNF receptor 1: biochemical and flow cytometry analysis. Carbohydr Res 2004; 339:77-86. [PMID: 14659673 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2003.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The expression of gangliosides and neutral glycosphingolipids (GSLs) in the lymph nodes of mice lacking the gene for the tumour necrosis factor-alpha receptor p55 (TNFR1) has been investigated. GSL expression in the tissues of mice homozygous (TNFR1-/-) or heterozygous (TNFR1+/-) for the gene deletion was analysed by flow cytometry and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) followed by immunostaining with specific antibodies. HPTLC immunostaining revealed that lymph nodes from TNFR1-/- mice had reduced expression of ganglioside GM1b and GalNAc-GM1b, neolacto-series gangliosides, as well as the globo- (Gb3, Gb4 and Gb5) and ganglio-series (Gg3 and Gg4) neutral GSLs. Flow cytometry of freshly isolated lymph node cells showed no significant differences in GSL expression, except for the GalNAc-GM1b ganglioside, which was less abundant on T lymphocytes from TNFR1-/- lymph nodes. In TNFR1-/- mice, GalNAc-GM1b+/CD4+ T cells were twofold less abundant (3.8% vs 7.6% in the control mice), whereas GalNAc-GM1b+/CD8+ T cells were fourfold less abundant (5.0% vs 20.2% in the control mice). This study provides in vivo evidence that TNF signalling via the TNFR1 is important for the activation of GM1b-type ganglioside biosynthetic pathway in CD8 T lymphocytes, suggesting its possible role in the effector T lymphocyte function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Marusić
- Institute for Brain Research and Department of Anatomy, Zagreb University School of Medicine, Salata 3, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
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18
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Serafeim A, Holder MJ, Grafton G, Chamba A, Drayson MT, Luong QT, Bunce CM, Gregory CD, Barnes NM, Gordon J. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors directly signal for apoptosis in biopsy-like Burkitt lymphoma cells. Blood 2003; 101:3212-9. [PMID: 12515726 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2002-07-2044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the treatment of choice for clinical depression and a range of anxiety-related disorders. They are well tolerated over extended periods with more than 50 million people worldwide benefiting from their use. Here we show that 3 structurally distinct SSRIs--fluoxetine, paroxetine, and citalopram--act directly on Burkitt lymphoma (BL) cells to trigger rapid and extensive programmed cell death. SSRIs unexpectedly stimulated calcium flux, tyrosine phosphorylation, and down-regulation of the c-myc and nm23 genes in Burkitt lymphoma cells remaining faithful to the biopsy phenotype. Resultant SSRI-induced apoptosis was preceded by caspase activation, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) cleavage, DNA fragmentation, a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and the externalization of phosphatidylserine, and reversed by the overexpression of bcl-2. Normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells and tonsil B cells, whether resting or stimulated into cycle, were largely resistant to SSRI-induced death as were 5 non-BL lymphoid cell lines tested. We discuss these findings within the context of whether the SSRI class of antidepressants could find future application as potential therapeutics for the highly aggressive and-because of its association with AIDS-increasingly more common Burkitt lymphoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adamantios Serafeim
- Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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19
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Pokrovskaja K, Ehlin-Henriksson B, Kiss C, Challa A, Gordon J, Gogolak P, Klein G, Szekely L. CD40 ligation downregulates EBNA-2 and LMP-1 expression in EBV-transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines. Int J Cancer 2002; 99:705-12. [PMID: 12115504 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.10417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) drives the proliferation of human B cells in vitro and during primary infection in vivo. The transformed immunoblasts express nuclear proteins EBNA1-6, transcribed from the Cp/Wp promoter, and the membrane proteins LMP-1, -2A and -2B (lymphoblastoid type of latency). EBV persists through life in resting memory B cells with a restricted type of latency in the absence of the Cp/Wp promoter activity. Since CD40 crosslinking can reportedly inhibit the growth of EBV-transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs), we have examined the effect of CD40 ligation on the expression of EBNAs and LMP-1 and on Cp EBV promoter activity together with several phenotypic markers. CD40 crosslinking led to a partial downregulation of EBNA-2, EBNA3-6 and LMP-1 in LCLs, paralleled by downregulation of Cp promoter activity. It also induced upregulation of the germinal center marker CD77 on the LCL cells. Our findings suggest that the encounter of proliferating EBV-transformed immunoblasts with CD40L, as would occur when normal B cells generate memory cells in germinal centers, may switch the viral transcription program from the full lymphoblastoid to a more restricted latency program in a proportion of cells. This would permit virus persistence in the B-cell memory compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Pokrovskaja
- Microbiology and Tumorbiology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-17177, Stockholm, Sweden
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20
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Zhu D, McCarthy H, Ottensmeier CH, Johnson P, Hamblin TJ, Stevenson FK. Acquisition of potential N-glycosylation sites in the immunoglobulin variable region by somatic mutation is a distinctive feature of follicular lymphoma. Blood 2002; 99:2562-8. [PMID: 11895794 DOI: 10.1182/blood.v99.7.2562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Most patients with follicular lymphoma (FL) have somatically mutated V genes with intraclonal variation, consistent with location in the germinal center site. Using our own and published sequences, we have investigated the frequency of potential N-glycosylation sites introduced into functional V(H) genes as a consequence of somatic mutation. FL cells were compared with normal memory B cells or plasma cells matched for similar levels of mutation. Strikingly, novel sites were detected in 55 of 70 (79%) patients with FL, compared to 7 of 75 (9%) in the normal B-cell population (P <.001). Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLCL) showed an intermediate frequency (13 of 32 [41%] patients). Myeloma and the mutated subset of chronic lymphocytic leukemia showed frequencies similar to those of normal cells in 5 of 64 (8%) patients and 5 of 40 (13%) patients, respectively. In 3 of 3 random patients with FL, immunoglobulin was expressed as recombinant single-chain Fv in Pichia pastoris, and glycosylation was demonstrated. These findings indicate that N-glycosylation of the variable region may be common in FL and in a subset of DLCL. Most novel sites are located in the complementarity-determining regions. V(H) sequences of nonfunctional V(H) genes contained few sites, arguing for positive selection in FL. One possibility is that the added carbohydrate in the variable region contributes to interaction with elements in the germinal center environment. This common feature of FL may be critical for tumor behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delin Zhu
- Molecular Immunology Group, Tenovus Laboratory, Southampton University Hospitals Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, United Kingdom
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21
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Imai Y, Fukui T, Ikegaya A, Ishikawa T, Ono Y, Kurohane K. Lack of Shiga-like toxin binding sites in germinal centres of mouse lymphoid tissues. Immunology 2002; 105:509-14. [PMID: 11985671 PMCID: PMC1782679 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.2002.01373.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
B cells in germinal centres are known to express carbohydrate antigen CD77 in human lymphoid tissues. The CD77 antigen is specifically recognized by Shiga-like toxins (SLTs) that are produced by enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7. To determine whether the binding subunits of Shiga-like toxin-1 (SLT-1B) could have adverse effects on the murine immune system when used as an immunogen, we investigated whether SLT-1B could bind to germinal centres of mouse lymphoid tissues. Frozen sections of peripheral lymph nodes and Peyer's patches from immunized mice were tested for the presence of SLT-1B-binding sites by immunohistological methods. Germinal centres were not stained with SLT-1B, while they were intensely stained with peanut agglutinin (PNA), another marker of germinal centres. On the other hand, SLT-1B specifically bound to renal tubules and collecting ducts in frozen sections of mouse kidney. This is consistent with results from human tissues. We also demonstrated that B220/PNA double-positive populations in lymph nodes from immunized mice exhibited only marginal staining with SLT-1B. The present results suggest that SLTs would not impede germinal centre functions of the murine immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Imai
- Department of Microbiology, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 52-1 Yada, Shizuoka-shi, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan.
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22
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Gordon J, Grafton G, Wood PM, Larché M, Armitage RJ. Modelling the human immune response: can mice be trusted? Commentary. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2001; 1:431-5. [PMID: 11710744 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-4892(01)00074-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The mouse is now the animal of choice for laboratory-based medical research. Although its contribution to advancing understanding of our inner workings is indisputable, we should acknowledge that mice and humans are tangibly different. This article highlights, and attempts some rationale for, discrepancies between the two species' immune systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Gordon
- MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, The Medical School, Birmingham, UK.
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23
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Zapata JM, Krajewska M, Krajewski S, Kitada S, Welsh K, Monks A, McCloskey N, Gordon J, Kipps TJ, Gascoyne RD, Shabaik A, Reed JC. TNFR-associated factor family protein expression in normal tissues and lymphoid malignancies. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 165:5084-96. [PMID: 11046039 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.165.9.5084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
TNFR-associated factors (TRAFs) constitute a family of adapter proteins that associate with particular TNF family receptors. Humans and mice contain six TRAF genes, but little is known about their in vivo expression at the single cell level. The in vivo locations of TRAF1, TRAF2, TRAF5, and TRAF6 were determined in human and mouse tissues by immunohistochemistry. Striking diversity was observed in the patterns of immunostaining obtained for each TRAF family protein, suggesting their expression is independently regulated in a cell type-specific manner. Dynamic regulation of TRAFs was observed in cultured PBLs, where anti-CD3 Abs, mitogenic lectins, and ILs induced marked increases in the steady-state levels of TRAF1, TRAF2, TRAF5, and TRAF6. TRAF1 was also highly inducible by CD40 ligand in cultured germinal center B cells, whereas TRAF2, TRAF3, TRAF5, and TRAF6 were relatively unchanged. Analysis of 83 established human tumor cell lines by semiquantitative immunoblotting methods revealed tendencies of certain cancer types to express particular TRAFs. For example, expression of TRAF1 was highly restricted, with B cell lymphomas consistently expressing this TRAF family member. Consistent with results from tumor cell lines, immunohistochemical analysis of 232 non-Hodgkin lymphomas revealed TRAF1 overexpression in 112 (48%) cases. TRAF1 protein levels were also elevated in circulating B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia specimens (n = 49) compared with normal peripheral blood B cells (p = 0.01), as determined by immunoblotting. These findings contribute to an improved understanding of the cell-specific roles of TRAFs in normal tissues and provide evidence of altered TRAF1 expression in lymphoid malignancies.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Germinal Center/cytology
- Germinal Center/immunology
- Germinal Center/metabolism
- Humans
- Immunohistochemistry
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/immunology
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/metabolism
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/pathology
- Leukemia, Lymphoid/immunology
- Leukemia, Lymphoid/metabolism
- Leukemia, Lymphoid/pathology
- Lymphocytes/immunology
- Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Lymphoma/immunology
- Lymphoma/metabolism
- Lymphoma/pathology
- Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin/immunology
- Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin/metabolism
- Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin/pathology
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Organ Specificity/immunology
- Protein Biosynthesis
- Proteins/metabolism
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/biosynthesis
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Staining and Labeling
- TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 1
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Zapata
- The Burnham Institute, Program on Apoptosis and Cell Death Regulation, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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24
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Gagro A, McCloskey N, Challa A, Holder M, Grafton G, Pound JD, Gordon J. CD5-positive and CD5-negative human B cells converge to an indistinguishable population on signalling through B-cell receptors and CD40. Immunology 2000; 101:201-9. [PMID: 11012773 PMCID: PMC2327066 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.2000.00098.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Whether CD5 on B cells marks a subset functionally distinct from the conventional CD5 negative (CD5neg) adult population or is more an indicator of activation, remains contentious. Here we have investigated whether CD5 positive (CD5pos) and CD5neg B cells can be distinguished in terms of their response to surrogate signals aimed to model, in vitro, T-cell dependent (TD) and T-independent (TI) encounters with antigen in vivo: the predominantly CD5pos B-cell population found in cord blood, CD5 B cells positively selected from tonsils and their CD5neg counterparts, were compared. Neonatal B cells displayed a near-identical phenotype to that of adult CD5pos B cells, being characterized by uniform immunoglobulin M (IgM), immunoglobulin D (IgD), CD23 and CD44 coexpression. When cultured with anti-IgM maintained at high density on CD32-tranfected mouse L cells to model TI responses or on CD40 ligand (CD40L)-bearing L cells (with or without captured anti-IgM) to model TD encounters, DNA synthesis was stimulated to a similar extent in all three populations. Focusing on CD5 and CD23, we found that - although the signals delivered promoted distinct profiles of expression - under each condition of activation, the phenotypes that emerged for adult CD5pos and CD5neg B cells were remarkably similar. Neonatal B cells displayed a greater diminution in CD5 expression than adult CD5pos B cells following CD40 signals but otherwise the two populations again behaved similarly. The inclusion of interleukin-4 (IL-4) to cultures where cells were costimulated via surface (s)IgM and CD40 resulted in a complete loss of CD5 expression and a corresponding hyperexpression of CD23, irrespective of the population studied. The near-identical response of CD5pos and CD5neg B cells to surrogate TD or TI signals in vitro and their convergence to indistinguishable phenotypes is wholly supportive of CD5 being a fluctuating marker of activation rather than it delineating functionally distinct subsets.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Gagro
- The Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, The Medical School, Birmingham, UK
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25
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Gordon J, Challa A, Levens JM, Gregory CD, Williams JM, Armitage RJ, Cook JP, Roberts LM, Lord JM. CD40 ligand, Bcl-2, and Bcl-xL spare group I Burkitt lymphoma cells from CD77-directed killing via Verotoxin-1 B chain but fail to protect against the holotoxin. Cell Death Differ 2000; 7:785-94. [PMID: 11042673 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4400710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Owing to its lineage and differentiation stage-restricted expression, CD77 has been mooted as a therapeutic target in Burkitt lymphoma (BL). The recognition that the globotriaosyl moiety of this neutral glycosphingolipid is a receptor for Escherichia coli-derived Verotoxin-1 (Shiga-Like Toxin-1) offers a potential delivery system for the attack. Here we show that CD77-expressing Group I BL cells which are normally susceptible to activation-induced death on binding Verotoxin-1 B chain are protected in the presence of CD40 ligand. Ectopic expression of either bcl-2 or bcl-xL also afforded resistance to the actions of the B chain. In total contrast, neither of the survival genes nor a CD40 signal - even when acting in concert - protected against killing mediated by the holotoxin. These findings indicate that while therapeutic modalities for CD77-expressing B cell tumors (which include follicular lymphoma) based on the use of Verotoxin-1 B chain might be compromised by the activation of endogenous or exogenous survival pathways, those exploiting the holotoxin should be left unscathed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Gordon
- MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
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26
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Affiliation(s)
- J Gordon
- MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, The Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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27
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Levens JM, Gordon J, Gregory CD. Micro-environmental factors in the survival of human B-lymphoma cells. Cell Death Differ 2000; 7:59-69. [PMID: 10713721 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4400636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Burkitt lymphoma (BL) cells retain a high inherent propensity to undergo apoptosis indicating that net growth of the tumour population in vivo is likely to be influenced profoundly by its micro-environment. Here we investigate micro-environmental factors that affect BL-cell survival in vitro. We show that survival, and consequently net production, of tumour cells is enhanced by autocrine factors and, to a greater extent, by paracrine factors provided by relevant stromal elements of the tumour (fibroblasts and follicular dendritic cells) and by macrophages. Promotion of BL-cell survival by paracrine elements was mediated by cell/cell contact and by short-range soluble factor(s). IL-4, IL-10 and TNF-alpha promoted, whereas TGF-beta1 inhibited, tumour-cell production. Macrophages engaged in phagocytosis of apoptotic BL cells were less effective than untreated macrophages in supporting net expansion of BL populations. These results suggest that the net production of tumour cells in BL is supported by multiple micro-environmental factors that modulate apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Levens
- Institute of Cell Signalling, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
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