Treatment for superficial thrombophlebitis of the leg

Common foot and ankle disorders in pregnancy: the role of diagnostic ultrasound

Foot and ankle disorders are common during pregnancy, driven by significant physiological changes including weight distribution, hormonal fluctuations, and fluid balance. These changes often result in conditions such as varicose veins, thrombophlebitis, deep vein thrombosis (DVT), edema, overpronation, ankle sprains, metatarsalgia, stress fractures, ligament tears, synovitis, tendon tears, tenosynovitis, paratenonitis, plantar fasciitis, and Morton's neuroma. This paper emphasizes the diagnostic utility of ultrasound for these conditions, given its safety, non-invasiveness, and real-time imaging capabilities without ionizing radiation. Ultrasound is particularly effective for diagnosing venous disorders like varicose veins and thrombophlebitis, leveraging Doppler ultrasound to assess vein structure and function. It is also instrumental in identifying DVT, detecting vein dilation, reflux, and thrombosis. For conditions such as edema, ultrasound helps differentiate physiological from pathological causes, ensuring accurate diagnosis and management. In cases of musculoskeletal issues like overpronation, ankle sprains, ligament tears, and tendon pathologies, ultrasound provides detailed images of soft tissues, allowing for precise diagnosis and effective treatment planning. It is equally useful for detecting metatarsalgia, plantar fasciitis, and Morton's neuroma, offering insights into soft tissue abnormalities and guiding therapeutic interventions. Ultrasound's role extends to diagnosing foreign bodies in the foot and ankle, where it demonstrates high sensitivity and specificity. The accessibility and cost-effectiveness of ultrasound make it an invaluable tool in various healthcare settings, ensuring timely and accurate diagnosis and management of foot and ankle disorders during pregnancy, ultimately enhancing patient outcomes and quality of life.

Acute Superficial Vein Thrombosis of the Upper Extremity: A Case Report

Superficial vein thrombosis has traditionally been considered a disease of the lower extremity. Less frequently it can affect the breast, chest wall, penis, or upper extremity. Cases involving upper extremities are usually associated with intravascular access, and the vast majority remain self-limiting. This case report presents a 63-year-old patient who had acute extensive thrombosis of cephalic and basilic venous systems following resection of a desmoid tumor from the flank. This was likely related to intraoperative positioning and resulted in severe symptoms mimicking deep vein thrombosis and carpal tunnel syndrome. Additionally, diagnostic tools available to the hand surgeon that allow prompt diagnosis, management, and prevention are discussed.

[Parnaparin sodium - modern therapy options and prevention of venous thromboembolic complications]

Venous thromboembolic complications (VTEC) including pulmonary embolism and acute thrombosis of deep and superficial veins of the lower extremities are often observed in postoperative period. Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) is a common remedy for prevention and treatment of VTEC due to high efficiency, safety, easy use and dosage. According to the modern literature data, LMWH is characterized by different effectiveness in relation to VTEC and risk of bleeding in patients after surgical and traumatological procedures, as well as in ones with severe forms of chronic venous diseases. However, their antithrombin activity varies significantly depending on mean molecular weight. The authors analyze LMWH action mechanism, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic features of LMWH, in particular parnaparin sodium. Efficacy, safety and tolerability of this remedy for various forms of VTEC (superficial and deep vein thrombosis, thrombophlebitis, complicated forms of chronic venous diseases), its advantages for prevention of VTEC after various surgical and orthopedic interventions are considered.

Guidelines for superficial venous thrombosis

Superficial venous thrombosis (SVT) or superficial thrombophlebitis is characterized by thrombi within superficial veins, with partial involvement or occlusion of the lumen and inflammatory reaction along the course of the vein. Clinical diagnosis tends to be straightforward, but supplementary tests and examinations are needed to confirm thrombosis extension and possible thromboembolic complications. SVT can be associated with deep venous thrombosis in 6 to 40% of cases, with asymptomatic pulmonary embolism (PE) in 20 to 33%, and with symptomatic PE in 2 to 13%. Despite the morbidity and complications, there are currently no Brazilian guidelines for SVT. These guidelines cover the most important issues related to SVT definition, terminology, and etiology, and set out recommendations for diagnosis and treatment.

Endovenous Laser Ablation for Treatment of a Partially Thrombosed Proximal Great Saphenous Vein

Introduction

Superficial vein thrombosis of the great saphenous vein near to the saphenofemoral junction is generally treated with anticoagulation or surgically.

Report

We present the case of a 70-year-old man with varicosities and a partially thrombosed great saphenous vein near to the saphenofemoral junction, treated with endovenous laser ablation of the great saphenous vein.

Discussion

The case illustrates an alternative treatment option for superficial vein thrombosis of the great saphenous vein, which permits avoiding a prolonged anticoagulation or surgical procedure.

Incidence of superficial venous thrombosis in primary care and risk of subsequent venous thromboembolic sequelae: a retrospective cohort study performed with routine healthcare data from the Netherlands

OBJECTIVES

Recent studies in referred populations of patients with superficial venous thrombosis (SVT) report risks of venous thromboembolic (VTE) sequelae (deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism) as high as 25%. Likely, these estimates are lower in non-referred patients, but large-scale population-based studies are lacking. We aimed to estimate the incidence rate of SVT in primary care and quantify its risk of VTE sequelae.

DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study, using International Classification of Primary Care coding (K94.02) combined with free text searching (synonyms for SVT) to capture all SVT events. All patients were followed up for 3 months using manual free text searching.

SETTING

Primary care.

PARTICIPANTS

All patients enlisted with general practitioners within the Utrecht General Practitioner Network between 2010 and 2016 (1 534 845 person-years follow-up).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The incidence rate of SVT was expressed as the number of SVT events per 1000 person-years of follow-up and the 3-month cumulative incidence of VTE events was calculated. Logistic regression analysis was used to compare patients with SVT with and without VTE sequelae.

RESULTS

A total of 2008 SVT cases were identified, that is, an SVT incidence rate of 1.31 (95% CI 1.25 to 1.37) per 1000 person-years follow-up, with higher rates notably with increasing age. VTE sequelae occurred in 83 patients; 51 at the time of SVT diagnosis and 32 patients during follow-up (total cumulative incidence of 4.1%; 95% CI 3.3% to 5.1%), and were more frequent in those with an active malignancy (OR 2.19; 95% 0.97 to 4.95) and less frequent in those with varicose veins at baseline (OR 0.57, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.94).

CONCLUSION

We found an incidence rate of SVT in primary care of 1.31 per 1000 person-years. The risks of VTE sequelae was relatively low at 4.1%, with the highest risk in patients with cancer and in those who experience an SVT in the absence of varicose veins.

Indications for medical compression stockings in venous and lymphatic disorders: An evidence-based consensus statement

Objective Medical compression stockings are a standard, non-invasive treatment option for all venous and lymphatic diseases. The aim of this consensus document is to provide up-to-date recommendations and evidence grading on the indications for treatment, based on evidence accumulated during the past decade, under the auspices of the International Compression Club. Methods A systematic literature review was conducted and, using PRISMA guidelines, 51 relevant publications were selected for an evidence-based analysis of an initial 2407 unrefined results. Key search terms included: 'acute', CEAP', 'chronic', 'compression stockings', 'compression therapy', 'lymph', 'lymphatic disease', 'vein' and 'venous disease'. Evidence extracted from the publications was graded initially by the panel members individually and then refined at the consensus meeting. Results Based on the current evidence, 25 recommendations for chronic and acute venous disorders were made. Of these, 24 recommendations were graded as: Grade 1A (n = 4), 1B (n = 13), 1C (n = 2), 2B (n = 4) and 2C (n = 1). The panel members found moderately robust evidence for medical compression stockings in patients with venous symptoms and prevention and treatment of venous oedema. Robust evidence was found for prevention and treatment of venous leg ulcers. Recommendations for stocking-use after great saphenous vein interventions were limited to the first post-interventional week. No randomised clinical trials are available that document a prophylactic effect of medical compression stockings on the progression of chronic venous disease (CVD). In acute deep vein thrombosis, immediate compression is recommended to reduce pain and swelling. Despite conflicting results from a recent study to prevent post-thrombotic syndrome, medical compression stockings are still recommended. In thromboprophylaxis, the role of stockings in addition to anticoagulation is limited. For the maintenance phase of lymphoedema management, compression stockings are the most important intervention. Conclusion The beneficial value of applying compression stockings in the treatment of venous and lymphatic disease is supported by this document, with 19/25 recommendations rated as Grade 1 evidence. For recommendations rated with Grade 2 level of evidence, further studies are needed.

Extended-Duration Treatment of Superficial Vein Thrombosis of the Lower Limbs with Tinzaparin

PURPOSE

To identify risk factors for recurrent thromboembolic events (RTEs) and define the optimum duration of treatment with tinzaparin in patients with superficial vein thrombosis (SVT) of the lower limbs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 147 consecutive patients with significant SVT were treated with subcutaneously administered tinzaparin. The composite primary endpoint of the study was RTE, deep-vein thrombosis (DVT) and/or pulmonary embolism (PE) at 120 days. Patients were stratified into group A, where patients received a variable dose of tinzaparin for up to 60 days (n=98), and a subsequent group B-ext, where patients received a standardized intermediate dose of tinzaparin (n=49) for 90 days.

RESULTS

RTEs occurred in 15/147 patients (10.2%), including recurrent SVT (n=10), DVT (n=4) and fatal PE (n=1). RTEs were less frequent in group B-ext (0% vs. 15.3% for group A, P=0.004), a difference that remained significant at the one-year follow-up. Clinically extensive SVT was an independent predictor for RTEs (hazard ratio, 5.94; 95% confidence interval, 2.05-17.23; P=0.001, Cox regression). Predictors or DVT or PE in group A included clinically extensive SVT (P=0.004), absence of local pain (P=0.023) and the ultrasound findings of superficial axial vein thrombosis (any, P=0.006 or isolated, P=0.036) and multiple thrombosed superficial venous sites (P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

An extended three-month regimen of tinzaparin in patients with SVT of the lower limbs is more effective than a shorter course and may be desirable in patients with risk factors.

Treatment for superficial thrombophlebitis of the leg

BACKGROUND

The optimal treatment of superficial thrombophlebitis (ST) of the legs remains poorly defined. While improving or relieving the local painful symptoms, treatment should aim at preventing venous thromboembolism (VTE), which might complicate the natural history of ST. This is the third update of a review first published in 2007.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and safety of topical, medical, and surgical treatments for ST of the leg in improving local symptoms and decreasing thromboembolic complications.

SEARCH METHODS

For this update, the Cochrane Vascular Information Specialist searched the Cochrane Vascular Specialised Register (March 2017), CENTRAL (2017, Issue 2), and trials registries (March 2017). We handsearched the reference lists of relevant papers and conference proceedings.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating topical, medical, and surgical treatments for ST of the legs that included people with a clinical diagnosis of ST of the legs or objective diagnosis of a thrombus in a superficial vein.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors assessed the trials for inclusion in the review, extracted the data, and assessed the quality of the studies. Data were independently extracted from the included studies and any disagreements resolved by consensus. We assessed the quality of the evidence using the GRADE approach.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified three additional trials (613 participants), therefore this update considered 33 studies involving 7296 people with ST of the legs. Treatment included fondaparinux; rivaroxaban; low molecular weight heparin (LMWH); unfractionated heparin (UFH); non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); compression stockings; and topical, intramuscular, or intravenous treatment to surgical interventions such as thrombectomy or ligation. Only a minority of trials compared treatment with placebo rather than an alternative treatment and many studies were small and of poor quality. Pooling of the data was possible for few outcomes, and none were part of a placebo-controlled trial. In one large, placebo-controlled RCT of 3002 participants, subcutaneous fondaparinux was associated with a significant reduction in symptomatic VTE (risk ratio (RR) 0.15, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.04 to 0.50; moderate-quality evidence), ST extension (RR 0.08, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.22; moderate-quality evidence), and ST recurrence (RR 0.21, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.54; moderate-quality evidence) relative to placebo. Major bleeding was infrequent in both groups with very wide CIs around risk estimate (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.06 to 15.86; moderate-quality evidence). In one RCT on 472 high-risk participants with ST, fondaparinux was associated with a non-significant reduction of symptomatic VTE compared to rivaroxaban 10 mg (RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.03 to 3.18; low-quality evidence). There were no major bleeding events in either group (low-quality evidence). In another placebo-controlled trial, both prophylactic and therapeutic doses of LMWH (prophylactic: RR 0.44, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.74; therapeutic: RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.77) and NSAIDs (RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.78) reduced the extension (low-quality evidence) and recurrence of ST (low-quality evidence) in comparison to placebo, with no significant effects on symptomatic VTE (low-quality evidence) or major bleeding (low-quality evidence). Overall, topical treatments improved local symptoms compared with placebo, but no data were provided on the effects on VTE and ST extension. Surgical treatment combined with elastic stockings was associated with a lower VTE rate and ST progression compared with elastic stockings alone. However, the majority of studies that compared different oral treatments, topical treatments, or surgery did not report VTE, ST progression, adverse events, or treatment adverse effects.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Prophylactic dose fondaparinux given for 45 days appears to be a valid therapeutic option for ST of the legs for most people. The evidence on topical treatment or surgery is too limited and does not inform clinical practice about the effects of these treatments in terms of VTE. Further research is needed to assess the role of rivaroxaban and other direct oral factor-X or thrombin inhibitors, LMWH, and NSAIDs; the optimal doses and duration of treatment in people at various risk of recurrence; and whether a combination therapy may be more effective than single treatment. Adequately designed and conducted studies are required to clarify the role of topical and surgical treatments.

Initial management and outcomes after superficial thrombophlebitis: The Cardiovascular Research Network Venous Thromboembolism study

Although superficial thrombophlebitis (SVTE) is generally considered a benign, self-limited disease, accumulating evidence suggests that it often leads to more serious forms of venous thromboembolism. We reviewed the medical charts of 329 subjects with SVTE from the Cardiovascular Research Network Venous Thromboembolism cohort study to collect information on the acute treatment of SVTE and subsequent diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis within 1 year. All participants received care within Kaiser Permanente Northern California, a large, integrated healthcare delivery system. Fourteen (4.3%) subjects with SVTE received anticoagulants, 148 (45.0%) were recommended antiplatelet agents or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and in 167 (50.8%) there was no documented antithrombotic therapy. In the year after SVTE diagnosis, 19 (5.8%) patients had a subsequent diagnosis of a deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. In conclusion, clinically significant venous thrombosis within a year after SVTE was uncommon in our study despite infrequent use of antithrombotic therapy. Journal of Hospital Medicine 2016;11:432-434. © 2016 Society of Hospital Medicine.

Low-level laser therapy for the treatment of superficial thrombophlebitis after chemotherapy in breast cancer patients: a case study

[Purpose] We report the case of a breast cancer patient with superficial thrombophlebitis treated with low-level laser therapy. [Case] The patient was a 66-year-old women who developed superficial thrombophlebitis in the left upper limb after chemotherapy. She was administered 6 sessions of low-level laser therapy. [Result] Her pain score decreased by 8 points. Her scores on the Patient and Observer scar Assessment Scale decreased by 18 points for the observer portion and by 26 points for the patient portion. [Conclusion] Low-level laser therapy is effective for the reduction of pain and the size of scar tissue in patients with superficial thrombophlebitis.

Treatment for superficial infusion thrombophlebitis of the upper extremity

BACKGROUND

Although superficial thrombophlebitis of the upper extremity represents a frequent complication of intravenous catheters inserted into the peripheral veins of the forearm or hand, no consensus exists on the optimal management of this condition in clinical practice.

OBJECTIVES

To summarise the evidence from randomised clinical trials (RCTs) concerning the efficacy and safety of (topical, oral or parenteral) medical therapy of superficial thrombophlebitis of the upper extremity.

SEARCH METHODS

The Cochrane Vascular Group Trials Search Co-ordinator searched the Specialised Register (last searched April 2015) and the Cochrane Register of Studies (2015, Issue 3). Clinical trials registries were searched up to April 2015.

SELECTION CRITERIA

RCTs comparing any (topical, oral or parenteral) medical treatment to no intervention or placebo, or comparing two different medical interventions (e.g. a different variant scheme or regimen of the same intervention or a different pharmacological type of treatment).

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We extracted data on methodological quality, patient characteristics, interventions and outcomes, including improvement of signs and symptoms as the primary effectiveness outcome, and number of participants experiencing side effects of the study treatments as the primary safety outcome.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified 13 studies (917 participants). The evaluated treatment modalities consisted of a topical treatment (11 studies), an oral treatment (2 studies) and a parenteral treatment (2 studies). Seven studies used a placebo or no intervention control group, whereas all others also or solely compared active treatment groups. No study evaluated the effects of ice or the application of cold or hot bandages. Overall, the risk of bias in individual trials was moderate to high, although poor reporting hampered a full appreciation of the risk in most studies. The overall quality of the evidence for each of the outcomes varied from low to moderate mainly due to risk of bias and imprecision, with only single trials contributing to most comparisons. Data on primary outcomes improvement of signs and symptoms and side effects attributed to the study treatment could not be statistically pooled because of the between-study differences in comparisons, outcomes and type of instruments to measure outcomes.An array of topical treatments, such as heparinoid or diclofenac gels, improved pain compared to placebo or no intervention. Compared to placebo, oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reduced signs and symptoms intensity. Safety issues were reported sparsely and were not available for some interventions, such as notoginseny creams, parenteral low-molecular-weight heparin or defibrotide. Although several trials reported on adverse events with topical heparinoid creams, Essaven gel or phlebolan versus control, the trials were underpowered to adequately measure any differences between treatment modalities. Where reported, adverse events with topical treatments consisted mainly of local allergic reactions. Only one study of 15 participants assessed thrombus extension and symptomatic venous thromboembolism with either oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or low-molecular-weight heparin, and it reported no cases of either. No study reported on the development of suppurative phlebitis, catheter-related bloodstream infections or quality of life.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The evidence about the treatment of acute infusion superficial thrombophlebitis is limited and of low quality. Data appear too preliminary to assess the effectiveness and safety of topical treatments, systemic anticoagulation or oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Achromobacter causing a thrombophlebitis and osteomyelitis combination: a rare cause

Achromobacter xylosoxidans is a Gram-negative, aerobic bacillus, present in normal human flora of the skin and gastrointestinal tract. Infections due to Achromobacter are infrequent and have mostly been reported in immunocompromised patients. Rarely, however, the microorganism can cause soft tissue infections even in healthy subjects with a history of trauma. We report thrombophlebitis complicated with osteomyelitis secondary to Achromobacter in a 15-year-old girl with a history of purulent discharge from the ankle due to local trauma caused by tight fitting shoes.

Variability in the Management of Superficial Venous Thrombophlebitis across Practitioners Based in North America and the Global Community

Introduction. This study aimed to compare management patterns of patients with SVT among healthcare practitioners based in North America versus those in the global community. Methods. A 17-question, multiple choice survey with questions regarding SVT diagnosis and management strategies was provided to practitioners who attended the American Venous Forum (AVF) meeting in 2011. Results. There were 487 practitioners surveyed with 365 classified as North American (US or Canada) and 122 (56 Europe, 25 Asia, 11 South America, and 7 Africa) representing the global community. The key difference seen between the groups was in the initial imaging study used in patients presenting with SVT (P = 0.046) and physicians in the US ordered fewer bilateral duplex ultrasounds and more unilateral duplex ultrasounds (49.6% versus 58.2%, 39.7% versus 34.4%). In the US cohort, phlebologists and vascular surgeons constituted 82% (n = 300) of the specialties surveyed. In the global community, SVT was managed by phlebologists or vascular surgeons 44% (n = 54) of the time. Surgical management was highly variable between groups. Conclusion. There is currently no consensus between or among practitioners in North America or globally as to the surgical management of SVT, duration of follow-up, and anticoagulation parameters.