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Pal R, Chattaraj PK. Electrophilicity index revisited. J Comput Chem 2023; 44:278-297. [PMID: 35546516 DOI: 10.1002/jcc.26886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
This review aims to be a comprehensive, authoritative, critical, and accessible review of general interest to the chemistry community; because the electrophilicity index is a very useful global reactivity descriptor defined within a conceptual density functional theory framework. Our group has also introduced electrophilicity based new global and local reactivity descriptors and also new associated electronic structure principles, which are important indicators of structure, stability, bonding, reactivity, interactions, and dynamics in a wide variety of physico-chemical systems and processes. This index along with its local counterpart augmented by the associated electronic structure principles could properly explain molecular vibrations, internal rotations and various types of chemical reactions. The concept of the electrophilicity index has been extended to dynamical processes, excited states, confined environment, spin-dependent and temperature-dependent situations, biological activity, site selectivity, aromaticity, charge removal and acceptance, presence of external perturbation through solvents, external electric and magnetic fields, and so forth. Although electrophilicity and its local variant can adequately interpret the behavior of a wide variety of systems and different physico-chemical processes involving them, their predictive potential remains to be explored. An exhaustive review on all these aspects will set the tone of the future research in that direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranita Pal
- Advanced Technology Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
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How Do Aromatic Nitro Compounds React with Nucleophiles? Theoretical Description Using Aromaticity, Nucleophilicity and Electrophilicity Indices. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25204819. [PMID: 33092140 PMCID: PMC7587944 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25204819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we present a complete description of the addition of a model nucleophile to the nitroaromatic ring in positions occupied either by hydrogen (the first step of the SNAr-H reaction) or a leaving group (SNAr-X reaction) using theoretical parameters including aromaticity (HOMA), electrophilicity and nucleophilicity indices. It was shown both experimentally and by our calculations, including kinetic isotope effect modeling, that the addition of a nucleophile to the electron-deficient aromatic ring is the rate limiting step of both SNAr-X and SNAr-H reactions when the fast transformation of σH-adduct into the products is possible due to the specific reaction conditions, so this is the most important step of the entire reaction. The results described in this paper are helpful for better understanding of the subtle factors controlling the reaction direction and rate.
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Goodman H, Mei L, Gianetti TL. Molecular Orbital Insights of Transition Metal-Stabilized Carbocations. Front Chem 2019; 7:365. [PMID: 31214563 PMCID: PMC6558042 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Transition metal-stabilized carbocations are characterized by synthetically valuable interactions, yet, to date there are no comprehensive reports of the many bonding modes that can exist between a metal and carbocation. This review summarizes developments in these complexes to provide a clear picture of their properties and reactivities. In order to strategically exploit them, we propose this summary of the different bonding modes for transition metal-carbocation complexes. These models will help chemists understand the orbital interactions involved in these compounds so that they can approach their synthetic goals most effectively. Multiple transition metals and carbocations will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Goodman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Liangyong Mei
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Thomas L Gianetti
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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Mayr H, Patz M. Modelling carbocationic polymerizations: Kinetics of the reactions of carbocations with alkenes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/masy.19961070111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Stabilities and Reactivities of Carbocations. ADVANCES IN PHYSICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3160(08)44002-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
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Suresh CH, Alexander P, Vijayalakshmi KP, Sajith PK, Gadre SR. Use of molecular electrostatic potential for quantitative assessment of inductive effect. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2008; 10:6492-9. [PMID: 18979034 DOI: 10.1039/b809561b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Density functional theory computations at the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) level have been carried out for three types of model compounds, viz. (i) 4-substituted bicyclo[2.2.2]octane carboxylic acids, (ii) anions of 4-substituted bicyclo[2.2.2]octane carboxylic acids and (iii) 4-substituted quinuclidines where the substituents are NO(2), CN, Cl, Br, CF(3), F, CHO, CH(2)Cl, COOH, COCH(3), CONH(2), OH, OCH(3), C(6)H(5), NH(2), H, CH(3), CH(2)CH(3), CH(CH(3))(2), and C(CH(3))(3) to study the dependencies between molecular electrostatic potential minimum (V(min)) and the inductive substituent constant sigma(I). All the three model systems show excellent linear correlation between V(min) and sigma(I) suggesting that the calculation of V(min) parameter in these systems offers a simple and efficient computational approach for the evaluation of inductive substituent constants. The calculated linear equation for the models (i), (ii), and (iii) are V(min) = 12.982 sigma(I)- 48.867, V(min) = 13.444 sigma(I)- 182.760, and V(min) = 18.100 sigma(I)- 65.785, respectively. Considering the simplicity of the quinuclidine model, V(min) value at the nitrogen lone pair region of a 4-substituted quinuclidine system is recommended for the evaluation of sigma(I). Further, the additivity effect of sigma(I) is tested on multiply substituted quinuclidine and bicyclo[2.2.2]octane carboxylic acid derivatives using the V(min) approach and the results firmly supported the additivity rule of inductive effect. The systems showing considerable deviations from the additivity rule are easily recognized as those showing either steric effect or intramolecular hydrogen bond interactions at the V(min) response site. However, the distance relation of sigma(I) is not well represented in the caged molecular systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cherumuttathu H Suresh
- Computational Modeling and Simulation Section, National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR), Trivandrum 695 019.
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Lakhdar S, Goumont R, Berionni G, Boubaker T, Kurbatov S, Terrier F. Superelectrophilicity of the Nitroolefinic Fragment of 4-Nitrobenzodifuroxan in Michael-Type Reactions with Indoles: A Kinetic Study in Acetonitrile. Chemistry 2007; 13:8317-24. [PMID: 17642071 DOI: 10.1002/chem.200700676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The kinetics of the coupling of 4-nitrobenzodifuroxan (NBDF) with a series of indoles 8 a-e to give the expected Michael-type adducts 9 a-e have been investigated in acetonitrile solution. No significant influence of the nature of the isotopic substitution at C-3 of the indole ring has been found, indicating that the NBDF addition step is the rate limiting step of the SEAr substitution of the indole moiety. This implies that the measured second-order rate constants (k) for the reactions are identical to the second order rate constants (k1NBDF) associated to the C--C coupling step. By using the known N and s parameters characterizing the nucleophilicity of indoles, the k1NBDF rate constants are found to fit nicely to the three parameters equation logk1=s(N+E) introduced by Mayr to describe the feasibility of nucleophilic-electrophilic combinations. Based on this, the electrophilicity parameter E of NBDF could be determined as E=-6.15. This corresponds to a positioning of the reactivity of the nitroactivated double bond of NBDF in the domain of superelectrophilicity previously defined for nitrobenzofuroxans, in accord with the finding that the rates of coupling of 8 a-e with NBDF are only one order of magnitude lower than those for the coupling of these indoles with 4,6-dinitrobenzofuroxan (DNBF). The theoretical scale of electrophilicity introduced by Domingo et al. on the basis of the global electrophilicity index omega defined by Parr is also a very useful tool to discuss the relative reactivities of NBDF, DNBF, and a number of differently activated C==C double bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sami Lakhdar
- Unité de Recherche de Physico-Chimie Moléculaire, Faculté des Sciences de Monastir, Avenue de l'Environnement, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia
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Jaramillo P, Pérez P, Fuentealba P. Relationship between basicity and nucleophilicity. J PHYS ORG CHEM 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/poc.1251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Pérez P, Domingo LR, Aizman A, Contreras R. Chapter 9 The electrophilicity index in organic chemistry. THEORETICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/s1380-7323(07)80010-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Ebrahimi A, Roohi H, Habibi M, Hasannejad M. Determination of gas-phase nucleophilicities and electrophilicities using B⋯HX bond critical point properties of AIM analysis. Chem Phys 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2006.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Jaramillo P, Pérez P, Contreras R, Tiznado W, Fuentealba P. Definition of a Nucleophilicity Scale. J Phys Chem A 2006; 110:8181-7. [PMID: 16805506 DOI: 10.1021/jp057351q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This work deals with exploring some empirical scales of nucleophilicity. We have started evaluating the experimental indices of nucleophilicity proposed by Legon and Millen on the basis of the measure of the force constants derived from vibrational frequencies using a probe dipole H-X (X = F,CN). The correlation among some theoretical parameters with this experimental scale has been evaluated. The theoretical parameters have been chosen as the minimum of the electrostatic potential V(min), the binding energy (BE) between the nucleophile and the H-X dipole, and the electrostatic potential measured at the position of the hydrogen atom V(H) when the complex nucleophile and dipole H-X is in the equilibrium geometry. All of them present good correlations with the experimental nucleophilicity scale. In addition, the BEs of the nucleophiles with two other Lewis acids (one hard, BF(3), and the other soft, BH(3)) have been evaluated. The results suggest that the Legon and Millen nucleophilicity scale and the electrostatic potential derived scales can describe in good approximation the reactivity order of the nucleophiles only when the interactions with a probe electrophile is of the hard-hard type. For a covalent interaction that is orbital controlled, a new nucleophilicity index using information of the frontier orbitals of both, the nucleophile and the electrophile has been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Jaramillo
- Departamento de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Andrés Bello, Republica 275, Santiago, Chile
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Denekamp C, Sandlers Y. Electrophilicity–Nucleophilicity Scale Also in the Gas Phase. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006; 45:2093-6. [PMID: 16493713 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200503235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chagit Denekamp
- Department of Chemistry, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.
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Denekamp C, Sandlers Y. Electrophilicity–Nucleophilicity Scale Also in the Gas Phase. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200503235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Waser M, Jary WG, Pöchlauer P, Falk H. Concerning chemistry, reactivity, and mechanism of transition metal catalysed oxidation of benzylic compounds by means of ozone. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcata.2005.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Domingo LR, Pérez P, Contreras R. Electronic contributions to the sigma(p) parameter of the Hammett equation. J Org Chem 2003; 68:6060-2. [PMID: 12868951 DOI: 10.1021/jo030072j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A statistical procedure to obtain the intrinsic electronic contributions to the Hammett substituent constant sigma(p) is reported. The method is based on the comparison between the experimental sigma(p) values and the electronic electrophilicity index omega evaluated for a series of 42 functional groups commonly present in organic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis R Domingo
- Instituto de Ciencia Molecular, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de Valencia, Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.
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Pérez P, Toro-Labbé A, Aizman A, Contreras R. Comparison between experimental and theoretical scales of electrophilicity in benzhydryl cations. J Org Chem 2002; 67:4747-52. [PMID: 12098284 DOI: 10.1021/jo020255q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The theoretical electrophilicity pattern of a series of benzhydryl cations as described in terms of a model based on global reactivity indexes is compared with an experimental scale recently proposed by Mayr et al. [J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 9500]. A good correlation between both theoretical and experimental quantities is found. The effect of chemical substitution on the electrophilic power of these charged electrophiles may also be assessed as local responses at the active site, in terms of a global contribution described by changes in global electrophilicity with reference to the dianisylcarbenium ion, and a local contribution described by the variations in electrophilic Fukui function at that site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Pérez
- Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, República 217, Universidad Nacional Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile.
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Mayr H, Kuhn O, Gotta MF, Patz M. Linear free enthalpy relationships: a powerful tool for the design of organic and organometallic synthesis. J PHYS ORG CHEM 1998. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1395(199808/09)11:8/9<642::aid-poc65>3.0.co;2-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Henninger J, Mayr H, Patz M, Stanescu MD. Electrophilic reactions of the dibenzo[a,d]tropylium ion. European J Org Chem 1995. [DOI: 10.1002/jlac.1995199511281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Mayr H, Rau D. How Electrophilic are Ferrocenylmethyl Cations? Kinetics of their Reactions with π Nucleophiles and Hydride Donors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994. [DOI: 10.1002/cber.19941271221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Mayr H, Patz M. Nucleophilie- und Elektrophilieskalen als Ordnungsprinzipien polarer organischer und metallorganischer Reaktionen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 1994. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.19941060905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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