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Okada M, Kawagoe Y, Sato Y, Nozumi M, Ishikawa Y, Tamada A, Yamazaki H, Sekino Y, Kanemura Y, Shinmyo Y, Kawasaki H, Kaneko N, Sawamoto K, Fujii Y, Igarashi M. Phosphorylation of GAP-43 T172 is a molecular marker of growing axons in a wide range of mammals including primates. Mol Brain 2021; 14:66. [PMID: 33832520 PMCID: PMC8034164 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-021-00755-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
GAP-43 is a vertebrate neuron-specific protein and that is strongly related to axon growth and regeneration; thus, this protein has been utilized as a classical molecular marker of these events and growth cones. Although GAP-43 was biochemically characterized more than a quarter century ago, how this protein is related to these events is still not clear. Recently, we identified many phosphorylation sites in the growth cone membrane proteins of rodent brains. Two phosphorylation sites of GAP-43, S96 and T172, were found within the top 10 hit sites among all proteins. S96 has already been characterized (Kawasaki et al., 2018), and here, phosphorylation of T172 was characterized. In vitro (cultured neurons) and in vivo, an antibody specific to phosphorylated T172 (pT172 antibody) specifically recognized cultured growth cones and growing axons in developing mouse neurons, respectively. Immunoblotting showed that pT172 antigens were more rapidly downregulated throughout development than those of pS96 antibody. From the primary structure, this phosphorylation site was predicted to be conserved in a wide range of animals including primates. In the developing marmoset brainstem and in differentiated neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells, immunoreactivity with pT172 antibody revealed patterns similar to those in mice. pT172 antibody also labeled regenerating axons following sciatic nerve injury. Taken together, the T172 residue is widely conserved in a wide range of mammals including primates, and pT172 is a new candidate molecular marker for growing axons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayasu Okada
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Research Institute, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
- Medical and Dental Hospital, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
- Departments of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan
| | - Yosuke Kawagoe
- Departments of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan
| | - Yuta Sato
- Departments of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0810, Japan
| | - Motohiro Nozumi
- Departments of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan
| | - Yuya Ishikawa
- Departments of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Atsushi Tamada
- Departments of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan
- Department of iPS Cell Applied Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Osaka, 573-1010, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Yamazaki
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Yuko Sekino
- Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yonehiro Kanemura
- Division of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Research and Innovation, Institute for Clinical Research, National Hospital Organization Osaka National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yohei Shinmyo
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kawasaki
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Naoko Kaneko
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Institute of Brain Science, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kazunobu Sawamoto
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Institute of Brain Science, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
- Division of Neural Development and Regeneration, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Japan
| | - Yukihiko Fujii
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Research Institute, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
- Medical and Dental Hospital, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Michihiro Igarashi
- Departments of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medical/Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan.
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Tang X, Tzekov R, Passaglia CL. Retinal cross talk in the mammalian visual system. J Neurophysiol 2016; 115:3018-29. [PMID: 26984426 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01137.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The existence and functional relevance of efferent optic nerve fibers in mammals have long been debated. While anatomical evidence for cortico-retinal and retino-retinal projections is substantial, physiological evidence is lacking, as efferent fibers are few in number and are severed in studies of excised retinal tissue. Here we show that interocular connections contribute to retinal bioelectrical activity in adult mammals. Full-field flash electroretinograms (ERGs) were recorded from one or both eyes of Brown-Norway rats under dark-adapted (n = 16) and light-adapted (n = 11) conditions. Flashes were confined to each eye by an opaque tube that blocked stray light. Monocular flashes evoked a small (5-15 μV) signal in the nonilluminated eye, which was named "crossed ERG" (xERG). The xERG began under dark-adapted conditions with a positive (xP1) wave that peaked at 70-90 ms and ended with slower negative (xN1) and positive (xP2) waves from 200 to 400 ms. xN1 was absent under light-adapted conditions. Injection of tetrodotoxin in either eye (n = 15) eliminated the xERG. Intraocular pressure elevation of the illuminated eye (n = 6) had the same effect. The treatments also altered the ERG b-wave in both eyes, and the alterations correlated with xERG disappearance. Optic nerve stimulation (n = 3) elicited a biphasic compound action potential in the nonstimulated nerve with 10- to 13-ms latency, implying that the xERG comes from slow-conducting (W type) fibers. Monocular dye application (n = 7) confirmed the presence of retino-retinal ganglion cells in adult rats. We conclude that mammalian eyes communicate directly with each other via a handful of optic nerve fibers. The cross talk alters retinal activity in rats, and perhaps other animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolan Tang
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Radouil Tzekov
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida; and The Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, Florida
| | - Christopher L Passaglia
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida; Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida; and
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Dudkin EA, Sheffield JB, Gruberg ER. Combining visual information from the two eyes: the relationship between isthmotectal cells that project to ipsilateral and to contralateral optic tectum using fluorescent retrograde labels in the frog, Rana pipiens. J Comp Neurol 2007; 502:38-54. [PMID: 17335048 DOI: 10.1002/cne.21308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The frog nucleus isthmi (homolog of the mammalian parabigeminal nucleus) is a visually responsive tegmental structure that is reciprocally connected with the ipsilateral optic tectum; cells in nucleus isthmi also project to the contralateral optic tectum. We investigated the location of the isthmotectal cells that project ipsilaterally and contralaterally using three retrograde fluorescent label solutions: Alexa Fluor 488 10,000 mw dextran conjugate; Rhodamine B isothiocyanate; and Nuclear Yellow. Dye solutions were pressure-injected into separate sites in the superficial optic tectum. Following a 6-day survival, brains were fixed, sectioned, and then photographed. Injection of the different labels at separate, discrete locations in the optic tectum result in retrograde filling of singly labeled clusters of cells in both the ipsilateral and contralateral nucleus isthmi. Generally, ipsilaterally projecting cells are dorsal to the contralaterally projecting cells, but there is a slight overlap between the two sets of cells. Nonetheless, when different retrograde labels are injected into opposite tecta, there is no indication that individual cells project to both tecta. The set of cells that project to the ipsilateral tectum and the set of cells that project to the contralateral tectum form a visuotopic map in a roughly vertical, transverse slab. Our results suggest that nucleus isthmi can be separated into two regions with cells in the dorsolateral portion projecting primarily to the ipsilateral optic tectum and cells in the ventrolateral nucleus isthmi projecting primarily to the contralateral optic tectum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Dudkin
- Division of Science, Pennsylvania State University, Media, Pennsylvania 19063, USA.
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Hidalgo-Sánchez M, Francisco-Morcillo J, Navascués J, Martín-Partido G. Early development of the optic nerve in the turtle Mauremys leprosa. Brain Res 2006; 1137:35-49. [PMID: 17258694 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2006] [Revised: 11/30/2006] [Accepted: 12/14/2006] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
We show the distribution of the neural and non-neural elements in the early development of the optic nerve in the freshwater turtle, Mauremys leprosa, using light and electron microscopy. The first optic axons invaded the ventral periphery of the optic stalk in close relationship to the radial neuroepithelial processes. Growth cones were thus exclusively located in the ventral margin. As development progressed, growth cones were present in ventral and dorsal regions, including the dorsal periphery, where they intermingled with mature axons. However, growth cones predominated in the ventral part and axonal profiles dorsally, reflecting a dorsal to ventral gradient of maturation. The size and morphology of growth cones depended on the developmental stage and the region of the optic nerve. At early stages, most growth cones were of irregular shape, showing abundant lamellipodia. At the following stages, they tended to be larger and more complex in the ventral third than in intermediate and dorsal portions, suggesting a differential behavior of the growth cones along the ventro-dorsal axis. The arrival of optic axons at the optic stalk involved the progressive transformation of neuroepithelial cells into glial cells. Simultaneously with the fiber invasion, an important number of cells died by apoptosis in the dorsal wall of the optic nerve. These findings are discussed in relation to the results described in the developing optic nerve of other vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías Hidalgo-Sánchez
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas s/n, 06071 Badajoz, Spain
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Hidalgo-Sánchez M, Francisco-Morcillo J, Navascués J, Martín-Partido G. Developmental changes in the fibre population of the optic nerve follow an avian/mammalian-like pattern in the turtle Mauremys leprosa. Brain Res 2006; 1113:74-85. [PMID: 16935267 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2006] [Revised: 07/07/2006] [Accepted: 07/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The changes in the axon and growth cone numbers in the optic nerve of the freshwater turtle Mauremys leprosa were studied by electron microscopy from the embryonic day 14 (E14) to E80, when the animals normally hatch, and from the first postnatal day (P0) to adulthood (5 years on). At E16, the first axons appeared in the optic nerve and were added slowly until E21. From E21, the fibre number increased rapidly, peaking at E34 (570,000 fibres). Thereafter, the axon number decreased sharply, and from E47 declined steadily until reaching the mature number (about 330,000). These observations indicated that during development of the retina there was an overproduction and later elimination of retinal ganglion cells. Growth cones were first observed in the optic nerve at as early as E16. Their number increased rapidly until E21 and continued to be high through E23 and E26. After E26, the number declined steeply and by E40 the optic nerve was devoid of growth cones. These results indicated that differentiation of the retinal ganglion cells occurred during the first half of the embryonic life. To examine the correlation between the loss of the fibres from the optic nerve and loss of the parent retinal ganglion cells, retinal sections were processed with the TUNEL technique. Apoptotic nuclei were detected in the ganglion cell layer throughout the period of loss of the optic fibres. Our results showed that the time course of the numbers of the fibres in the developing turtle optic nerve was similar to those found in birds and mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías Hidalgo-Sánchez
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas s/n, 06071 Badajoz, Spain
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Robins A, Chen P, Beazley LD, Dunlop SA. Lateralized predatory responses in the ornate dragon lizard (Ctenophorus ornatus). Neuroreport 2005; 16:849-52. [PMID: 15891583 DOI: 10.1097/00001756-200505310-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Lateralized responses for visually elicited feeding behaviour have been reported in toads and birds but not in the phylogenetically intermediate class of vertebrates, the reptiles. Here we examined small social groups of ornate dragon lizards Ctenophorus ornatus (family Agamidae) and provide the first report in reptiles of right eye lateralization (left brain hemisphere) for predatory responses to prey. However, right eye lateralization was not evident initially but became stronger with time supporting a shift to right eye lateralization as the prey became increasingly familiar. The study is in agreement with recent findings in toads, adding credence to the hypothesis that lateralization originated in an early ancestor and highlighting the supposition that the strength and direction of lateralization is dependent on experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Robins
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba 4350, Australia.
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Dunlop SA, Tee LBG, Stirling RV, Taylor AL, Runham PB, Barber AB, Kuchling G, Rodger J, Roberts JD, Harvey AR, Beazley LD. Failure to restore vision after optic nerve regeneration in reptiles: Interspecies variation in response to axotomy. J Comp Neurol 2004; 478:292-305. [PMID: 15368531 DOI: 10.1002/cne.20299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Optic nerve regeneration within the reptiles is variable. In a snake, Viper aspis, and the lizard Gallotia galloti, regeneration is slow, although some retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons eventually reach the visual centers (Rio et al. [1989] Brain Res 479:151-156; Lang et al. [1998] Glia 23:61-74). By contrast, in a lizard, Ctenophorus ornatus, numerous RGC axons regenerate rapidly to the visual centers, but unless animals are stimulated visually, the regenerated projection lacks topography and animals remain blind via the experimental eye (Beazley et al. [2003] J. Neurotrauma 20:1263-1269). V. aspis, G. galloti, and C. ornatus belong respectively to the Serpentes, Lacertidae, and Agamidae within the Eureptilia, the major modern group of living reptiles comprising the Squamata (snakes, lizards, and geckos) and the Crocodyllia. Here we have extended the findings on Eureptilia to include two geckos (Gekkonidae), Cehyra variegata and Nephrurus stellatus. We also examined a turtle, Chelodina oblonga, the Testudines being the sole surviving representatives of the Parareptilia, the more ancient reptilian group. In all three species, visually elicited behavioral responses were absent throughout regeneration, a result supported electrophysiologically; axonal tracing revealed that only a small proportion of RGC axons crossed the lesion and none entered the contralateral optic tract. RGC axons failed to reach the chiasm in C. oblonga, and in G. variegata, and N. stellatus RGC axons entered the opposite optic nerve; a limited ipsilateral projection was seen in G. variegata. Our results support a heterogeneous response to axotomy within the reptiles, each of which is nevertheless dysfunctional.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Dunlop
- School of Animal Biology, The University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia.
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