Weaning practices among pastoralists: New evidence of infant feeding patterns from Bronze Age Eurasia

Proposed mechanism for the selection of lactase persistence in childhood

Lactase persistence/persistent (LP), the ability to express the lactase enzyme in adults, is one of the most strongly selected phenotypes in humans. It is encoded by at least five genetic variants that have rapidly become widespread in various human populations. The underlying selective mechanism is not clear however, because dairy products in general are well tolerated in adults, even by lactase non-persistence/persistent (LNP) individuals. Cultural adaptations to milk consumption, notably fermentation and transformation, which can provide most of the energy (protein, fat) to both LP and LNP individuals without any associated cost seem to have been common in ancient societies. Here, we propose that selection for LP occurred through increased glucose/galactose (energy) from fresh milk intake in early childhood, a crucial period for growth. At the age of weaning indeed, lactase activity has already begun to decline in LNP individuals so the gain in energy from fresh milk by LP children represents a major fitness increase.

Bone pathologies of modern caprines (Ovis aries & Capra hircus) in the context of the pasture-stall system of the steppe zone of the South Urals

OBJECTIVES

Various dentition and bone pathologies of the postcranial skeleton of caprines are regularly mentioned in archaeozoological studies. This work analyzes pathological and age-related changes in modern animals with known life histories in order to improve the accuracy of interpretation of pathologies of caprines from archaeological sites.

MATERIALS

1468 bones of modern caprines (mainly sheep) have been analyzed. The bones originate from the territory in which there are numerous settlements of Bronze Age pastoralists.

METHODS

Bones of modern caprines with pathologies have been compared with bones without changes. The age of the animals was determined by the state of the dental system and epiphyses, which made it possible to determine the approximate age range of the caprines, the bones of which are analyzed in the work.

RESULTS

For each skeletal element of modern caprines, typical kinds of changes have been revealed. In some cases, a correlation has been established between the number of pathological changes and the age of livestock.

CONCLUSION

Despite the known life histories of sheep and goats, the etiology of a number of identified changes remains unknown. Most of the recorded pathologies are typical for caprines and are difficult to use for the reconstruction of the nature of animal husbandry practices.

SIGNIFICANCE

This work analyzes a relatively extensive collection of bones of caprines with known life histories. It will allow the identification of typical bone pathologies in sheep and goats and their approximate etiology within a given breeding system and area. These data can be used in the framework of archaeozoological studies of the steppe zone of northern Eurasia and other territories.

LIMITATIONS

This research is limited to a relatively small number of bones and complete skeletons of modern caprines, alongside the near absence of complete skeletons of modern wild ungulates from the same microdistrict.

FUTURE RESEARCH

The most promising area of future work is a combined comparative study of a larger sample of bones of modern and Bronze Age caprines and wild ungulates of the same size class. It will allow changes to be identified directly related to animal husbandry practices.

Feeding Babies at the Beginnings of Urbanization in Central Europe

Small ceramic vessels with spouts, from which liquid can be poured, became popular during the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages in Central Europe (c. 1200–600 BC). Such feeding vessels represent a functional type and are highly variable in size, shape and decoration. Found both on settlements and within graves, their association with child burials suggest they might have been used to feed babies and small children. Combined lipid and isotope analysis was performed on 24 of these feeding vessels, with seven delivering interpretable results. Feeding vessels associated with child burials tend to deliver a ruminant milk signal, whereas other vessels were used to process ruminant and non-ruminant adipose fats. Here, we highlight the potential significance of feeding vessels as indicators of changing childcare practices during times of population increase, settlement nucleation and mobility, possibly involving out-sourcing the feeding of babies and small children to persons other than the mother.

Diet and subsistence in Bronze Age pastoral communities from the southern Russian steppes and the North Caucasus

The flanks of the Caucasus Mountains and the steppe landscape to their north offered highly productive grasslands for Bronze Age herders and their flocks of sheep, goat, and cattle. While the archaeological evidence points to a largely pastoral lifestyle, knowledge regarding the general composition of human diets and their variation across landscapes and during the different phases of the Bronze Age is still restricted. Human and animal skeletal remains from the burial mounds that dominate the archaeological landscape and their stable isotope compositions are major sources of dietary information. Here, we present stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data of bone collagen of 105 human and 50 animal individuals from the 5th millennium BC to the Sarmatian period, with a strong focus on the Bronze Age and its cultural units including Maykop, Yamnaya, Novotitorovskaya, North Caucasian, Catacomb, post-Catacomb and late Bronze Age groups. The samples comprise all inhumations with sufficient bone preservation from five burial mound sites and a flat grave cemetery as well as subsamples from three further sites. They represent the Caucasus Mountains in the south, the piedmont zone and Kuban steppe with humid steppe and forest vegetation to its north, and more arid regions in the Caspian steppe. The stable isotope compositions of the bone collagen of humans and animals varied across the study area and reflect regional diversity in environmental conditions and diets. The data agree with meat, milk, and/or dairy products from domesticated herbivores, especially from sheep and goats having contributed substantially to human diets, as it is common for a largely pastoral economy. This observation is also in correspondence with the faunal remains observed in the graves and offerings of animals in the mound shells. In addition, foodstuffs with elevated carbon and nitrogen isotope values, such as meat of unweaned animals, fish, or plants, also contributed to human diets, especially among communities living in the more arid landscapes. The regional distinction of the animal and human data with few outliers points to mobility radii that were largely concentrated within the environmental zones in which the respective sites are located. In general, dietary variation among the cultural entities as well as regarding age, sex and archaeologically indicated social status is only weakly reflected. There is, however, some indication for a dietary shift during the Early Bronze Age Maykop period.