Biological detoxification of fungal toxins and its use in plant breeding, feed and food production

Ochratoxin A biodegradation by Agaricus campestris and statistical optimization of cultural variables

The goal of this study is to identify the optimum conditions for ochratoxin A (OTA) biodegradation by the supernatant of Agaricus campestris strain. The Plackett-Burman and Box-Behnken methods were used to determine optimum OTA degradation conditions of Agaricus campestris under various incubation conditions. The Plackett-Burman method was planned through 16 varied experiments with 15 variants. The three most potent variants, sucrose, yeast extract and wheat bran, were selected using the Box-Behnken methodology. Ochratoxin A biodegradation ratio of 46.67% has been specified in only 1 h under ideal growing conditions. This is the first report on the optimization of OTA biodegradation by Agaricus campestris. When compared to previously published articles, it can be asserted that Agaricus campestris has promise based on its OTA biodegradation ratio in only 1 h of reaction time.

Computational methods meet in vitro techniques: A case study on fusaric acid and its possible detoxification through cytochrome P450 enzymes

Mycotoxins are known environmental pollutants that may contaminate food and feed chains. Some mycotoxins are regulated in many countries to limit the trading of contaminated and harmful commodities. However, the so-called emerging mycotoxins are poorly understood and need to be investigated further. Fusaric acid is an emerging mycotoxin, noxious to plants and animals, but is known to be less toxic to plants when hydroxylated. The detoxification routes effective in animals have not been elucidated yet. In this context, this study integrated in silico and in vitro techniques to discover potential bioremediation routes to turn fusaric acid to its less toxic metabolites. The toxicodynamics of these forms in humans have also been addressed. An in silico screening process, followed by molecular docking and dynamics studies, identified CYP199A4 from the bacterium Rhodopseudomonas palustris HaA2 as a potential fusaric acid biotransforming enzyme. Its activity was confirmed in vitro. However, the effect of hydroxylation seemed to have a limited impact on the modelled toxicodynamics against human targets. This study represents a starting point to develop a hybrid in silico/in vitro pipeline to find bioremediation agents for other food, feed and environmental contaminants.

Natural feed additives and bioactive supplements versus chemical additives as a safe and practical approach to combat foodborne mycotoxicoses

This review highlights the possible hazard of mycotoxins occurrence in foods and feeds in regards to foodborne diseases. The possible management of the risk of contamination of foods and feeds with mycotoxins by using natural feed additives, protecting against deleterious effects of mycotoxins or inhibiting the growth of fungi and mycotoxin production, is deeply investigated in the available literature and some effective measures for safe utilization of mycotoxin contaminated feed/food are proposed. The biological methods of decontamination, degradation or biotransformation of mycotoxins are deeply analyzed and discussed. Some natural antagonists against target fungi are also reviewed and a comparison is made with conventional fungicides for ensuring a safe prevention of mycotoxin contamination. The most common and useful chemical methods of mycotoxins decontamination of agricultural commodities or raw materials are also investigated, e.g., chemical additives inactivating or destroying and/or adsorbing mycotoxins as well as chemical additives inhibiting the growth of fungi and mycotoxin production. The practical use and safety of various kind of feed/food additives or herbal/biological supplements as possible approach for ameliorating the adverse effects of some dangerous mycotoxins is deeply investigated and some suggestions are given. Various possibilities for decreasing mycotoxins toxicity, e.g., by clarifying the mechanisms of their toxicity and using some target antidotes and vitamins as supplements to the diet, are also studied in the literature and appropriate discussions or suggestions are made in this regard. Some studies on animal diets such as low carbohydrate intake, increased protein content, calorie restriction or the importance of dietary fats are also investigated in the available literature for possible amelioration of the ailments associated with mycotoxins exposure. It could be concluded that natural feed additives and bioactive supplements would be more safe and practical approach to combat foodborne mycotoxicoses as compared to chemical additives.

Natural mycotoxin contamination in dog food: A review on toxicity and detoxification methods

Nowadays, the companion animals (dogs or other pets) are considered as members of the family and have established strong emotional relationships with their owners. Dogs are long lived compared to food animals, so safety, adequacy, and efficacy of dog food is of great importance for their health. Cereals, cereal by-products as well as feedstuffs of plant origin are commonly employed food resources in dry food, yet are potential ingredients for mycotoxins contamination, so dogs are theoretically more vulnerable to exposure when consumed daily. Aflatoxins (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FUM), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEA) are the most frequent mycotoxins that might present in dog food and cause toxicity on the growth and metabolism of dogs. An understanding of toxicological effects and detoxification methods (physical, chemical, or biological approaches) of mycotoxins will help to improve commercial ped food quality, reduce harm and minimize exposure to dogs. Herein, we outline a description of mycotoxins detected in dog food, toxicity and clinical findings in dogs, as well as methods applied in mycotoxins detoxification. This review aims to provide a reference for future studies involved in the evaluation of the risk, preventative strategies, and clear criteria of mycotoxins for minimizing exposure, reducing harm, and preventing mycotoxicosis in dog.

Drug-independent control strategy of clostridial infection in broiler chickens using anti-toxin environmentally friendly multienzymes

The study investigated the effect of enzymes as a toxin detoxifier (DETOXIZYME) dietary supplementation on performance during growth, blood chemistry, and immunity under clostridia infection in chickens. A total of 480, day-old male chicks were randomly distributed to four groups, with six replicates of 20 birds each. The first control negative treatment (A) fed the basal formula as commercial feed prepared following the strain's needs, the second control positive group (B) fed the basal formula challenged with Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) type A, the third group (C) fed the basal formula with 100 g DETOXIZYME/ton of feed and challenged with clostridia, and the fourth group (D) fed the control basal formula with 100 g DETOXIZYME/ton of feed. DETOXIZYME dietary supplementation significantly boosted body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and European production efficiency factor (EPEF) and improved the feed conversion rate (FCR) of the broilers. The dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME significantly increased carcass trait and spleen. However, liver and abdominal fat weight significantly decreased compared with clostridia-challenged groups. The values of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), uric acid, creatinine, and Malondialdehyde (MDA) were decreased. While calcium, phosphate, zinc, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) levels were improved in birds that took basal formulas fortified with DETOXIZYME contrary to the other treatment groups during 35 days of age. Plasma total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) values were reduced versus the other treatment groups. Dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME increased total protein, albumin, globulin, and Newcastle Disease (ND) immunity titer levels in the overall period compared to other groups. Dietary DETOXIZYME supplementation decreased clostridia and E. coli bacteria counts and improved gut morphometry. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME had a positive impact on performance, blood biochemistry, immunity, and bacterial counts and improved the gut morphology in broilers under clostridia infection.

Unveiling ochratoxin a controlling and biodetoxification molecular mechanisms: Opportunities to secure foodstuffs from OTA contamination

Anarchic growth of ochratoxin A (OTA) producing fungi during crop production, prolonged storage, and processing results in OTA contamination in foodstuffs. OTA in food exacerbates the risk of health and economic problems for consumers and farmers worldwide. Although the toxic effects of OTA on human health have not been well established, comprehensive preventive and remedial measures will be essential to eliminate OTA from foodstuffs. Strict regulations, controlling OTA at pre- or post-harvest stage, and decontamination of OTA have been adopted to prevent human and animal OTA exposure. Biological control of OTA and bio-decontamination are the most promising strategies due to their safety, specificity and nutritional value. This review addresses the current understanding of OTA biodegradation mechanisms and recent developments in OTA control and bio-decontamination strategies. Additionally, this review analyses the strength and weaknesses of different OTA control methods and the contemporary approaches to enhance the efficiency of biocontrol agents. Overall, this review will support the implementation of new strategies to effectively control OTA in food sectors. Further studies on efficacy-related issues, production issues and cost-effectiveness of OTA biocontrol are to be carried out to improve the knowledge, develop improved delivery technologies and safeguard the durability of OTA biocontrol approaches.

Bio-control on the contamination of Ochratoxin A in food: Current research and future prospects

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a secondary metabolite of several fungi and widely exists in various species of foods. The establishment of effective methods for OTA reduction is a key measure to ensure food processing and human health. This article reviews the current research of OTA reduction by biological approaches, summarizes the characteristics and efficiency of them, and evaluates the transformation pathways and metabolites safety of each degradation technology. The shortcomings of various methods are pointed out and future prospects are also proposed. Biological methods are the most promising approaches for OTA control. The defect of them is the long processing time and the growth of microbial cells may affect the product quality. Therefore, the control of OTA contamination should be conducted according to the food processing and their product types. Besides, it is significant for the exploitation of new strains, enzyme and novel adsorbents.

Biotechnological and Medical Aspects of Lactic Acid Bacteria Used for Plant Protection: A Comprehensive Review

The use of chemical pesticides in agriculture goes hand in hand with some crucial problems. These problems include environmental deterioration and human health complications. To eliminate the problems accompanying chemical pesticides, biological alternatives should be considered. These developments spark interest in many environmental fields, including agriculture. In this review, antifungal compounds produced by lactic acid bacteria (LABs) are considered. It summarizes the worldwide distribution of pesticides and the effect of pesticides on human health and goes into detail about LAB species, their growth, fermentation, and their antifungal compounds. Additionally, interactions between LABs with mycotoxins and plants are discussed.

Detoxification approaches of mycotoxins: by microorganisms, biofilms and enzymes

Mycotoxins are generally found in food, feed, dairy products, and beverages, subsequently presenting serious human and animal health problems. Not surprisingly, mycotoxin contamination has been a worldwide concern for many research studies. In this regard, many biological, chemical, and physical approaches were investigated to reduce and/or remove contamination from food and feed products. Biological detoxification processes seem to be the most promising approaches for mycotoxins removal from food. The current review details the newest progress in biological detoxification (adsorption and metabolization) through microorganisms, their biofilms, and enzymatic degradation, finally describing the detoxification mechanism of many mycotoxins by some microorganisms. This review also reports the possible usage of microorganisms as mycotoxins’ binders in various food commodities, which may help produce mycotoxins-free food and feed.

Fusarium Mycotoxins, Their Metabolites (Free, Emerging, and Masked), Food Safety Concerns, and Health Impacts

The genus Fusarium produces a number of mycotoxins of diverse chemical structures. Fusariotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic fungi of the genus Fusarium. The important and commonly encountered fusariotoxins are trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone. Fusarium mycotoxins pose varying toxicities to humans and/or animals after consumption of contaminated grain. They can cause acute or chronic illness and, in some cases, death. For instance, a range of Fusarium mycotoxins can alter different intestinal defense mechanisms, such as the epithelial integrity, cell proliferation, mucus layer, immunoglobulins, and cytokine production. Of recent concern is the occurrence of emerging and masked Fusarium mycotoxins in agricultural commodities, which may contribute to toxic health effects, although the metabolic fate of masked mycotoxins still remains a matter of scientific discussion. These mycotoxins have attracted attention worldwide because of their impact on human and animal health, animal productivity, and the associated economic losses. In this paper, we review Fusarium mycotoxins and their metabolites with the aim of summarizing the baseline information on the types, occurrence, and health impacts of these mycotoxins in order to encourage much-needed research on integrated management of this unavoidable food contaminant as concerns for food safety continues to grow worldwide.

Dietary Trichosporon mycotoxinivoron modulates ochratoxin-A induced altered performance, hepatic and renal antioxidant capacity and tissue injury in broiler chickens

Ochratoxin A (OTA), an important fungal metabolite in foods and feeds has been shown to induce oxidative stress and cellular injuries to human and animal subjects. This study was designed to investigate the mode of action of a biological modifier Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans (TM), against OTA-mediated oxidative stress and tissue toxicity on broiler chickens. The birds were offered diets supplemented with OTA (0.15 and 0.3 mg/kg feed) and/or TM (0.5, 1.0 g/kg) for 42 days of age, and blood and tissue samples were collected to examine the oxidative stress, biochemical and histopathological parameters. Dietary OTA at all the tested levels induced the hepatic and renal tissue injury as indicated by significant decreased total antioxidant capacity in these organs along with significant decreased (p ≤ 0.05) serum concentrations of total proteins and albumin. The serum concentrations of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and urea were significantly increased, and these observations were further supported by degenerative changes and increased relative weights of liver and kidneys. The dietary supplementation of TM at both tested levels relieved the detrimental impact of 0.15 and 0.3 mg OTA/kg on the studied parameters. The results of the study demonstrated that dietary TM significantly protects broiler chickens by reducing OTA-induced oxidative damage and tissue injury.

Origin, Succession, and Control of Biotoxin in Wine

Wine is a worldwide alcoholic beverage with antioxidant active substances and complex flavors. Moderate drinking of wine has been proven to be beneficial to health. However, wine has some negative components, such as residual pesticides, heavy metals, and biotoxins. Of these, biotoxins from microorganisms were characterized as the most important toxins in wine. Wine fermentation mainly involves alcoholic fermentation, malolactic fermentation, and aging, which endue wine with complex flavors and even produce some undesirable metabolites. These metabolites cause potential safety risks that are not thoroughly understood. This review aimed to investigate the origin, evolution, and control technology of undesirable metabolites (e.g., ochratoxin A, ethyl carbamate, and biogenic amines) in wine. It also highlighted current wine industry practices of minimizing the number of biotoxins in wine.

New Isolated Metschnikowia pulcherrima Strains from Apples for Postharvest Biocontrol of Penicillium expansum and Patulin Accumulation

Wild yeasts isolated from the surface of apples were screened for antagonistic activity against Penicillium expansum, the main producer of the mycotoxin patulin. Three antagonistic yeasts (Y33, Y29 and Y24) from a total of 90 were found to inhibit P. expansum growth. Identification by ITS region sequence and characterization showed that three selected isolates of yeast should be different strains of Metschnikowia pulcherrima. Several concentrations of the selected yeasts were used to study their in vitro antifungal effectivity against P. expansum on Petri dishes (plates with 63.6 cm² surface) whereas their potential activity on patulin reduction was studied in liquid medium. Finally, the BCA that had the best in vitro antifungal capacity against P. and the best patulin degradation capacity was selected to be assessed directly on apples. All the selected strains demonstrated antifungal activity in vitro but the most efficient was the strain Y29. Isolated strains were able to reduce patulin content in liquid medium, Y29 being the only strain that completely reduced patulin levels within 120 h. The application of Y29 as biocontrol agent on the surface of apples inoculated with P. expansum, inhibited fungal growth and patulin production during storage. Therefore, the results shown that this yeast strain could be used for the reduction of P. expansum and its mycotoxin in apples or apple-based products by adapting the procedure application.

Occurrence of Free and Conjugated Mycotoxins in Aromatic and Medicinal Plants and Dietary Exposure Assessment in the Moroccan Population

Aromatic and medicinal plants (AMPs), as herbal material, are subjected to contamination by various mycotoxin-producing fungi, either free and conjugated. Such a problem is associated with poor storage practices, and lack of adopting good agricultural practices and good harvesting practices. Nevertheless, AMPs are poorly investigated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the co-occurrence of 15 mycotoxins (four aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), beauvericin (BEA), four enniatins (ENA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1), zearalenone (ZEN), alternariol (AOH), tentoxin (TENT), T-2, and HT-2 toxins) in 40 samples of AMPs frequently consumed in Morocco by using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Evaluation of conjugated mycotoxins and their identification using liquid chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry with ion mass exact was also carried out. Results showed that 90% of the analyzed samples presented at least one mycotoxin, and 52% presented co-occurrence of them. Mycotoxins detected were: AOH (85%), ZEN (27.5%), β-ZEL (22%), AFG1 (17.5%), TENT (17.5%), ENB (10%), AFG2 (7.5%), α-ZEL (5%), ENA1 (2.5%), and HT-2 (2.5%), while the conjugated mycotoxins were ZEN-14-Glc (11%) and ZEN-14-Sulf (9%). The highest observed level was for AOH, with 309 ng/g. Ten samples exceeded the recommended levels set by the European Pharmacopoeia for AF mycotoxins in plant material (4 ng/g), and three samples exceeded the maximum limits for AFs (10 ng/g) in species established by the European Commission. Although the co-occurrence of several mycotoxins in AMP samples was observed, the dietary exposure assessment showed that the intake of mycotoxins through the consumption of AMP beverages does not represent a risk for the population.

Biological Control and Mitigation of Aflatoxin Contamination in Commodities

Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites produced mostly by Aspergillus species. AF contamination entering the feed and food chain has been a crucial long-term issue for veterinarians, medicals, agroindustry experts, and researchers working in this field. Although different (physical, chemical, and biological) technologies have been developed, tested, and employed to mitigate the detrimental effects of mycotoxins, including AFs, universal methods are still not available to reduce AF levels in feed and food in the last decades. Possible biological control by bacteria, yeasts, and fungi, their excretes, the role of the ruminal degradation, pre-harvest biocontrol by competitive exclusion or biofungicides, and post-harvest technologies and practices based on biological agents currently used to alleviate the toxic effects of AFs are collected in this review. Pre-harvest biocontrol technologies can give us the greatest opportunity to reduce AF production on the spot. Together with post-harvest applications of bacteria or fungal cultures, these technologies can help us strictly reduce AF contamination without synthetic chemicals.

Genome sequence analysis of the beneficial Bacillus subtilis PTA-271 isolated from a Vitis vinifera (cv. Chardonnay) rhizospheric soil: assets for sustainable biocontrol

BACKGROUND

Bacillus subtilis strains have been widely studied for their numerous benefits in agriculture, including viticulture. Providing several assets, B. subtilis spp. are described as promising plant-protectors against many pathogens and as influencers to adaptations in a changing environment. This study reports the draft genome sequence of the beneficial Bacillus subtilis PTA-271, isolated from the rhizospheric soil of healthy Vitis vinifera cv. Chardonnay at Champagne Region in France, attempting to draw outlines of its full biocontrol capacity.

RESULTS

The PTA-271 genome has a size of 4,001,755 bp, with 43.78% of G + C content and 3945 protein coding genes. The draft genome of PTA-271 putatively highlights a functional swarming motility system hypothesizing a colonizing capacity and a strong interacting capacity, strong survival capacities and a set of genes encoding for bioactive substances. Predicted bioactive compounds are known to: stimulate plant growth or defenses such as hormones and elicitors, influence beneficial microbiota, and counteract pathogen aggressiveness such as effectors and many kinds of detoxifying enzymes.

CONCLUSIONS

Plurality of the putatively encoded biomolecules by Bacillus subtilis PTA-271 genome suggests environmentally robust biocontrol potential of PTA-271, protecting plants against a broad spectrum of pathogens.

A review on Pimelea poisoning of livestock

Pimelea poisoning of cattle, historically known as St. George Disease or Marree Disease, is a prevailing issue in arid grazing regions of inland Australia. Ingestion of the toxic native Pimelea species that contain the secondary metabolite simplexin, a diterpene orthoester with potent protein kinase C activity, induces diarrhoea, characteristic oedema and potentially fatal right-sided heart failure in cattle. Outbreaks of toxic Pimelea in the grazing field depend on seasonal prevalence. However, all stages of the plant carry the toxin, from seeds, juvenile plants to dead plant material. Livestock generally avoid consuming green Pimelea plants and only consume toxic Pimelea when pasture is minimal or where Pimelea growing through grass tussocks results in inadvertent ingestion. Our knowledge base of Pimelea poisoning has greatly improved with past research, yet the health hazards for livestock grazing in Pimelea affected pastures remains a significant issue whilst the ongoing search to develop effective strategies to mitigate poisoning continues. The goal of this review is to collate historical and recent research giving an overview of the current understandings of Pimelea poisoning, the toxin, its toxic effects and progress made towards remedies to alleviate the effects of Pimelea intoxication.

Microbiological Detoxification of Mycotoxins: Focus on Mechanisms and Advances

Some fungal species of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium secretes toxic metabolites known as mycotoxins, have become a global concern that is toxic to different species of animals and humans. Biological mycotoxins detoxification has been studied by researchers around the world as a new strategy for mycotoxin removal. Bacteria, fungi, yeast, molds, and protozoa are the main living organisms appropriate for the mycotoxin detoxification. Enzymatic and degradation sorptions are the main mechanisms involved in microbiological detoxification of mycotoxins. Regardless of the method used, proper management tools that consist of before-harvest prevention and after-harvest detoxification are required. Here, in this review, we focus on the microbiological detoxification and mechanisms involved in the decontamination of mycotoxins.

Review on the Biological Detoxification of Mycotoxins Using Lactic Acid Bacteria to Enhance the Sustainability of Foods Supply

The challenges to fulfill the demand for a safe food supply are dramatically increasing. Mycotoxins produced by certain fungi cause great economic loss and negative impact on the sustainability of food supplies. Moreover, the occurrence of mycotoxins at high levels in foods poses a high health threat for the consumers. Biological detoxification has exhibited a high potential to detoxify foodstuffs on a cost-effective and large scale. Lactic acid bacteria showed a good potential as an alternative strategy for the elimination of mycotoxins. The current review describes the health and economic impacts associated with mycotoxin contamination in foodstuffs. Moreover, this review highlights the biological detoxification of common food mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria.

Minimizing Ochratoxin A Contamination through the Use of Actinobacteria and Their Active Molecules

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a secondary metabolite produced by fungal pathogens such as Penicilliumverrucosum, which develops in food commodities during storage such as cereals, grapes, and coffee. It represents public health concerns due to its genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and teratogenicity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of actinobacteria and their metabolites to degrade OTA and/or to decrease its production. Sixty strains of actinobacteria were tested for their ability to prevent OTA formation by in vitro dual culture assays or with cell free extracts (CFEs). In dual culture, 17 strains strongly inhibited fungal growth, although it was generally associated with an increase in OTA specific production. Seventeen strains inhibited OTA specific production up to 4% of the control. Eleven actinobacteria CFEs reduced OTA specific production up to 62% of the control, while no substantial growth inhibition was observed except for two strains up to 72% of the control. Thirty-three strains were able to degrade OTA almost completely in liquid medium whereas only five were able to decrease it on solid medium, and two of them reduced OTA to an undetectable amount. Our results suggest that OTA decrease could be related to different strategies of degradation/metabolization by actinobacteria, through enzyme activities and secretion of secondary metabolites interfering with the OTA biosynthetic pathway. CFEs appeared to be ineffective at degrading OTA, raising interesting questions about the detoxification mechanisms. Common degradation by-products (e.g., OTα or L-β-phenylalanine) were searched by HPLC-MS/MS, however, none of them were found, which implies a different mechanism of detoxification and/or a subsequent degradation into unknown products.

Conversion of Deoxynivalenol-3-Glucoside to Deoxynivalenol during Chinese Steamed Bread Processing

We reported the conversion of deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (D3G) to deoxynivalenol (DON) during Chinese steamed bread (CSB) processing by artificial D3G contamination. Meanwhile, the effects of enzymes in wheat flour and those produced from yeast, along with the two main components in wheat flour-wheat starch and wheat gluten-on the conversion profiles of D3G were evaluated. The results showed D3G could convert to DON during CSB processing, and the conversion began with dough making and decreased slightly after fermentation and steaming. However, there was no significant difference in three stages. When yeast was not added, or enzyme-deactivated wheat flour was used to simulate CSB process, and whether yeast was added or not, D3G conversion could be observed, and the conversion was significantly higher after dough making. Likewise, D3G converted to DON when wheat starch and wheat gluten were processed to CSB, and the conversion in wheat starch was higher.

Detoxification of Mycotoxins through Biotransformation

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that pose a major threat to the safety of food and feed. Mycotoxins are usually converted into less toxic or non-toxic metabolites through biotransformation that are often made by living organisms as well as the isolated enzymes. The conversions mainly include hydroxylation, oxidation, hydrogenation, de-epoxidation, methylation, glycosylation and glucuronidation, esterification, hydrolysis, sulfation, demethylation and deamination. Biotransformations of some notorious mycotoxins such as alfatoxins, alternariol, citrinin, fomannoxin, ochratoxins, patulin, trichothecenes and zearalenone analogues are reviewed in detail. The recent development and applications of mycotoxins detoxification through biotransformation are also discussed.

Biodegradation of Deoxynivalenol by a Novel Microbial Consortium

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a common mycotoxin of type B trichothecene, is produced mainly by several Fusarium species. DON causes great losses in farming and poses severe safety risks to human and animal health. Thus, DON contamination in cereals and DON toxicity are of worldwide concern. In this study, we screened the bacterial consortium C20, which efficiently degraded almost 70 μg ml⁻¹ DON within 5 days. The bacterial consortium also had the ability to degrade 15-acetyl-DON, 3-acetyl-DON, and T-2 toxin. The bacterial consortium C20 was able to degrade DON under a wide range of pH and temperature conditions. The optimal temperature and pH for DON degradation were 30°C and pH 8.0, respectively. The bacterial consortium C20 comprised of different bacterial genera, and several strains were found to significantly increase when cultured in Mineral Medium with 100 μg ml⁻¹ DON based on the analysis of the sequences of the hypervariable V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. 3-keto-DON was confirmed as a degradation product of DON by liquid chromatography/time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. The results indicated that the bacterial consortium C20 is a potential candidate for the biodegradation of DON in a safe and environmentally friendly manner.

Effects of pulsed ultrasound at 20 kHz on the sonochemical degradation of mycotoxins

Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are toxic secondary compounds that can reduce the quality of many kinds of food and may lead to other ill effects, both in humans and animals. This study aimed to investigate the potential of the ultrasound (US) treatment in the removal of AFB1, DON, ZEA and OTA from aqueous solution and maize by examining degradation rates and influencing factors of ultrasonication, such as the initial concentrations, power intensity, sonication duration, and duty cycle. The results showed that US treatment could simultaneously reduce AFB1, DON, ZEA and OTA effectively in aqueous solution. The degradation of mycotoxins was significantly affected by the ultrasonic intensity (2.2-11 W/cm3) and sonication time range from 10 to 50 min. DON is more stable than AFB1, ZEA, and OTA in the US treatment. It was found that, for the first time to our knowledge, the highest degradation rates of AFB1, DON, ZEA and OTA were attained at a duty cycle of 25%, and they were 96.5, 60.8, 95.9 and 91.6%, respectively. US strategy can be considered as an effective treatment to degrade the mycotoxins in aqueous solutions and food matrix.

Fermentation for tailoring the technological and health related functionality of food products

Fermented foods are experiencing a resurgence due to the consumers' growing interest in foods that are natural and health promoting. Microbial fermentation is a biotechnological process which transforms food raw materials into palatable, nutritious and healthy food products. Fermentation imparts unique aroma, flavor and texture to food, improves digestibility, degrades anti-nutritional factors, toxins and allergens, converts phytochemicals such as polyphenols into more bioactive and bioavailable forms, and enriches the nutritional quality of food. Fermentation also modifies the physical functional properties of food materials, rendering them differentiated ingredients for use in formulated foods. The science of fermentation and the technological and health functionality of fermented foods is reviewed considering the growing interest worldwide in fermented foods and beverages and the huge potential of the technology for reducing food loss and improving nutritional food security.

Structures of Reaction Products and Degradation Pathways of Aflatoxin B1 by Ultrasound Treatment

Ultrasound is an emerging decontamination technology with potential use in the global food processing industry. In the present study, we explored power ultrasound for processing aqueous aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). AFB₁ was degraded by 85.1% after 80 min of ultrasound exposure. The reaction products of AFB₁ were identified and their molecular formulae elucidated by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometry. Eight main reaction products were found, and their structures were clarified by parental ion fragmentation. Two degradation pathways were proposed according to the degradation product structures: One involved the addition of H• and OH• radicals, whereas the other involved H₂O₂ epoxidation and H•, OH•, and H₂O₂ oxidation of AFB₁. Ultrasound treatment significantly reduced AFB₁ bioactivity and toxicity by disrupting the C8=C9 double bond in the furan ring and modifying the lactone ring and methoxy group.

Heterologous Expression and Characterization of A Novel Ochratoxin A Degrading Enzyme, N-acyl-L-amino Acid Amidohydrolase, from Alcaligenes faecalis

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a well-known, natural contaminant in foods and feeds because of its toxic effects, such as nephrotoxicity in various animals. Recent studies have revealed that Alcaligenes faecalis could generate enzymes to efficiently degrade OTA to ochratoxin α (OTα) in vitro. In an effort to obtain the OTA degrading mechanism, we purified and identified a novel degrading enzyme, N-acyl-L-amino acid amidohydrolase (AfOTase), from A. faecalis DSM 16503 via mass spectrometry. The same gene of the enzyme was also encountered in other A. faecalis strains. AfOTase belongs to peptidase family M20 and contains metal ions at the active site. In this study, recombination AfOTase was expressed and characterized in Escherichia coli. The molecular mass of recombinant rAfOTase was approximately 47.0 kDa, as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The enzyme exhibited a wide temperature range (30-70 °C) and pH adaptation (4.5-9.0) and the optimal temperature and pH were 50 °C and 6.5, respectively.

Impact of dietary Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans on ochratoxin A induced immunotoxicity; In vivo study

Ochratoxin A (OA), the secondary metabolite of certain Aspergillus and Penicillium species, is one of the potent biological immune-suppressor. The present study was designed to explore the in-vivo efficacy of Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans (TR); yeast strain isolated from the hindgut of the termite Mastotermes darwiniensis, against the immunotoxicity of OA in broiler birds. For this purpose, broiler chicks were offered diet added with TR (0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 g/kg feed) and/or OA (0.15, 0.3 or 1.0 mg/kg feed) for 42 days. Dietary OA at all levels, resulted in significant reduction (p ≤ 0.05) in the immune response of broiler birds as recorded by vacuolation and darkly stained pyknotic nuclei in bursa of Fabricius and thymus, humoral immune responses to sheep red blood cells (SRBC), in-vivo lymphoproliferative response to Phytohemagglutinin-P (PHA-P) and mononuclear phagocytic system function assay. Addition of TR in broiler diet significantly reduced (p ≤ 0.05) the immunotoxicity of OA at 0.15 and 0.30 mg/kg; however, against higher dietary level of OA (1.0 mg/kg), a partial protection was observed. Feeding TR alone had no immunomodulatory effect at any of tested level. Dietary addition of TR is proposed as an approach to combat the OA mediated immunological damages in broiler birds.

Biological evaluation of microbial toxin degradation by microinjected zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos

The use of microinjection of newly fertilized zebrafish eggs as an appropriate tool for qualifying the biodetoxification properties of toxin-degrading microbes was investigated. Ochratoxin A (OTA), bacterial degradation products of OTA and bacterial metabolites of the Cupriavidus basilensis ŐR16 strain were microinjected. Results showed that variations in the injected droplet size, and thus treatment concentrations, stayed within ±20%, moreover embryo mortality did not exceed 10% in controls, that is in accordance with the recommendations of the OECD 236 guideline. The highest lethality was caused by OTA with a significantly higher toxicity than that of bacterial metabolites or OTA degradation products. However, toxicity of the latter two did not differ statistically from each other showing that the observed mortality was due to the intrinsic toxicity of bacterial metabolites (and not OTA degradation products), thus, the strain effectively degrades OTA to nontoxic products. Sublethal symptoms also confirmed this finding. RESULTS: confirmed that microinjection of zebrafish embryos could be a reliable tool for testing the toxin-degrading properties of microbes. The method also allows comparisons among microbial strains able to degrade the same toxin, helping the selection of effective and environmentally safe microbial strains for the biodetoxification of mycotoxins in large scale.

Degrading Ochratoxin A and Zearalenone Mycotoxins Using a Multifunctional Recombinant Enzyme

Zearalenone (ZEA) is an estrogenic and ochratoxin A (OTA) is a hepatotoxic Fusarium mycotoxin commonly seen in cereals and fruits products. No previous investigation has studied on a single platform for the multi degradation mycotoxin. The current study aimed to investigate the bifunctional activity of a novel fusion recombinant. We have generated a recombinant fusion enzyme (ZHDCP) by combining two single genes named zearalenone hydrolase (ZHD) and carboxypeptidase (CP) in frame deletion by crossover polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We identified enzymatic properties and cell cytotoxicity assay of ZHDCP enzyme. Our findings have demonstrated that ZEA was completely degraded to the non-toxic product in 2 h by ZHDCP enzyme at an optimum pH of 7 and a temperature of 35 °C. For the first time, it was found out that ZEA 60% was degraded by CP degrades in 48 h. Fusion ZHDCP and CP enzyme were able to degrade 100% OTA in 30 min at pH 7 and temperature 30 °C. ZEA- and OTA-induced cell death and increased cell apoptosis rate and regulated mRNA expression of Sirt1, Bax, Bcl2, Caspase3, TNFα, and IL6 genes. Our novel findings demonstrated that the fusion enzyme ZHDCP possess bifunctional activity (degrade OTA and ZEA), and it could be used to degrade more mycotoxins.

Microbial reduction of zearalenone by a new isolated Lysinibacillus sp. ZJ-2016-1

Zearalenone (ZEA) has a strong reproductive toxicity. Reducing and eliminating ZEA from food and feed is of great significance. The aim of the present study was to screen bacteria for reduction of ZEA. A pure culture of strain ZJ-2016-1, identified as Lysinibacillus sp. by 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis methods, was isolated from chicken large intestine digesta and showed to be effective in eliminating ZEA; 32 μg/ml of ZEA in Luria-Bertani medium was completely removed within 48 h by whole cells of ZJ-2016-1. Heating treatment significantly reduced the removal rate of ZEA from 95.8 to 10.4% in the culture supernatant, suggesting that the microbial reduction of ZEA was likely enzymatic. The optimal conditions for the microbial reduction of ZEA by ZJ-2016-1 included temperature of 37 °C and pH of 7.0. To sum up, these results indicated that the Lysinibacillus strain is a promising bacterium resource for reducing ZEA, and its genes and enzymes involved in microbial reduction of ZEA should be further explored.

Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence, effects, prevention, and mitigation

Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.

Associated efficiency of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and vitamin E in ameliorating adverse effects of ochratoxin A on production performance in broiler chickens

In the present study, efficiency of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and vitamin E together in ameliorating ochratoxicosis in broiler chickens was investigated. Day-old broiler chicks (320) were divided into 8 treatment groups (T1- control (basal diet); T2- T1+ 150 ppb OTA; T3-T2 + 0.05% SC + 100 mg vitamin E-VE; T4- T2 + 0.075% SC + 100 mg VE; T5- T2 + 0.1% SC + 100 mg VE; T6- T2 + 0.05% SC + 200 mg VE; T7- T2 + 0.075% SC + 200 mg VE; T8- T2 + 0.1% SC + 200 mg VE per kg diet). Each diet was fed to 5 replicated groups of 8 birds from 0 to 42 days of age. During overall growth period (0–6 weeks), the body weight gain (BWG) of birds fed ochratoxin contaminated diet (T2) was lower than that of control group (T1). The BWG of group T5, T7 and T8 was higher than T2 but statistically similar to that of control. During overall growth period, the FI in control group was statistically similar to other treatment groups. The FI in groups T7 and T8 was higher than that of group received basal diet with toxin (T2). The overall FCR in control group (T1) was lower than that of T2. The FCR in groups T3, T4 and T6 was higher than the control, but lower than that of T2. The FCR in groups T5, T7 and T8 was lower than T2 and statistically similar to that of control (T1).The overall liveability percentage in control group (T1) was higher than that of ochratoxin fed group (T2). The liveability percentage in group T3 was lower than control and similar to that of T2. The liveability percentage in groups T4 to T8 was statistically similar to that of control. Ochratoxin contamination in diet caused significant reduction in body weight gain, feed consumption, feed efficiency and livability percentage. It was concluded that inclusion of S. cerevisiae at 0.1% level along with 100 mg vitamin E per kg diet or S. cerevisiae at 0.075% level along with 200 mg vitamin E/kg diet to the ochratoxin (150 ppb) contaminated feed ameliorated the adverse effects of ochratoxicosis on production performance of broiler chickens.

Isolation and screening of aflatoxin-detoxifying yeast and bacteria from ruminal fluids to reduce aflatoxin B1 contamination in dairy cattle feed

AIMS

To obtain yeast and bacteria from ruminal fluids that possess aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) detoxifying ability for use in animal feed.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Sources of isolation were ruminal fluids of three nonfistulated dairy cows, fed diets containing cassava pulp, rice straw or distillery yeast sludge. The isolation was carried out to screen for the isolates that were active in both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Three yeast and three bacteria isolates were selected. Up to 85% of AFB1 was detoxified by yeast isolates and up to 60% AFB1 reduction was evident by bacteria isolates. Two yeast isolates were identified as Kluyveromyces marxianus and one isolate as Pichia kudriavzevii. The three bacteria isolates were identified as Enterococcus faecium, Corynebacterium phoceense and C. vitaeruminis. All strains showed high biomass production when cultivated in medium with 80 g l-1 glucose.

CONCLUSIONS

The isolated yeast and bacteria with AFB1 detoxifying ability showed a good potential to be applied as an aflatoxin-detoxifying agent to ingredients used to feed dairy cattle.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The abilities of isolates to survive and be active in anaerobic and aerobic conditions rendered them to be active in cattle's rumen. Their biomass could be produced in bulk and used as feed supplement for aflatoxin detoxification in dairy cattle.

The catalytic activity for ginkgolic acid biodegradation, homology modeling and molecular dynamic simulation of salicylic acid decarboxylase

The toxic ginkgolic acids are the main safety concern for the application of Ginkgo biloba. In this study, the degradation ability of salicylic acid decarboxylase (SDC) for ginkgolic acids was examined using ginkgolic acid C15:1 as a substrate. The results indicated that the content of ginkgolic acid C15:1 in Ginkgo biloba seeds was significantly decreased after 5 h treatment with SDC at 40 °Cand pH 5.5. In order to explore the structure of SDC and the interaction between SDC and substrates, homology modeling, molecular docking and molecular dynamics were performed. The results showed that SDC might also have a catalytic active center containing a Zn²⁺. Compared with the template structure of 2,6-dihydroxybenzoate decarboxylase, the residues surrounding the binding pocket, His10, Phe23 and Phe290, were replaced by Ala10, Tyr27 and Tyr301 in the homology constructed structure of SDC, respectively. These differences may significantly affect the substrates adaptability of SDC for salicylic acid derivatives.

Application of biomarker methods to investigate FUMzyme mediated gastrointestinal hydrolysis of fumonisins in pigs

Fumonisins are among the most prevalent mycotoxins in feedstuffs. They disrupt the sphingolipid metabolism, thereby inducing a plethora of toxic effects in livestock. Supplementation with mycotoxin-degrading enzymes is a promising strategy for the detoxification of feedstuffs in the animals’ gastrointestinal tract. Here, we evaluated the suitability of the fumonisin esterase FumD as a feed additive (FUMzyme®) for the prevention of fumonisin toxicity in pigs by using a combination of different fumonisin biomarkers (sphinganine to sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio in serum and organs, concentrations of fumonisin B1 and hydrolysed derivatives in urine and faeces). In a pre-trial, we exposed pigs to 30 mg/kg fumonisins in feed and found the minimum effective dose of FUMzyme to be 15 U/kg. In a second trial we investigated the long-term efficacy of this minimum effective FUMzyme dose to counteract toxic effects elicited by 6 weeks of exposure to 2.5 mg/kg fumonisins in a diet containing naturally contaminated maize. Supplementation of feed with the minimum effective FUMzyme dose prevented an increase in the Sa/So ratio in serum and kidneys of fumonisin exposed pigs. The Sa/So ratio in serum proved to be the most reliable biomarker. The fumonisin pattern in faeces was less suitable as biomarker for assessing the efficacy of FUMzyme due to natural gastrointestinal hydrolysis of fumonisins. Analysis of urine samples provided additional information about gastrointestinal fumonisin hydrolysis before fumonisin absorption, but was analytically challenging because of low urinary fumonisin concentrations.

OTA Prevention and Detoxification by Actinobacterial Strains and Activated Carbon Fibers: Preliminary Results

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium that contaminate food and feed raw materials. To reduce OTA contamination, we first tested in vitro, actinobacterial strains as potential biocontrol agents and afterward, through a physical decontamination method using activated carbon fibers (ACFs). Actinobacterial strains were screened for their ability to reduce OTA in solid co-culture with A. carbonarius, which is the major OTA-producing species in European vineyards. Four strains showed a high affinity for removing OTA (67%–83%) with no significant effect on fungal growth (<20%). The mechanism of action was first studied by analyzing the expression of OTA cluster genes (acOTApks, acOTAnrps, acOTAhal) by RT-qPCR showing a drastic reduction in all genes (7–15 times). Second, the ability of these strains to degrade OTA was assessed in vitro on ISP2 solid medium supplemented with OTA (100 µg/L). Two strains reduced OTA to undetectable levels. As for the physical method, high adsorption rates were obtained for ACFs at 0.8 g/L with a 50% adsorption of OTA in red wine by AC15 and 52% in grape juice by AC20 within 24 h. These promising methods could be complementarily applied toward reducing OTA contamination in food chains, which promotes food safety and quality.

Analysis of T-2 Toxin Removal Factors in a Lactococcus Fermentation System

The objective of this work was to determine the bacterial strains and factors that most efficiently degrade T-2 toxin in foods or animal feed. To determine the most efficient strain and optimal incubation times for degradation of T-2, the rate of T-2 removal by three lactic acid bacteria strains was quantified by liquid chromatography plus tandem mass spectrometry after incubation in de Man Rogosa Sharpe broth with 50 ng mL^-1 T-2 at 37°C for 96 h. Various components of the most efficient degradation strain fermentation systems were extracted, and the ability to remove T-2 was assayed. Lactococcus lactis CAMT22361 was the most efficient degradation strain for removing T-2. Yeast extract powder interfered with L. lactis CAMT22361 in the degradation process. T-2 toxin was removed by various components of the L. lactis CAMT22361 cells in the following order: nonprotein material of the extracellular fraction > protein in the extracellular fraction > whole cell ≈ cell wall > cell intracellular matrix fluid. T-2 removal rates were 54.08% ± 0.79%, 43.65% ± 0.84%, 43.09% ± 0.87%, 41.98% ± 0.8%, and 23.45% ± 0.66%, respectively. The nonprotein fraction in the extracellular fluid was most likely the key component in L. lactis CAMT22361 and hence would be the most desirable cellular component to be used to remove T-2 from food or feed.

Yeast and bacteria from ensiled high moisture maize grains as potential mitigation agents of fumonisin B1

BACKGROUND

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁ ) is a mycotoxin produced by several Fusarium species and is a very common contaminant of maize-based food and feed throughout the world. The selection and use of FB₁ -degrading microorganisms appears as a promising alternative to cope with the problem of toxicity towards humans and livestock. High moisture maize grain silage, which is based on natural maize fermentation, could be an interesting reservoir of such microorganisms.

RESULTS

Using an in vitro simulated silage model with FB₁ naturally contaminated grains, we demonstrated a significant raw decrease in FB₁ during ensiling process ascribed to biodegradation mechanisms. A panel of 98 bacteria and yeasts were isolated from this matrix and selected for their ability to use FB₁ as the sole source of C and N. For nine of them, the ability to degrade FB₁ in vitro was evidenced. Notably, two bacteria identified as Lactobacillus sp. were highlighted for their efficient FB₁ -degrading capacity and production of hydrolysed FB₁ as intermediate degradation metabolite.

CONCLUSION

Fermentation of high moisture maize grain contaminated with FB₁ leads to a significant reduction of the toxin and allows the isolation of FB₁ -degrading microorganisms that could further be used as FB₁ decontaminating agents. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Plasma-Based Degradation of Mycotoxins Produced by Fusarium, Aspergillus and Alternaria Species

The efficacy of cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) with ambient air as working gas for the degradation of selected mycotoxins was studied. Deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, enniatins, fumonisin B1, and T2 toxin produced by Fusarium spp., sterigmatocystin produced by Aspergillus spp. and AAL toxin produced by Alternaria alternata were used. The kinetics of the decay of mycotoxins exposed to plasma discharge was monitored. All pure mycotoxins exposed to CAPP were degraded almost completely within 60 s. Degradation rates varied with mycotoxin structure: fumonisin B1 and structurally related AAL toxin were degraded most rapidly while sterigmatocystin exhibited the highest resistance to degradation. As compared to pure compounds, the degradation rates of mycotoxins embedded in extracts of fungal cultures on rice were reduced to a varying extent. Our results show that CAPP efficiently degrades pure mycotoxins, the degradation rates vary with mycotoxin structure, and the presence of matrix slows down yet does not prevent the degradation. CAPP appears promising for the decontamination of food commodities with mycotoxins confined to or enriched on surfaces such as cereal grains.

Vitamin C protects piglet liver against zearalenone-induced oxidative stress by modulating expression of nuclear receptors PXR and CAR and their target genes

Zearalenone (ZEN), a common mycotoxin found in human food and animal feed, is effectively detoxified by vitamin C by modulation of the nuclear receptor signaling pathway.

Ameliorating Effects of Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 on Growth Performance, Antioxidant Functions, and Aflatoxin Residues in Ducks Fed Diets Contaminated with Aflatoxins

Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 isolated from fish gut is very effective in detoxifying aflatoxins in feed and feed ingredients. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of B. subtilis ANSB060 on growth performance, body antioxidant functions, and aflatoxin residues in ducks fed moldy maize naturally contaminated with aflatoxins. A total of 1500 18-d-old male Cherry Valley ducks with similar body weight were randomly assigned to five treatments with six replicates of 50 ducks per repeat. The experiment design consisted of five dietary treatments labeled as C0 (basal diet containing 60% normal maize), M0 (basal diet containing 60% moldy maize contaminated with aflatoxins substituted for normal maize), M500, M1000, and M2000 (M0 +500, 1000 or 2000 g/t aflatoxin biodegradation preparation mainly consisted of B. subtilis ANSB060). The results showed that ducks fed 22.44 ± 2.46 μg/kg of AFB₁ (M0) exhibited a decreasing tendency in average daily gain (ADG) and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activity in serum, and T-SOD and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities in the liver significantly decreased along with the appearance of AFB₁ and AFM₁ compared with those in Group C0. The supplementation of B. subtilis ANSB060 into aflatoxin-contaminated diets increased the ADG of ducks (p > 0.05), significantly improved antioxidant enzyme activities, and reduced aflatoxin accumulation in duck liver. In conclusion, Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 in diets showed an ameliorating effect to duck aflatoxicosis and may be a promising feed additive.

Impact of food processing and detoxification treatments on mycotoxin contamination

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites commonly occurring in food, which pose a health risk to the consumer. Maximum levels for major mycotoxins allowed in food have been established worldwide. Good agricultural practices, plant disease management, and adequate storage conditions limit mycotoxin levels in the food chain yet do not eliminate mycotoxins completely. Food processing can further reduce mycotoxin levels by physical removal and decontamination by chemical or enzymatic transformation of mycotoxins into less toxic products. Physical removal of mycotoxins is very efficient: manual sorting of grains, nuts, and fruits by farmers as well as automatic sorting by the industry significantly lowers the mean mycotoxin content. Further processing such as milling, steeping, and extrusion can also reduce mycotoxin content. Mycotoxins can be detoxified chemically by reacting with food components and technical aids; these reactions are facilitated by high temperature and alkaline or acidic conditions. Detoxification of mycotoxins can also be achieved enzymatically. Some enzymes able to transform mycotoxins naturally occur in food commodities or are produced during fermentation but more efficient detoxification can be achieved by deliberate introduction of purified enzymes. We recommend integrating evaluation of processing technologies for their impact on mycotoxins into risk management. Processing steps proven to mitigate mycotoxin contamination should be used whenever necessary. Development of detoxification technologies for high-risk commodities should be a priority for research. While physical techniques currently offer the most efficient post-harvest reduction of mycotoxin content in food, biotechnology possesses the largest potential for future developments.