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Yang D, Jian Z, Tang C, Chen Z, Zhou Z, Zheng L, Peng X. Zebrafish Congenital Heart Disease Models: Opportunities and Challenges. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5943. [PMID: 38892128 PMCID: PMC11172925 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25115943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are common human birth defects. Genetic mutations potentially cause the exhibition of various pathological phenotypes associated with CHDs, occurring alone or as part of certain syndromes. Zebrafish, a model organism with a strong molecular conservation similar to humans, is commonly used in studies on cardiovascular diseases owing to its advantageous features, such as a similarity to human electrophysiology, transparent embryos and larvae for observation, and suitability for forward and reverse genetics technology, to create various economical and easily controlled zebrafish CHD models. In this review, we outline the pros and cons of zebrafish CHD models created by genetic mutations associated with single defects and syndromes and the underlying pathogenic mechanism of CHDs discovered in these models. The challenges of zebrafish CHD models generated through gene editing are also discussed, since the cardiac phenotypes resulting from a single-candidate pathological gene mutation in zebrafish might not mirror the corresponding human phenotypes. The comprehensive review of these zebrafish CHD models will facilitate the understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms of CHDs and offer new opportunities for their treatments and intervention strategies.
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Ibrahim S, Gaborit B, Lenoir M, Collod-Beroud G, Stefanovic S. Maternal Pre-Existing Diabetes: A Non-Inherited Risk Factor for Congenital Cardiopathies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16258. [PMID: 38003449 PMCID: PMC10671602 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are the most common form of birth defects in humans. They occur in 9 out of 1000 live births and are defined as structural abnormalities of the heart. Understanding CHDs is difficult due to the heterogeneity of the disease and its multifactorial etiology. Advances in genomic sequencing have made it possible to identify the genetic factors involved in CHDs. However, genetic origins have only been found in a minority of CHD cases, suggesting the contribution of non-inherited (environmental) risk factors to the etiology of CHDs. Maternal pregestational diabetes is associated with a three- to five-fold increased risk of congenital cardiopathies, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are incompletely understood. According to current hypotheses, hyperglycemia is the main teratogenic agent in diabetic pregnancies. It is thought to induce cell damage, directly through genetic and epigenetic dysregulations and/or indirectly through production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The purpose of this review is to summarize key findings on the molecular mechanisms altered in cardiac development during exposure to hyperglycemic conditions in utero. It also presents the various in vivo and in vitro techniques used to experimentally model pregestational diabetes. Finally, new approaches are suggested to broaden our understanding of the subject and develop new prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Ibrahim
- Aix Marseille University, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, 13005 Marseille, France;
| | - Bénédicte Gaborit
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition, Pôle ENDO, APHM, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Marien Lenoir
- Department of Congenital Heart Surgery, La Timone Children Hospital, APHM, Aix Marseille University, 13005 Marseille, France
| | | | - Sonia Stefanovic
- Aix Marseille University, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, 13005 Marseille, France;
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Optical transparency and label-free vessel imaging of zebrafish larvae in shortwave infrared range as a tool for prolonged studying of cardiovascular system development. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20884. [PMID: 36463350 PMCID: PMC9719527 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25386-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Optical techniques are utilized for the non-invasive analysis of the zebrafish cardiovascular system at early developmental stages. Being based mainly on conventional optical microscopy components and image sensors, the wavelength range of the collected and analyzed light is not out of the scope of 400-900 nm. In this paper, we compared the non-invasive optical approaches utilizing visible and near infrared range (VISNIR) 400-1000 and the shortwave infrared range (SWIR) 900-1700 nm. The transmittance spectra of zebrafish tissues were measured in these wavelength ranges, then vessel maps, heart rates, and blood flow velocities were calculated from data in VISNIR and SWIR. An increased pigment pattern transparency was registered in SWIR, while the heart and vessel detection quality in this range is not inferior to VISNIR. Obtained results indicate an increased efficiency of SWIR imaging for monitoring heart function and hemodynamic analysis of zebrafish embryos and larvae and suggest a prolonged registration period in this range compared to other optical techniques that are limited by pigment pattern development.
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Krylov V, Machikhin A, Sizov D, Guryleva A, Sizova A, Zhdanova S, Tchougounov V, Burlakov A. Influence of hypomagnetic field on the heartbeat in zebrafish embryos. Front Physiol 2022; 13:1040083. [PMID: 36338501 PMCID: PMC9634549 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1040083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The magnetic environment may influence the functioning of the cardiovascular system. It was reported that low-frequency and static magnetic fields affect hemodynamics, heart rate, and heart rate variability in animals and humans. Moreover, recent data suggest that magnetic fields affect the circadian rhythms of physiological processes. The influence of the magnetic environment on heart functionating during early development has been studied insufficiently. We utilized transparent zebrafish embryos to evaluate the effect of the hypomagnetic field on the characteristics of cardiac function using a noninvasive optical approach based on photoplethysmographic microscopic imaging. The embryos were exposed to the geomagnetic and hypomagnetic fields from the second to the 116th hour post fertilization under a 16 h light/8 h dark cycle or constant illumination. The exposure of embryos to the hypomagnetic field in both lighting modes led to increased embryo mortality, the appearance of abnormal phenotypes, and a significant increase in the embryo’s heartbeat rate. The difference between maximal and minimal heartbeat intervals, maximal to minimal heartbeat intervals ratio, and the coefficient of variation of heartbeat rate were increased in the embryos exposed to the hypomagnetic field under constant illumination from 96 to 116 h post fertilization. The dynamics of heartbeat rate changes followed a circadian pattern in all studied groups except zebrafish exposed to the hypomagnetic field under constant illumination. The results demonstrate the importance of natural magnetic background for the early development of zebrafish. The possible mechanisms of observed effects are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viacheslav Krylov
- Scientific and Technological Center of Unique Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- Papanin Institute for Biology of Inland Waters, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, Russia
- *Correspondence: Viacheslav Krylov,
| | - Alexander Machikhin
- Scientific and Technological Center of Unique Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Daniil Sizov
- Papanin Institute for Biology of Inland Waters, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, Russia
| | - Anastasia Guryleva
- Scientific and Technological Center of Unique Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anastasia Sizova
- Scientific and Technological Center of Unique Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- Papanin Institute for Biology of Inland Waters, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, Russia
| | - Svetlana Zhdanova
- Papanin Institute for Biology of Inland Waters, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, Russia
| | - Vladimir Tchougounov
- Papanin Institute for Biology of Inland Waters, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, Russia
| | - Alexander Burlakov
- Scientific and Technological Center of Unique Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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Sankar S, Jayabalan M, Venkatesh S, Ibrahim M. Effect of hyperglycemia on tbx5a and nppa gene expression and its correlation to structural and functional changes in developing zebrafish heart. Cell Biol Int 2022; 46:2173-2184. [PMID: 36069519 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.11901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The objective of the current study is to analyze the effects of gestational diabetes on structural and functional changes in correlation with these two essential regulators of developing hearts in vivo using zebrafish embryos. We employed fertilized zebrafish embryos exposed to a hyperglycemic condition of 25 mM glucose for 96 h postfertilization. The embryos were subjected to various structural and functional analyses in a time-course manner. The data showed that exposure to high glucose significantly affected the embryo's size, heart length, heart rate, and looping of the heart compared to the control. Further, we observed an increased incidence of ventricular standstill and valvular regurgitation with a marked reduction of peripheral blood flow in the high glucose-exposed group compared to the control. In addition, the histological data showed that the high-glucose exposure markedly reduced the thickness of the wall and the number of cardiomyocytes in both atrium and ventricles. We also observed striking alterations in the pericardium like edema, increase in diameter with thinning of the wall compared to the control group. Interestingly, the expression of tbx5a and nppa was increased in the early development and found to be repressed in the later stage of development in the hyperglycemic group compared to the control. In conclusion, the developing heart is more susceptible to hyperglycemia in the womb, thereby showing various developmental defects possibly by altering the expression of crucial gene regulators such as tbx5a and nppa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suruthi Sankar
- Department of Anatomy, Dr. ALM Postgraduate Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Madras, Taramani Campus, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Monisha Jayabalan
- Department of Anatomy, Dr. ALM Postgraduate Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Madras, Taramani Campus, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sundararajan Venkatesh
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Muhammed Ibrahim
- Department of Anatomy, Dr. ALM Postgraduate Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Madras, Taramani Campus, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
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Bowley G, Kugler E, Wilkinson R, Lawrie A, van Eeden F, Chico TJA, Evans PC, Noël ES, Serbanovic-Canic J. Zebrafish as a tractable model of human cardiovascular disease. Br J Pharmacol 2022; 179:900-917. [PMID: 33788282 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian models including non-human primates, pigs and rodents have been used extensively to study the mechanisms of cardiovascular disease. However, there is an increasing desire for alternative model systems that provide excellent scientific value while replacing or reducing the use of mammals. Here, we review the use of zebrafish, Danio rerio, to study cardiovascular development and disease. The anatomy and physiology of zebrafish and mammalian cardiovascular systems are compared, and we describe the use of zebrafish models in studying the mechanisms of cardiac (e.g. congenital heart defects, cardiomyopathy, conduction disorders and regeneration) and vascular (endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis, lipid metabolism, vascular ageing, neurovascular physiology and stroke) pathologies. We also review the use of zebrafish for studying pharmacological responses to cardiovascular drugs and describe several features of zebrafish that make them a compelling model for in vivo screening of compounds for the treatment cardiovascular disease. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue on Preclinical Models for Cardiovascular disease research (BJP 75th Anniversary). To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v179.5/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Bowley
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Elizabeth Kugler
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Institute of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, UK
| | - Rob Wilkinson
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Allan Lawrie
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Freek van Eeden
- Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Tim J A Chico
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Paul C Evans
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Emily S Noël
- Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Jovana Serbanovic-Canic
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Narumanchi S, Wang H, Perttunen S, Tikkanen I, Lakkisto P, Paavola J. Zebrafish Heart Failure Models. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:662583. [PMID: 34095129 PMCID: PMC8173159 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.662583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Heart failure causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. The understanding of heart failure pathomechanisms and options for treatment remain incomplete. Zebrafish has proven useful for modeling human heart diseases due to similarity of zebrafish and mammalian hearts, fast easily tractable development, and readily available genetic methods. Embryonic cardiac development is rapid and cardiac function is easy to observe and quantify. Reverse genetics, by using morpholinos and CRISPR-Cas9 to modulate gene function, make zebrafish a primary animal model for in vivo studies of candidate genes. Zebrafish are able to effectively regenerate their hearts following injury. However, less attention has been given to using zebrafish models to increase understanding of heart failure and cardiac remodeling, including cardiac hypertrophy and hyperplasia. Here we discuss using zebrafish to study heart failure and cardiac remodeling, and review zebrafish genetic, drug-induced and other heart failure models, discussing the advantages and weaknesses of using zebrafish to model human heart disease. Using zebrafish models will lead to insights on the pathomechanisms of heart failure, with the aim to ultimately provide novel therapies for the prevention and treatment of heart failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suneeta Narumanchi
- Unit of Cardiovascular Research, Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hong Wang
- Unit of Cardiovascular Research, Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sanni Perttunen
- Unit of Cardiovascular Research, Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ilkka Tikkanen
- Unit of Cardiovascular Research, Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Abdominal Center Nephrology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Päivi Lakkisto
- Unit of Cardiovascular Research, Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Clinical Chemistry and Hematology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jere Paavola
- Unit of Cardiovascular Research, Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Mowla S, Gissler M, Räisänen S, Kancherla V. Association between maternal pregestational diabetes mellitus and spina bifida: A population-based case-control study, Finland, 2000-2014. Birth Defects Res 2019; 112:186-195. [PMID: 31774241 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Maternal pregestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) is a known risk factor for neural tube defects. We examined the association between maternal PGDM and spina bifida in the offspring using PGDM status from medical records in Finland. METHODS We conducted a nationally representative, multiregistry, population-based case-control study in Finland. Cases were included if they were live or stillborn infants and diagnosed with spina bifida and delivered between years 2000 and 2014 in Finland. Controls were Finnish infants without spina bifida or other major structural birth defects and delivered during the same time period as cases. Clinical and demographic data were obtained by linking multiple national health registers and census. Crude and adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for PGDM were estimated using logistic regression analysis. Interaction by maternal obesity was examined. RESULTS Our study included 181 spina bifida cases (61% isolated) and 876,672 controls. Overall, 2.2% percent of all case, and 0.5% of control mothers, had PGDM during pregnancy. Maternal PGDM was significantly associated with an increased odds of spina bifida (adjusted OR 4.35; 95% CI 1.37, 13.82). A similar association was found in our subanalysis on isolated spina bifida cases (adjusted OR 4.41; 95% CI 1.07, 18.24). There was no significant interaction by maternal obesity. CONCLUSIONS Maternal PGDM was positively associated with spina bifida in Finland, and maternal obesity did not modify this effect. We lacked information on maternal PGDM for electively terminated and spontaneously aborted cases; results should be interpreted with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjida Mowla
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Mika Gissler
- Information Services Department, Helsinki, Finland, THL Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare and Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sari Räisänen
- School of Health Care and Social Services, Tampere University of Applied Sciences, Tampere, Finland
| | - Vijaya Kancherla
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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Ennerfelt H, Voithofer G, Tibbo M, Miller D, Warfield R, Allen S, Kennett Clark J. Disruption of peripheral nerve development in a zebrafish model of hyperglycemia. J Neurophysiol 2019; 122:862-871. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00318.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus-induced hyperglycemia is associated with a number of pathologies such as retinopathy, nephropathy, delayed wound healing, and diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). Approximately 50% of patients with diabetes mellitus will develop DPN, which is characterized by disrupted sensory and/or motor functioning, with treatment limited to pain management. Zebrafish ( Danio rerio) are an emerging animal model used to study a number of metabolic disorders, including diabetes. Diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, and delayed wound healing have all been demonstrated in zebrafish. Recently, our laboratory has demonstrated that following the ablation of the insulin-producing β-cells of the pancreas (and subsequent hyperglycemia), the peripheral nerves begin to show signs of dysregulation. In this study, we take a different approach, taking advantage of the transdermal absorption abilities of zebrafish larvae to extend the period of hyperglycemia. Following 5 days of 60 mM d-glucose treatment, we observed motor axon defasciculation, disturbances in perineurial glia sheath formation, decreased myelination of motor axons, and sensory neuron mislocalization. This study extends our understanding of the structural changes of the peripheral nerve following induction of hyperglycemia and does so in an animal model capable of potential DPN drug discovery in the future. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Zebrafish are emerging as a robust model system for the study of diabetic complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, and impaired wound healing. We present a novel model of diabetic peripheral neuropathy in zebrafish in which the integrity of the peripheral nerve is dysregulated following the induction of hyperglycemia. By using this model, future studies can focus on elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms currently unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Ennerfelt
- Department of Biological Sciences, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
- Department of Psychology, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
| | - Gabrielle Voithofer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
- Department of Psychology, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
| | - Morgan Tibbo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
- Department of Psychology, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
| | - Derrick Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
| | - Rebecca Warfield
- Department of Biological Sciences, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
- Department of Psychology, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
| | - Samantha Allen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland
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Sun Y, Wang Q, Fang Y, Wu C, Lu G, Chen Z. Activation of the Nkx2.5-Calr-p53 signaling pathway by hyperglycemia induces cardiac remodeling and dysfunction in adult zebrafish. Dis Model Mech 2017; 10:1217-1227. [PMID: 28801532 PMCID: PMC5665450 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.026781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyperglycemia is an independent risk factor for diabetic cardiomyopathy in humans; however, the underlying mechanisms have not been thoroughly elucidated. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) was used in this study as a novel vertebrate model to explore the signaling pathways of human adult cardiomyopathy. Hyperglycemia was induced by alternately immersing adult zebrafish in a glucose solution or water. The hyperglycemic fish gradually exhibited some hallmarks of cardiomyopathy such as myocardial hypertrophy and apoptosis, myofibril loss, fetal gene reactivation, and severe arrhythmia. Echocardiography of the glucose-treated fish demonstrated diastolic dysfunction at an early stage and systolic dysfunction at a later stage, consistent with what is observed in diabetic patients. Enlarged hearts with decreased myocardial density, accompanied by decompensated cardiac function, indicated that apoptosis was critical in the pathological process. Significant upregulation of the expression of Nkx2.5 and its downstream targets calreticulin (Calr) and p53 was noted in the glucose-treated fish. High-glucose stimulation in vitro evoked marked apoptosis of primary cardiomyocytes, which was rescued by the p53 inhibitor pifithrin-μ. In vitro experiments were performed using compound treatment and genetically via cell infection. Genetically, knockout of Nkx2.5 induced decreased expression of Nkx2.5, Calr and p53 Upregulation of Calr resulted in increased p53 expression, whereas the level of Nkx2.5 remained unchanged. An adult zebrafish model of hyperglycemia-induced cardiomyopathy was successfully established. Hyperglycemia-induced myocardial apoptosis was mediated, at least in part, by activation of the Nkx2.5-Calr-p53 pathway in vivo, resulting in cardiac dysfunction and hyperglycemia-induced cardiomyopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanyi Sun
- Department of Cardiology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 197, Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Qiuyun Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 197, Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Yuehua Fang
- Department of Cardiology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 197, Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Chunfang Wu
- Department of Cardiology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 197, Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Guoping Lu
- Department of Cardiology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 197, Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Zhenyue Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 197, Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China
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Ma R, Yang Y, Tu Q, Hu K. Overexpression of T-box Transcription Factor 5 (TBX5) Inhibits Proliferation and Invasion in Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma Cells. Oncol Res 2017; 25:1495-1504. [PMID: 28276311 PMCID: PMC7841191 DOI: 10.3727/096504017x14883287513729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
T-box transcription factor 5 (TBX5), a member of the conserved T-box transcription factor family that functions in organogenesis and embryogenesis, has recently been identified as a critical player in cancer development. The aim of this study was to determine the role of TBX5 in non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). Immunohistochemistry was used to detect the correlation between levels of TBX5 and clinicopathological features of NSCLC patients in tissue microarray. Expression of TBX5 in NSCLC tissues and cell lines was evaluated by quantitative PCR and Western blot. The role of TBX5 in regulating proliferation, colony formation, invasion, and apoptosis of NSCLC cells was evaluated in vitro. Finally, a tumorigenicity assay was performed to determine the effect of TBX5 on tumor growth in vivo. The levels of TBX5 in NSCLC tissues were significantly correlated with the TNM stage (p = 0.016), histopathologic type (p = 0.029), and lymph node status (p = 0.035) of NSCLC. TBX5 overexpression markedly suppressed in vitro NSCLC cell proliferation, colony formation, and invasion and induced apoptosis. In vivo tumor growth was significantly suppressed by TBX5. TBX5 has a tumor-suppressing effect in NSCLC and may serve as a therapeutic target for diagnoses and treatment of NSCLC.
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Abstract
Diabetic embryopathy is a theoretical enigma and a clinical challenge. Both type 1 and type 2 diabetic pregnancy carry a significant risk for fetal maldevelopment, and the precise reasons for the diabetes-induced teratogenicity are not clearly identified. The experimental work in this field has revealed a partial, however complex, answer to the teratological question, and we will review some of the latest suggestions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf J. Eriksson
- CONTACT Ulf J. Eriksson Department of Medical Cell Biology, Uppsala University, Biomedical Center, PO Box 571, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Jung SH, Kim YS, Lee YR, Kim JS. High glucose-induced changes in hyaloid-retinal vessels during early ocular development of zebrafish: a short-term animal model of diabetic retinopathy. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 173:15-26. [PMID: 26276677 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Although a variety of animal models have been used to test drug candidates and examine the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy, time-saving and inexpensive models are still needed to evaluate the increasing number of therapeutic approaches. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We developed a model for diabetic retinopathy using the early stage of transgenic zebrafish (flk:EGFP) by treating embryos with 130 mM glucose, from 3-6 days post fertilisation (high-glucose model). On day 6, lenses from zebrafish larvae were isolated and treated with 3% trypsin, and changes in hyaloid-retinal vessels were analysed using fluorescent stereomicroscopy. In addition, expression of tight junction proteins (such as zonula occludens-1), effects of hyperosmolar solutions and of hypoxia, and Vegf expression were assessed by RT -PCR. NO production was assessed with a fluorescent substrate. Effects of inhibitors of the VEGF receptor, NO synthesis and a VEGF antibody (ranibizumab) were also measured. KEY RESULTS In this high-glucose model, dilation of hyaloid-retinal vessels, on day 6, was accompanied by morphological lesions with disruption of tight junction proteins, overproduction of Vegf mRNA and increased NO production. Treatment of this high-glucose model with an inhibitor of VEGF receptor tyrosine kinase or an inhibitor of NO synthase or ranibizumab decreased dilation of hyaloid-retinal vessels. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These findings suggest that short-term exposure of zebrafish larvae to high-glucose conditions could be used for screening and drug discovery for diabetic retinopathy and particularly for disorders of retinal vessels related to disruption of tight junction proteins and excessive VEGF and NO production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Hyun Jung
- Korean Medicine Convergence Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine (KIOM), Daejeon, 305-811, Korea
| | - Young Sook Kim
- Korean Medicine Convergence Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine (KIOM), Daejeon, 305-811, Korea
| | - Yu-Ri Lee
- Korean Medicine Convergence Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine (KIOM), Daejeon, 305-811, Korea
| | - Jin Sook Kim
- Korean Medicine Convergence Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine (KIOM), Daejeon, 305-811, Korea
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Tabassum N, Tai H, Jung DW, Williams DR. Fishing for Nature's Hits: Establishment of the Zebrafish as a Model for Screening Antidiabetic Natural Products. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2015; 2015:287847. [PMID: 26681965 PMCID: PMC4670909 DOI: 10.1155/2015/287847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus affects millions of people worldwide and significantly impacts their quality of life. Moreover, life threatening diseases, such as myocardial infarction, blindness, and renal disorders, increase the morbidity rate associated with diabetes. Various natural products from medicinal plants have shown potential as antidiabetes agents in cell-based screening systems. However, many of these potential "hits" fail in mammalian tests, due to issues such as poor pharmacokinetics and/or toxic side effects. To address this problem, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) model has been developed as a "bridge" to provide an experimentally convenient animal-based screening system to identify drug candidates that are active in vivo. In this review, we discuss the application of zebrafish to drug screening technologies for diabetes research. Specifically, the discovery of natural product-based antidiabetes compounds using zebrafish will be described. For example, it has recently been demonstrated that antidiabetic natural compounds can be identified in zebrafish using activity guided fractionation of crude plant extracts. Moreover, the development of fluorescent-tagged glucose bioprobes has allowed the screening of natural product-based modulators of glucose homeostasis in zebrafish. We hope that the discussion of these advances will illustrate the value and simplicity of establishing zebrafish-based assays for antidiabetic compounds in natural products-based laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Tabassum
- New Drug Targets Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Republic of Korea
| | - Hongmei Tai
- Department of Endocrinology, Yanji Hospital, Jilin 133000, China
| | - Da-Woon Jung
- New Drug Targets Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Republic of Korea
| | - Darren R. Williams
- New Drug Targets Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Republic of Korea
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16
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Wang Z, Mao Y, Cui T, Tang D, Wang XL. Impact of a combined high cholesterol diet and high glucose environment on vasculature. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81485. [PMID: 24349075 PMCID: PMC3857185 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Vascular complications are the leading cause of mortality and morbidity in patients with diabetes. However, proper animal models of diabetic vasculopathy that recapitulate the accelerated progression of vascular lesions in human are unavailable. In the present study, we developed a zebrafish model of diabetic vascular complications and the methodology for quantifying vascular lesion formation real-time in the living diabetic zebrafish. METHODS AND RESULTS Wild type zebrafish (AB) and transgenic zebrafish lines of fli1:EGFP, lyz:EGFP, gata1:dsRed, double transgenic zebrafish of gata1:dsRed/fli1:EGFP were exposed to high cholesterol diet and 3% glucose (HCD-HG) for 10 days. The zebrafish model with HCD-HG treatment was characterized by significantly increased tissue levels of insulin, glucagon, glucose, total triglyceride and cholesterol. Confocal microscopic analysis further revealed that the diabetic larvae developed clearly thickened endothelial layers, distinct perivascular lipid depositions, substantial accumulations of inflammatory cells in the injured vasculature, and a decreased velocity of blood flow. Moreover, the vascular abnormalities were improved by the treatment of pioglitazone and metformin. CONCLUSION A combination of high cholesterol diet and high glucose exposure induces a rapid onset of vascular complications in zebrafish similar to the early atherosclerotic vascular injuries in mammalian diabetic models, suggesting that zebrafish may be used as a novel animal model for diabetic vasculopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zemin Wang
- Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Yun Mao
- Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Taixing Cui
- Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, South Carolina University, Columbus, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Dongqi Tang
- Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
- Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, P.R. China
| | - Xing Li Wang
- Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
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Scott-Drechsel DE, Rugonyi S, Marks DL, Thornburg KL, Hinds MT. Hyperglycemia slows embryonic growth and suppresses cell cycle via cyclin D1 and p21. Diabetes 2013; 62. [PMID: 23193186 PMCID: PMC3526024 DOI: 10.2337/db12-0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In pregnant women, the diabetic condition results in a three- to fivefold increased risk for fetal cardiac malformations as a result of elevated glucose concentrations and the resultant osmotic stress in the developing embryo and fetus. Heart development before septation in the chick embryo was studied under two hyperglycemic conditions. Pulsed hyperglycemia induced by daily administration of glucose during 3 days of development caused daily spikes in plasma glucose concentration. In a second model, sustained hyperglycemia was induced with a single injection of glucose into the yolk on day 0. The sustained model raised the average plasma glucose concentration from 70 mg/dL to 180 mg/dL and led to decreased gene expression of glucose transporter GLUT1. Both models of hyperglycemia reduced embryo size, increased mortality, and delayed development. Within the heart outflow tract, reduced proliferation of myocardial and endocardial cells resulted from the sustained hyperglycemia and hyperosmolarity. The cell cycle inhibitor p21 was significantly increased, whereas cyclin D1, a cell cycle promoter, decreased in sustained hyperglycemia compared with controls. The evidence suggests that hyperglycemia-induced developmental delays are associated with slowed cell cycle progression, leading to reduced cellular proliferation. The suppression of critical developmental steps may underlie the cardiac defects observed during late gestation under hyperglycemic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandra Rugonyi
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Daniel L. Marks
- Papé Family Pediatric Research Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Kent L. Thornburg
- Heart Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Monica T. Hinds
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
- Corresponding author: Monica T. Hinds,
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18
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Gao J, Lyon JA, Szeto DP, Chen J. In vivo imaging and quantitative analysis of zebrafish embryos by digital holographic microscopy. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2012; 3:2623-35. [PMID: 23082301 PMCID: PMC3470009 DOI: 10.1364/boe.3.002623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Revised: 09/14/2012] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) has been applied extensively to in vitro studies of different living cells. In this paper, we present a novel application of an off-axis DHM system to in vivo study of the development of zebrafish embryos. Even with low magnification microscope objectives, the morphological structures and individual cell types inside developing zebrafish embryos can be clearly observed from reconstructed amplitude images. We further study the dynamic process of blood flow in zebrafish embryos. A calibration routine and post-processing procedures are developed to quantify physiological parameters at different developmental stages. We measure quantitatively the blood flow as well as the heart rate to study the effects of elevated D-glucose (abnormal condition) on circulatory and cardiovascular systems of zebrafish embryos. To enhance our ability to use DHM as a quantitative tool for potential high throughput screening application, the calibration and post-processing algorithms are incorporated into an automated processing software. Our results show that DHM is an excellent non-invasive imaging technique for visualizing the cellular dynamics of organogenesis of zebrafish embryos in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Gao
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, 585 Purdue Mall, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1003,
USA
| | - Joseph A. Lyon
- School of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, 225 South University Street, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2093,
USA
| | - Daniel P. Szeto
- Department of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, California Baptist University, 8432 Magnolia Avenue, Riverside, California 92504-3297,
USA
| | - Jun Chen
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, 585 Purdue Mall, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1003,
USA
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19
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Teixidó E, Piqué E, Gómez-Catalán J, Llobet JM. Assessment of developmental delay in the zebrafish embryo teratogenicity assay. Toxicol In Vitro 2012; 27:469-78. [PMID: 22898132 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2012.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
In this study we analyzed some aspects of the assessment of developmental delay in the zebrafish embryotoxicity/teratogenicity test and explored the suitability of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity as a biochemical marker and as a higher throughput alternative to morphological endpoints such as head-trunk angle, tail length and morphological score. Embryos were exposed from 4 to 52 h post-fertilization (hpf) to a selection of known embryotoxic/teratogen compounds (valproic acid, retinoic acid, caffeine, sodium salicylate, glucose, hydroxyurea, methoxyacetic acid, boric acid and paraoxon-methyl) over a concentration range. They were evaluated for AChE activity, head-trunk angle, tail length and several qualitative parameters integrated in a morphological score. In general, the different patterns of the concentration-response curves allowed distinguishing between chemicals that produced growth retardation (valproic and methoxyacetic acid) and chemicals that produced non-growth-delay related malformations. An acceptable correlation between the morphological score, AChE activity and head-trunk angle as markers of developmental delay was observed, being AChE activity particularly sensitive to detect delay in the absence of malformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Teixidó
- GRET-CERETOX and Toxicology Unit, Public Health Department, School of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Av Joan XXIII, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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Nordquist N, Luthman H, Pettersson U, Eriksson UJ. Linkage study of embryopathy-polygenic inheritance of diabetes-induced skeletal malformations in the rat. Reprod Toxicol 2012; 33:297-307. [PMID: 22227068 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2011.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2011] [Revised: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We developed an inbred rat model of diabetic embryopathy, in which the offspring displays skeletal malformations (agnathia or micrognathia) when the mother is diabetic, and no malformations when she is not diabetic. Our aim was to find genes controlling the embryonic maldevelopment in a diabetic environment. We contrasted the fetal outcome in inbred Sprague-Dawley L rats (20% skeletal malformations in diabetic pregnancy) with that of inbred Wistar Furth rats (denotedW, no skeletal malformations in diabetic pregnancy). We used offspring from the backcross F(1)×L to probe for the genetic basis for malformation of the mandible in diabetic pregnancy. A set of 186 fetuses (93 affected, 93 unaffected) was subjected to a whole genome scan with 160 micro satellites. Analysis of genotype distribution indicated 7 loci on chromosome 4, 10 (3 loci), 14, 18, and 19 in the teratogenic process (and 14 other loci on 12 chromosomes with less strong association to the malformations), several of which contained genes implicated in other experimental studies of diabetic embryopathy. These candidate genes will be scrutinized in further experimentation. We conclude that the genetic involvement in rodent diabetic embryopathy is polygenic and predisposing for congenital malformations.
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21
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Jurczyk A, Roy N, Bajwa R, Gut P, Lipson K, Yang C, Covassin L, Racki WJ, Rossini AA, Phillips N, Stainier DYR, Greiner DL, Brehm MA, Bortell R, diIorio P. Dynamic glucoregulation and mammalian-like responses to metabolic and developmental disruption in zebrafish. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2011; 170:334-45. [PMID: 20965191 PMCID: PMC3014420 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2010.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2010] [Revised: 10/05/2010] [Accepted: 10/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Zebrafish embryos are emerging as models of glucose metabolism. However, patterns of endogenous glucose levels, and the role of the islet in glucoregulation, are unknown. We measured absolute glucose levels in zebrafish and mouse embryos, and demonstrate similar, dynamic glucose fluctuations in both species. Further, we show that chemical and genetic perturbations elicit mammalian-like glycemic responses in zebrafish embryos. We show that glucose is undetectable in early zebrafish and mouse embryos, but increases in parallel with pancreatic islet formation in both species. In zebrafish, increasing glucose is associated with activation of gluconeogenic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase1 (pck1) transcription. Non-hepatic Pck1 protein is expressed in mouse embryos. We show using RNA in situ hybridization, that zebrafish pck1 mRNA is similarly expressed in multiple cell types prior to hepatogenesis. Further, we demonstrate that the Pck1 inhibitor 3-mercaptopicolinic acid suppresses normal glucose accumulation in early zebrafish embryos. This shows that pre- and extra-hepatic pck1 is functional, and provides glucose locally to rapidly developing tissues. To determine if the primary islet is glucoregulatory in early fish embryos, we injected pdx1-specific morpholinos into transgenic embryos expressing GFP in beta cells. Most morphant islets were hypomorphic, not a genetic, but embryos still exhibited persistent hyperglycemia. We conclude from these data that the early zebrafish islet is functional, and regulates endogenous glucose. In summary, we identify mechanisms of glucoregulation in zebrafish embryos that are conserved with embryonic and adult mammals. These observations justify use of this model in mechanistic studies of human metabolic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Jurczyk
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Nicole Roy
- Sacred Heart University, Department of Biology, 5151 Park Ave, Fairfield, CT 06825 USA
| | - Rabia Bajwa
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Philipp Gut
- University of California, San Francisco, Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, 1550 Fourth St., Room 318A, San Francisco, CA 94158-2324
| | - Kathryn Lipson
- Western New England College, Department of Physical and Biological Sciences, Springfield, MA 01119
| | - Chaoxing Yang
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Laurence Covassin
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Waldemar J. Racki
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Aldo A. Rossini
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Nancy Phillips
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Didier Y. R. Stainier
- University of California, San Francisco, Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, 1550 Fourth St., Room 318A, San Francisco, CA 94158-2324
| | - Dale L. Greiner
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Michael A. Brehm
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Rita Bortell
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
| | - Philip diIorio
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, 373 Plantation Street, Suite 218, Worcester, MA 01605 USA
- Corresponding author. Address: University of Massachusetts Medical School, Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, Worcester, MA 01605, United States. Fax: 508-856-4093. Phone: 508-856-3679
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