1
|
Moreno-Yruela C, Fierz B. Revealing chromatin-specific functions of histone deacylases. Biochem Soc Trans 2024; 52:353-365. [PMID: 38189424 DOI: 10.1042/bst20230693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Histone deacylases are erasers of Nε-acyl-lysine post-translational modifications and have been targeted for decades for the treatment of cancer, neurodegeneration and other disorders. Due to their relatively promiscuous activity on peptide substrates in vitro, it has been challenging to determine the individual targets and substrate identification mechanisms of each isozyme, and they have been considered redundant regulators. In recent years, biochemical and biophysical studies have incorporated the use of reconstituted nucleosomes, which has revealed a diverse and complex arsenal of recognition mechanisms by which histone deacylases may differentiate themselves in vivo. In this review, we first present the peptide-based tools that have helped characterize histone deacylases in vitro to date, and we discuss the new insights that nucleosome tools are providing into their recognition of histone substrates within chromatin. Then, we summarize the powerful semi-synthetic approaches that are moving forward the study of chromatin-associated factors, both in vitro by detailed single-molecule mechanistic studies, and in cells by live chromatin modification. We finally offer our perspective on how these new techniques would advance the study of histone deacylases. We envision that such studies will help elucidate the role of individual isozymes in disease and provide a platform for the development of the next generation of therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Moreno-Yruela
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry of Macromolecules (LCBM), Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology (ILF), Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Beat Fierz
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry of Macromolecules (LCBM), Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), School of Basic Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Rehkopf L, Seidel J, Sindlinger J, Wang M, Kirchgäßner S, Schwarzer D. Synthesis of Nε-acetyl-L-homolysine by the Lossen rearrangement and its application for probing deacetylases and binding modules of acetyl-lysine. J Pept Sci 2023; 29:e3462. [PMID: 36416071 DOI: 10.1002/psc.3462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Lysine acetylation is a posttranslational protein modification mediating protein-protein interactions by recruitment of bromodomains. Investigations of bromodomains have focused so far on the sequence context of the modification site and acyl-modifications installed at lysine side chains. In contrast, there is only little information about the impact of the lysine residue that carries the modification on bromodomain binding. Here, we report a synthesis strategy for L-acetyl-homolysine from L-2-aminosuberic acid by the Lossen rearrangement. Peptide probes containing acetylated homolysine, lysine, and ornithine were generated and used for probing the binding preferences of four bromodomains from three different families. Tested bromodomains showed distinct binding patterns, and one of them bound acetylated homolysine with similar efficiency as the native substrate containing acetyl-lysine. Deacetylation assays with a bacterial sirtuin showed a strong preference for acetylated lysine, despite a broad specificity for N-acyl modifications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Rehkopf
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Julian Seidel
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Institute for Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Julia Sindlinger
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Institute for Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Mass Spectrometry Platform, Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Mary Wang
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sören Kirchgäßner
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dirk Schwarzer
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tilak P, Kotnik F, Née G, Seidel J, Sindlinger J, Heinkow P, Eirich J, Schwarzer D, Finkemeier I. Proteome-wide lysine acetylation profiling to investigate the involvement of histone deacetylase HDA5 in the salt stress response of Arabidopsis leaves. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 36961081 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins play important roles in the acclimation of plants to environmental stress. Lysine acetylation is a dynamic and reversible PTM, which can be removed by histone deacetylases. Here we investigated the role of lysine acetylation in the response of Arabidopsis leaves to 1 week of salt stress. A quantitative mass spectrometry analysis revealed an increase in lysine acetylation of several proteins from cytosol and plastids, which was accompanied by altered histone deacetylase activities in the salt-treated leaves. While activities of HDA14 and HDA15 were decreased upon salt stress, HDA5 showed a mild and HDA19 a strong increase in activity. Since HDA5 is a cytosolic-nuclear enzyme from the class II histone deacetylase family with yet unknown protein substrates, we performed a lysine acetylome analysis on hda5 mutants and characterized its substrate proteins. Next to histone H2B, the salt stress-responsive transcription factor GT2L and the dehydration-related protein ERD7 were identified as HDA5 substrates. In addition, in protein-protein interaction studies, HDA18 was discovered, among other interacting proteins, to work in a complex together with HDA5. Altogether, this study revealed the substrate proteins of HDA5 and identified new lysine acetylation sites which are hyperacetylated upon salt stress. The identification of specific histone deacetylase substrate proteins, apart from histones, will be important to unravel the acclimation response of Arabidopsis to salt stress and their role in plant physiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Priyadarshini Tilak
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Schlossplatz 7, DE-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Florian Kotnik
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Schlossplatz 7, DE-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Guillaume Née
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Schlossplatz 7, DE-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Julian Seidel
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB), University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Julia Sindlinger
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB), University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Paulina Heinkow
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Schlossplatz 7, DE-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Jürgen Eirich
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Schlossplatz 7, DE-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Dirk Schwarzer
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB), University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Iris Finkemeier
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Schlossplatz 7, DE-48149, Münster, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kirchgäßner S, Braun MB, Bartlick N, Koç C, Reinkemeier CD, Lemke EA, Stehle T, Schwarzer D. Synthesis, Biochemical Characterization, and Genetic Encoding of a 1,2,4-Triazole Amino Acid as an Acetyllysine Mimic for Bromodomains of the BET Family. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202215460. [PMID: 36585954 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202215460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Lysine acetylation is a charge-neutralizing post-translational modification of proteins bound by bromodomains (Brds). A 1,2,4-triazole amino acid (ApmTri) was established as acetyllysine (Kac) mimic recruiting Brds of the BET family in contrast to glutamine commonly used for simulating this modification. Optimization of triazole substituents and side chain spacing allowed BET Brd recruitment to ApmTri-containing peptides with affinities similar to native substrates. Crystal structures of ApmTri-containing peptides in complex with two BET Brds revealed the binding mode which mirrored that of Kac ligands. ApmTri was genetically encoded and recombinant ApmTri-containing proteins co-enriched BRD3(2) from cellular lysates. This interaction was blocked by BET inhibitor JQ1. With genetically encoded ApmTri, biochemistry is now provided with a stable Kac mimic reflecting charge neutralization and Brd recruitment, allowing new investigations into BET proteins in vitro and in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sören Kirchgäßner
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michael B Braun
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Natascha Bartlick
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Cengiz Koç
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Current address: Department of Infection, Immunity & Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, The Medical School, Beech Hill Rd, Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK
| | - Christopher D Reinkemeier
- Biocenter, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55128, Mainz, Germany.,Institute of Molecular Biology Mainz, 55128, Mainz, Germany.,Current address: Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering Basel, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Edward A Lemke
- Biocenter, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55128, Mainz, Germany.,Institute of Molecular Biology Mainz, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Thilo Stehle
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dirk Schwarzer
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 34, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Eirich J, Sindlinger J, Schön S, Schwarzer D, Finkemeier I. Peptide CoA conjugates for in situ proteomics profiling of acetyltransferase activities. Methods Enzymol 2023; 684:209-252. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
|
6
|
Archibald L, Brown EA, Millard CJ, Watson PJ, Robertson NS, Wang S, Schwabe JWR, Jamieson AG. Hydroxamic Acid-Modified Peptide Library Provides Insights into the Molecular Basis for the Substrate Selectivity of HDAC Corepressor Complexes. ACS Chem Biol 2022; 17:2572-2582. [PMID: 35973051 PMCID: PMC9488896 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.2c00510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Targeting the lysine deacetylase activity of class I histone deacetylases (HDACs) is potentially beneficial for the treatment of several diseases including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, Alzheimer's disease, and various cancers. It is therefore important to understand the function and mechanism of action of these enzymes. Class I HDACs act as catalytic components of seven large, multiprotein corepressor complexes. Different HDAC corepressor complexes have specific, nonredundant roles in the cell. It is likely that their specific functions are at least partly influenced by the substrate specificity of the complexes. To address this, we developed chemical tools to probe the specificity of HDAC complexes. We assessed a library of acetyl-lysine-containing substrate peptides and hydroxamic acid-containing inhibitor peptides against the full range of class I HDAC corepressor complexes. The results suggest that site-specific HDAC corepressor complex activity is driven in part by the recognition of the primary amino acid sequence surrounding a particular lysine position in the histone tail.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lewis
J. Archibald
- School
of Chemistry, Advanced Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G11 6EW, U.K.
| | - Edward A. Brown
- The
Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University
of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, U.K.
| | - Christopher J. Millard
- The
Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University
of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, U.K.
| | - Peter J. Watson
- The
Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University
of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, U.K.
| | - Naomi S. Robertson
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1GA, U.K.
| | - Siyu Wang
- The
Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University
of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, U.K.
| | - John W. R. Schwabe
- The
Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University
of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, U.K.,
| | - Andrew G. Jamieson
- School
of Chemistry, Advanced Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G11 6EW, U.K.,
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
The field of epigenetics has exploded over the last two decades, revealing an astonishing level of complexity in the way genetic information is stored and accessed in eukaryotes. This expansion of knowledge, which is very much ongoing, has been made possible by the availability of evermore sensitive and precise molecular tools. This review focuses on the increasingly important role that chemistry plays in this burgeoning field. In an effort to make these contributions more accessible to the nonspecialist, we group available chemical approaches into those that allow the covalent structure of the protein and DNA components of chromatin to be manipulated, those that allow the activity of myriad factors that act on chromatin to be controlled, and those that allow the covalent structure and folding of chromatin to be characterized. The application of these tools is illustrated through a series of case studies that highlight how the molecular precision afforded by chemistry is being used to establish causal biochemical relationships at the heart of epigenetic regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John D Bagert
- Frick Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA; ,
| | - Tom W Muir
- Frick Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA; ,
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Moreno-Yruela C, Bæk M, Vrsanova AE, Schulte C, Maric HM, Olsen CA. Hydroxamic acid-modified peptide microarrays for profiling isozyme-selective interactions and inhibition of histone deacetylases. Nat Commun 2021; 12:62. [PMID: 33397936 PMCID: PMC7782793 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20250-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Histones control gene expression by regulating chromatin structure and function. The posttranslational modifications (PTMs) on the side chains of histones form the epigenetic landscape, which is tightly controlled by epigenetic modulator enzymes and further recognized by so-called reader domains. Histone microarrays have been widely applied to investigate histone-reader interactions, but not the transient interactions of Zn2+-dependent histone deacetylase (HDAC) eraser enzymes. Here, we synthesize hydroxamic acid-modified histone peptides and use them in femtomolar microarrays for the direct capture and detection of the four class I HDAC isozymes. Follow-up functional assays in solution provide insights into their suitability to discover HDAC substrates and inhibitors with nanomolar potency and activity in cellular assays. We conclude that similar hydroxamic acid-modified histone peptide microarrays and libraries could find broad application to identify class I HDAC isozyme-specific substrates and facilitate the development of isozyme-selective HDAC inhibitors and probes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Moreno-Yruela
- Center for Biopharmaceuticals & Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael Bæk
- Center for Biopharmaceuticals & Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Adela-Eugenie Vrsanova
- Center for Biopharmaceuticals & Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Institute of Applied Biosciences & Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Adenauerring 20a, D-76131, Karlsruhe, Germany.,Division of Proteomics of Stem Cells and Cancer, DKFZ German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenhemier Feld 581, D-69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Clemens Schulte
- Rudolf Virchow Center, Center for Integrative and Translational Bioimaging, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, D-97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Hans M Maric
- Rudolf Virchow Center, Center for Integrative and Translational Bioimaging, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, D-97080, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Christian A Olsen
- Center for Biopharmaceuticals & Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Zhang J, Peng J, Huang Y, Meng L, Li Q, Xiong F, Li X. Identification of Histone deacetylase (HDAC)‐Associated Proteins with DNA‐Programmed Affinity Labeling. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:17525-17532. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202001205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jianfu Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Jianzhao Peng
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
- Department of Chemistry Southern University of Science and Technology China 1088 Xueyuan Road Shenzhen China
| | - Yiran Huang
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Ling Meng
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Qingrong Li
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
- Department of Chemistry Southern University of Science and Technology China 1088 Xueyuan Road Shenzhen China
| | - Feng Xiong
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Zhang J, Peng J, Huang Y, Meng L, Li Q, Xiong F, Li X. Identification of Histone deacetylase (HDAC)‐Associated Proteins with DNA‐Programmed Affinity Labeling. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202001205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jianfu Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Jianzhao Peng
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
- Department of Chemistry Southern University of Science and Technology China 1088 Xueyuan Road Shenzhen China
| | - Yiran Huang
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Ling Meng
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Qingrong Li
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
- Department of Chemistry Southern University of Science and Technology China 1088 Xueyuan Road Shenzhen China
| | - Feng Xiong
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- Department of Chemistry and the State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry The University of Hong Kong Laboratory for Synthetic Chemistry and Chemical Biology of Health@InnoHK Pokfulam Road Hong Kong SAR China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Née G, Tilak P, Finkemeier I. A Versatile Workflow for the Identification of Protein-Protein Interactions Using GFP-Trap Beads and Mass Spectrometry-Based Label-Free Quantification. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2139:257-271. [PMID: 32462592 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0528-8_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Protein functions often rely on protein-protein interactions. Hence, knowledge about the protein interaction network is essential for an understanding of protein functions and plant physiology. A major challenge of the postgenomic era is the mapping of protein-protein interaction networks. This chapter describes a mass spectrometry-based label-free quantification approach to identify in vivo protein interaction networks. The procedure starts with the extraction of intact protein complexes from transgenic plants expressing the protein of interest fused to a GFP-Tag (bait-GFP), as well as plants expressing a free GFP as background control. Enrichment of the GFP-tagged protein together with its interaction partners, as well as the free GFP, is performed by immunoaffinity purification. The pull-down quality can be evaluated by simple gel-based techniques. In parallel, the captured proteins are trypsin-digested and relatively quantified by label-free mass spectrometry-based quantification. The relative quantification approach largely relies on the normalization of protein abundances of background-binding proteins, which occur in both bait-GFP and free GFP pull-downs. Therefore, relative quantification of the protein pull-down is superior over methods that solely rely on protein identifications and removal of often copurified high-abundance proteins from the bait-GFP pull-downs, which might remove real interaction partners. A further strength of this method is that it can be applied to any soluble GFP-tagged protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Née
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Priyadarshini Tilak
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Iris Finkemeier
- Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Schiedel M, Moroglu M, Ascough DMH, Chamberlain AER, Kamps JJAG, Sekirnik AR, Conway SJ. Chemical Epigenetics: The Impact of Chemical and Chemical Biology Techniques on Bromodomain Target Validation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:17930-17952. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201812164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Schiedel
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA UK
| | - Mustafa Moroglu
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA UK
| | - David M. H. Ascough
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA UK
| | - Anna E. R. Chamberlain
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA UK
| | - Jos J. A. G. Kamps
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA UK
| | - Angelina R. Sekirnik
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA UK
| | - Stuart J. Conway
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA UK
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Schiedel M, Moroglu M, Ascough DMH, Chamberlain AER, Kamps JJAG, Sekirnik AR, Conway SJ. Chemische Epigenetik: der Einfluss chemischer und chemo‐biologischer Techniken auf die Zielstruktur‐Validierung von Bromodomänen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201812164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Schiedel
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA Großbritannien
| | - Mustafa Moroglu
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA Großbritannien
| | - David M. H. Ascough
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA Großbritannien
| | - Anna E. R. Chamberlain
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA Großbritannien
| | - Jos J. A. G. Kamps
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA Großbritannien
| | - Angelina R. Sekirnik
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA Großbritannien
| | - Stuart J. Conway
- Department of ChemistryChemistry Research LaboratoryUniversity of Oxford Mansfield Road Oxford OX1 3TA Großbritannien
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Seidel J, Meisinger T, Sindlinger J, Pieloch P, Finkemeier I, Schwarzer D. Peptide-Based 2-Aminophenylamide Probes for Targeting Endogenous Class I Histone Deacetylase Complexes. Chembiochem 2019; 20:3001-3005. [PMID: 31270913 PMCID: PMC6973067 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Lysine deacetylases or histone deacetylases (HDACs) remove acetylation markers from numerous cellular proteins, thereby regulating their function and activity. Recently established peptide probes containing the HDAC‐trapping amino acid α‐aminosuberic acid ω‐hydroxamate (AsuHd) have been used to investigate the compositions of HDAC complexes in a site‐specific manner. Here we report the new HDAC‐trapping amino acid 2‐amino‐8‐[(2‐aminophenyl)amino]‐8‐oxooctanoic acid (AsuApa) and the utility of AsuApa‐containing probes for HDAC complex profiling on a proteome‐wide scale. Unlike AsuHd‐containing probes, AsuApa enriched only HDACs 1, 2, and 3 efficiently and was the most potent probe tested for capturing the last of these. These findings indicate that the inherent specificity of reported small‐molecule pimelic diphenylamide HDAC inhibitors is preserved in AsuApa and that this HDAC‐trapping amino acid represents a potent tool for investigating class I HDAC complexes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julian Seidel
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB)University of TübingenHoppe-Seyler-Strasse 472076TübingenGermany
| | - Tobias Meisinger
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB)University of TübingenHoppe-Seyler-Strasse 472076TübingenGermany
| | - Julia Sindlinger
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB)University of TübingenHoppe-Seyler-Strasse 472076TübingenGermany
| | - Paulina Pieloch
- Institute of Plant Biology and BiotechnologyUniversity of MünsterSchlossplatz 748149MünsterGermany
| | - Iris Finkemeier
- Institute of Plant Biology and BiotechnologyUniversity of MünsterSchlossplatz 748149MünsterGermany
| | - Dirk Schwarzer
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB)University of TübingenHoppe-Seyler-Strasse 472076TübingenGermany
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Mahindra A, Millard CJ, Black I, Archibald LJ, Schwabe JWR, Jamieson AG. Synthesis of HDAC Substrate Peptidomimetic Inhibitors Using Fmoc Amino Acids Incorporating Zinc-Binding Groups. Org Lett 2019; 21:3178-3182. [PMID: 30998366 PMCID: PMC6503537 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.9b00885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Syntheses of Fmoc amino acids having zinc-binding groups were prepared and incorporated into substrate inhibitor H3K27 peptides using Fmoc/tBu solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS). Peptide 11, prepared using Fmoc-Asu(NHOtBu)-OH, is a potent inhibitor (IC50 = 390 nM) of the core NuRD corepressor complex (HDAC1-MTA1-RBBP4). The Fmoc amino acids have the potential to facilitate the rapid preparation of substrate peptidomimetic inhibitor (SPI) libraries in the search for selective HDAC inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amit Mahindra
- School
of Chemistry, University of Glasgow, Joseph Black Building, University
Avenue, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K.
| | - Christopher J. Millard
- Leicester
Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department of Molecular
and Cell Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, U.K.
| | - Iona Black
- School
of Chemistry, University of Glasgow, Joseph Black Building, University
Avenue, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K.
| | - Lewis J. Archibald
- School
of Chemistry, University of Glasgow, Joseph Black Building, University
Avenue, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K.
| | - John W. R. Schwabe
- Leicester
Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department of Molecular
and Cell Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, U.K.
| | - Andrew G. Jamieson
- School
of Chemistry, University of Glasgow, Joseph Black Building, University
Avenue, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Wu M, Hayward D, Kalin JH, Song Y, Schwabe JWR, Cole PA. Lysine-14 acetylation of histone H3 in chromatin confers resistance to the deacetylase and demethylase activities of an epigenetic silencing complex. eLife 2018; 7:e37231. [PMID: 29869982 PMCID: PMC6019071 DOI: 10.7554/elife.37231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The core CoREST complex (LHC) contains histone deacetylase HDAC1 and histone demethylase LSD1 held together by the scaffold protein CoREST. Here, we analyze the purified LHC with modified peptide and reconstituted semisynthetic mononucleosome substrates. LHC demethylase activity toward methyl-Lys4 in histone H3 is strongly inhibited by H3 Lys14 acetylation, and this appears to be an intrinsic property of the LSD1 subunit. Moreover, the deacetylase selectivity of LHC unexpectedly shows a marked preference for H3 acetyl-Lys9 versus acetyl-Lys14 in nucleosome substrates but this selectivity is lost with isolated acetyl-Lys H3 protein. This diminished activity of LHC to Lys-14 deacetylation in nucleosomes is not merely due to steric accessibility based on the pattern of sensitivity of the LHC enzymatic complex to hydroxamic acid-mediated inhibition. Overall, these studies have revealed how a single Lys modification can confer a composite of resistance in chromatin to a key epigenetic enzyme complex involved in gene silencing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mingxuan Wu
- Division of Genetics, Department of MedicineBrigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular PharmacologyHarvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular SciencesJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Dawn Hayward
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular SciencesJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Jay H Kalin
- Division of Genetics, Department of MedicineBrigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular PharmacologyHarvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular SciencesJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Yun Song
- Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department of Molecular and Cell BiologyUniversity of LeicesterLeicesterUnited Kingdom
| | - John WR Schwabe
- Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department of Molecular and Cell BiologyUniversity of LeicesterLeicesterUnited Kingdom
| | - Philip A Cole
- Division of Genetics, Department of MedicineBrigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular PharmacologyHarvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular SciencesJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Castañeda CA, Wolfson NA, Leng KR, Kuo YM, Andrews AJ, Fierke CA. HDAC8 substrate selectivity is determined by long- and short-range interactions leading to enhanced reactivity for full-length histone substrates compared with peptides. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:21568-21577. [PMID: 29109148 PMCID: PMC5766737 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.811026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylases (HDACs) catalyze deacetylation of acetyl-lysine residues within proteins. To date, HDAC substrate specificity and selectivity have been largely estimated using peptide substrates. However, it is unclear whether peptide substrates accurately reflect the substrate selectivity of HDAC8 toward full-length proteins. Here, we compare HDAC8 substrate selectivity in the context of peptides, full-length proteins, and protein-nucleic acid complexes. We demonstrate that HDAC8 catalyzes deacetylation of tetrameric histone (H3/H4) substrates with catalytic efficiencies that are 40-300-fold higher than those for corresponding peptide substrates. Thus, we conclude that additional contacts with protein substrates enhance catalytic efficiency. However, the catalytic efficiency decreases for larger multiprotein complexes. These differences in HDAC8 substrate selectivity for peptides and full-length proteins suggest that HDAC8 substrate preference is based on a combination of short- and long-range interactions. In summary, this work presents detailed kinetics for HDAC8-catalyzed deacetylation of singly-acetylated, full-length protein substrates, revealing that HDAC8 substrate selectivity is determined by multiple factors. These insights provide a foundation for understanding recognition of full-length proteins by HDACs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Katherine R Leng
- Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109 and
| | - Yin-Ming Kuo
- the Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111
| | | | - Carol A Fierke
- From the Program in Chemical Biology and
- the Departments of Biological Chemistry and
- Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109 and
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Hartl M, Füßl M, Boersema PJ, Jost JO, Kramer K, Bakirbas A, Sindlinger J, Plöchinger M, Leister D, Uhrig G, Moorhead GB, Cox J, Salvucci ME, Schwarzer D, Mann M, Finkemeier I. Lysine acetylome profiling uncovers novel histone deacetylase substrate proteins in Arabidopsis. Mol Syst Biol 2017; 13:949. [PMID: 29061669 PMCID: PMC5658702 DOI: 10.15252/msb.20177819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylases have central functions in regulating stress defenses and development in plants. However, the knowledge about the deacetylase functions is largely limited to histones, although these enzymes were found in diverse subcellular compartments. In this study, we determined the proteome‐wide signatures of the RPD3/HDA1 class of histone deacetylases in Arabidopsis. Relative quantification of the changes in the lysine acetylation levels was determined on a proteome‐wide scale after treatment of Arabidopsis leaves with deacetylase inhibitors apicidin and trichostatin A. We identified 91 new acetylated candidate proteins other than histones, which are potential substrates of the RPD3/HDA1‐like histone deacetylases in Arabidopsis, of which at least 30 of these proteins function in nucleic acid binding. Furthermore, our analysis revealed that histone deacetylase 14 (HDA14) is the first organellar‐localized RPD3/HDA1 class protein found to reside in the chloroplasts and that the majority of its protein targets have functions in photosynthesis. Finally, the analysis of HDA14 loss‐of‐function mutants revealed that the activation state of RuBisCO is controlled by lysine acetylation of RuBisCO activase under low‐light conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Markus Hartl
- Plant Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany.,Plant Molecular Biology, Department Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Martinsried, Germany.,Mass Spectrometry Facility, Max F. Perutz Laboratories (MFPL), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Magdalena Füßl
- Plant Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany.,Plant Molecular Biology, Department Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Martinsried, Germany.,Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Paul J Boersema
- Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Jan-Oliver Jost
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Kramer
- Plant Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ahmet Bakirbas
- Plant Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany.,Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Julia Sindlinger
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Magdalena Plöchinger
- Plant Molecular Biology, Department Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Dario Leister
- Plant Molecular Biology, Department Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Glen Uhrig
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Greg Bg Moorhead
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Jürgen Cox
- Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Michael E Salvucci
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Arid-Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ, USA
| | - Dirk Schwarzer
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Matthias Mann
- Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Iris Finkemeier
- Plant Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany .,Plant Molecular Biology, Department Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Martinsried, Germany.,Plant Physiology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sindlinger J, Bierlmeier J, Geiger LC, Kramer K, Finkemeier I, Schwarzer D. Probing the structure-activity relationship of endogenous histone deacetylase complexes with immobilized peptide-inhibitors. J Pept Sci 2016; 22:352-9. [PMID: 27071932 DOI: 10.1002/psc.2875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are key regulators of numerous cellular proteins by removing acetylation marks from modified lysine residues. Peptide-based HDAC probes containing α-aminosuberic acid ω-hydroxamate have been established as useful tools for investigating substrate selectivity and composition of endogenous HDAC complexes in cellular lysates. Here we report a structure-activity study of potential HDAC-probes containing derivatives of the hydroxamate moieties. While most of these probes did not recruit significant amounts of endogenous HDACs from cellular lysates, peptides containing Nε-acetyl-Nε-hydroxy-L-lysine served as HDAC probe. The recruitment efficiency varied between HDACs and was generally lower than that of α-aminosuberic acid ω-hydroxamate probes, but showed a similar global interaction profile. These findings indicate that Nε-acetyl-Nε-hydroxy-L-lysine might be a useful tool for investigations on HDAC complexes and the development of HDAC inhibitors. Copyright © 2016 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Sindlinger
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 4, D-72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jan Bierlmeier
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 4, D-72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lydia-Christina Geiger
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 4, D-72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Kramer
- Plant Proteomics, Max Planck-Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné Weg 10, D-50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Iris Finkemeier
- Plant Proteomics, Max Planck-Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné Weg 10, D-50829, Cologne, Germany.,Institute for Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Muenster, Schlossplatz 7, 48149, Muenster, Germany
| | - Dirk Schwarzer
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 4, D-72076, Tübingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
Chromatin is the universal template of genetic information in all eukaryotic organisms. Chemical modifications of the DNA-packaging histone proteins and the DNA bases are crucial signaling events in directing the use and readout of eukaryotic genomes. The enzymes that install and remove these chromatin modifications as well as the proteins that bind these marks govern information that goes beyond the sequence of DNA. Therefore, these so-called epigenetic regulators are intensively studied and represent promising drug targets in modern medicine. We summarize and discuss recent advances in the field of chemical biology that have provided chromatin research with sophisticated tools for investigating the composition, activity, and target sites of chromatin modifying enzymes and reader proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Fischle
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Environmental Epigenetics Program, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Laboratory of Chromatin Biochemistry, Am Fassberg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dirk Schwarzer
- Interfaculty
Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB), University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str.
4, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|