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Borgognon S, Rouiller EM. Loss of Motor Cortical Inputs to the Red Nucleus after CNS Disorders in Nonhuman Primates. J Neurosci 2023; 43:1682-1691. [PMID: 36693756 PMCID: PMC10010457 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1942-22.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The premotor (PM) and primary motor (M1) cortical areas broadcast voluntary motor commands through multiple neuronal pathways, including the corticorubral projection that reaches the red nucleus (RN). However, the respective contribution of M1 and PM to corticorubral projections as well as changes induced by motor disorders or injuries are not known in nonhuman primates. Here, we quantified the density and topography of axonal endings of the corticorubral pathway in RN in intact monkeys, as well as in monkeys subjected to either cervical spinal cord injury (SCI), Parkinson's disease (PD)-like symptoms or primary motor cortex injury (MCI). Twenty adult macaque monkeys of either sex were injected with the biotinylated dextran amine anterograde tracer either in PM or in M1. We developed a semiautomated algorithm to reliably detect and count axonal boutons within the magnocellular and parvocellular (pRN) subdivisions of RN. In intact monkeys, PM and M1 preferentially target the medial part of the ipsilateral pRN, reflecting its somatotopic organization. Projection of PM to the ipsilateral pRN is denser than that of M1, matching previous observations for the corticotectal, corticoreticular, and corticosubthalamic projections (Fregosi et al., 2018, 2019; Borgognon et al., 2020). In all three types of motor disorders, there was a uniform and strong decrease (near loss) of the corticorubral projections from PM and M1. The RN may contribute to functional recovery after SCI, PD, and MCI, by reducing direct cortical influence. This reduction possibly privileges direct access to the final output motor system, via emphasis on the direct corticospinal projection.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We measured the corticorubral projection density arising from the PM or the M1 cortices in adult macaques. The premotor cortex sent denser corticorubral projections than the primary motor cortex, as previously observed for the corticotectal, corticoreticular, and corticosubthalamic projections. The premotor cortex may thus exert more influence than primary motor cortex onto subcortical structures. We next asked whether the corticorubral motor projections undergo lesion-dependent plasticity after either cervical spinal cord injury, Parkinson's disease-like symptoms, or primary motor cortex lesion. In all three types of pathology, there was a strong decrease of the corticorubral motor projection density, suggesting that the red nucleus may contribute to functional recovery after such motor system disorders based on a reduced direct cortical influence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Borgognon
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261
- Department of Neurosciences and Movement Sciences, Section of Medicine, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
- Center for Neuroprosthetics and Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eric M Rouiller
- Department of Neurosciences and Movement Sciences, Section of Medicine, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
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2
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Ghibaudi M, Amenta A, Agosti M, Riva M, Graïc JM, Bifari F, Bonfanti L. Consistency and Variation in Doublecortin and Ki67 Antigen Detection in the Brain Tissue of Different Mammals, including Humans. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032514. [PMID: 36768845 PMCID: PMC9916846 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, a population of "immature" neurons generated prenatally, retaining immaturity for long periods and finally integrating in adult circuits has been described in the cerebral cortex. Moreover, comparative studies revealed differences in occurrence/rate of different forms of neurogenic plasticity across mammals, the "immature" neurons prevailing in gyrencephalic species. To extend experimentation from laboratory mice to large-brained mammals, including humans, it is important to detect cell markers of neurogenic plasticity in brain tissues obtained from different procedures (e.g., post-mortem/intraoperative specimens vs. intracardiac perfusion). This variability overlaps with species-specific differences in antigen distribution or antibody species specificity, making it difficult for proper comparison. In this work, we detect the presence of doublecortin and Ki67 antigen, markers for neuronal immaturity and cell division, in six mammals characterized by widely different brain size. We tested seven commercial antibodies in four selected brain regions known to host immature neurons (paleocortex, neocortex) and newly born neurons (hippocampus, subventricular zone). In selected human brains, we confirmed the specificity of DCX antibody by performing co-staining with fluorescent probe for DCX mRNA. Our results indicate that, in spite of various types of fixations, most differences were due to the use of different antibodies and the existence of real interspecies variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ghibaudi
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), 10043 Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, 10095 Torino, Italy
| | - Alessia Amenta
- Laboratory of Cell Metabolism and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Miriam Agosti
- Laboratory of Cell Metabolism and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Riva
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, 20090 Pieve Emanuele, Italy
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, 20089 Rozzano, Italy
| | - Jean-Marie Graïc
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Francesco Bifari
- Laboratory of Cell Metabolism and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence: (F.B.); (L.B.)
| | - Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), 10043 Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, 10095 Torino, Italy
- Correspondence: (F.B.); (L.B.)
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3
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Coviello S, Gramuntell Y, Klimczak P, Varea E, Blasco-Ibañez JM, Crespo C, Gutierrez A, Nacher J. Phenotype and Distribution of Immature Neurons in the Human Cerebral Cortex Layer II. Front Neuroanat 2022; 16:851432. [PMID: 35464133 PMCID: PMC9027810 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2022.851432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This work provides evidence of the presence of immature neurons in the human brain, specifically in the layer II of the cerebral cortex. Using surgical samples from epileptic patients and post-mortem tissue, we have found cells with different levels of dendritic complexity (type I and type II cells) expressing DCX and PSA-NCAM and lacking expression of the mature neuronal marker NeuN. These immature cells belonged to the excitatory lineage, as demonstrated both by the expression of CUX1, CTIP2, and TBR1 transcription factors and by the lack of the inhibitory marker GAD67. The type II cells had some puncta expressing inhibitory and excitatory synaptic markers apposed to their perisomatic and peridendritic regions and ultrastructural analysis suggest the presence of synaptic contacts. These cells did not present glial cell markers, although astroglial and microglial processes were found in close apposition to their somata and dendrites, particularly on type I cells. Our findings confirm the presence of immature neurons in several regions of the cerebral cortex of humans of different ages and define their lineage. The presence of some mature features in some of these cells suggests the possibility of a progressively integration as excitatory neurons, as described in the olfactory cortex of rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Coviello
- Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Yaiza Gramuntell
- Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Patrycja Klimczak
- Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
- Spanish National Network for Research in Mental Health, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilio Varea
- Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - José Miguel Blasco-Ibañez
- Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Carlos Crespo
- Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Antonio Gutierrez
- Unidad de Cirugía de la Epilepsia, Hospital Universitario La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Juan Nacher
- Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
- Spanish National Network for Research in Mental Health, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain
- Fundación Investigación Hospital Clínico de Valencia (INCLIVA), Valencia, Spain
- *Correspondence: Juan Nacher,
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Ammothumkandy A, Ravina K, Wolseley V, Tartt AN, Yu PN, Corona L, Zhang N, Nune G, Kalayjian L, Mann JJ, Rosoklija GB, Arango V, Dwork AJ, Lee B, Smith JAD, Song D, Berger TW, Heck C, Chow RH, Boldrini M, Liu CY, Russin JJ, Bonaguidi MA. Altered adult neurogenesis and gliogenesis in patients with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Nat Neurosci 2022; 25:493-503. [PMID: 35383330 PMCID: PMC9097543 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-022-01044-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The hippocampus is the most common seizure focus in people. In the hippocampus, aberrant neurogenesis plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of epilepsy in rodent models, but it is unknown whether this also holds true in humans. To address this question, we used immunofluorescence on control healthy hippocampus and surgical resections from mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE), plus neural stem-cell cultures and multi-electrode recordings of ex vivo hippocampal slices. We found that a longer duration of epilepsy is associated with a sharp decline in neuronal production and persistent numbers in astrogenesis. Further, immature neurons in MTLE are mostly inactive, and are not observed in cases with local epileptiform-like activity. However, immature astroglia are present in every MTLE case and their location and activity are dependent on epileptiform-like activity. Immature astroglia, rather than newborn neurons, therefore represent a potential target to continually modulate adult human neuronal hyperactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aswathy Ammothumkandy
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Kristine Ravina
- Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Victoria Wolseley
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Physiology & Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Alexandria N Tartt
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, NYS Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Pen-Ning Yu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Luis Corona
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Naibo Zhang
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - George Nune
- Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Laura Kalayjian
- Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - J. John Mann
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, NYS Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Gorazd B. Rosoklija
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, NYS Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA,Macedonian Academy of Sciences & Arts, Skopje 1000, Republic of Macedonia
| | - Victoria Arango
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, NYS Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Andrew J. Dwork
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, NYS Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA,Macedonian Academy of Sciences & Arts, Skopje 1000, Republic of Macedonia,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Brian Lee
- Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jason A D Smith
- Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Dong Song
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Theodore W Berger
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Christianne Heck
- Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Robert H Chow
- Department of Physiology & Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Maura Boldrini
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, NYS Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Charles Y Liu
- Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jonathan J Russin
- Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Michael A Bonaguidi
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.,Department of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Corresponding author.
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5
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Bonfanti L, Seki T. The PSA-NCAM-Positive "Immature" Neurons: An Old Discovery Providing New Vistas on Brain Structural Plasticity. Cells 2021; 10:2542. [PMID: 34685522 PMCID: PMC8534119 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies on brain plasticity have undertaken different roads, tackling a wide range of biological processes: from small synaptic changes affecting the contacts among neurons at the very tip of their processes, to birth, differentiation, and integration of new neurons (adult neurogenesis). Stem cell-driven adult neurogenesis is an exception in the substantially static mammalian brain, yet, it has dominated the research in neurodevelopmental biology during the last thirty years. Studies of comparative neuroplasticity have revealed that neurogenic processes are reduced in large-brained mammals, including humans. On the other hand, large-brained mammals, with respect to rodents, host large populations of special "immature" neurons that are generated prenatally but express immature markers in adulthood. The history of these "immature" neurons started from studies on adhesion molecules carried out at the beginning of the nineties. The identity of these neurons as "stand by" cells "frozen" in a state of immaturity remained un-detected for long time, because of their ill-defined features and because clouded by research ef-forts focused on adult neurogenesis. In this review article, the history of these cells will be reconstructed, and a series of nuances and confounding factors that have hindered the distinction between newly generated and "immature" neurons will be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), 10043 Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, 10095 Torino, Italy
| | - Tatsunori Seki
- Department of Histology and Neuroanatomy, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
- Department of Anatomy and Life Structure, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
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6
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Bonfanti L, Charvet CJ. Brain Plasticity in Humans and Model Systems: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:9358. [PMID: 34502267 PMCID: PMC8431131 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasticity, and in particular, neurogenesis, is a promising target to treat and prevent a wide variety of diseases (e.g., epilepsy, stroke, dementia). There are different types of plasticity, which vary with age, brain region, and species. These observations stress the importance of defining plasticity along temporal and spatial dimensions. We review recent studies focused on brain plasticity across the lifespan and in different species. One main theme to emerge from this work is that plasticity declines with age but that we have yet to map these different forms of plasticity across species. As part of this effort, we discuss our recent progress aimed to identify corresponding ages across species, and how this information can be used to map temporal variation in plasticity from model systems to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Bonfanti
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco, TO, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole 10, 10043 Orbassano, TO, Italy
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7
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Manickam N, Radhakrishnan RK, Vergil Andrews JF, Selvaraj DB, Kandasamy M. Cell cycle re-entry of neurons and reactive neuroblastosis in Huntington's disease: Possibilities for neural-glial transition in the brain. Life Sci 2020; 263:118569. [PMID: 33049278 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant pathogenic condition that causes progressive degeneration of GABAergic neurons in the brain. The abnormal expansion of the CAG repeats in the exon 1 of the Huntingtin gene (HTT gene) has been associated with the onset and progression of movement disorders, psychiatric disturbance and cognitive decline in HD. Microglial activation and reactive astrogliosis have been recognized as the key pathogenic cellular events in the brains of HD subjects. Besides, HD has been characterized by induced quiescence of neural stem cells (NSCs), reactive neuroblastosis and reduced survival of newborn neurons in the brain. Strikingly, the expression of the mutant HTT gene has been reported to induce the cell cycle re-entry of neurons in HD brains. However, the underlying basis for the induction of cell cycle in neurons and the fate of dedifferentiating neurons in the pathological brain remain largely unknown. Thus, this review article revisits the reports on the regulation of key signaling pathways responsible for altered cell cycle events in diseased brains, with special reference to HD and postulates the occurrence of reactive neuroblastosis as a consequential cellular event of dedifferentiation of neurons. Meanwhile, a substantial number of studies indicate that many neuropathogenic events are associated with the expression of potential glial cell markers by neuroblasts. Taken together, this article represents a hypothesis that transdifferentiation of neurons into glial cells might be highly possible through the transient generation of reactive neuroblasts in the brain upon certain pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nivethitha Manickam
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Department of Animal Science, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Risna Kanjirassery Radhakrishnan
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Department of Animal Science, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Jemi Feiona Vergil Andrews
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Department of Animal Science, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Divya Bharathi Selvaraj
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Department of Animal Science, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Mahesh Kandasamy
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Department of Animal Science, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, Tamil Nadu, India; Faculty Recharge Programme, University Grants Commission (UGC-FRP), New Delhi 110002, India.
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8
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Rodríguez-Vázquez L, Martí J. Administration of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine interferes with neuroblast proliferation and promotes apoptotic cell death in the rat cerebellar neuroepithelium. J Comp Neurol 2020; 529:1081-1096. [PMID: 32785933 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The current study was conducted to assess whether a single administration of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) interferes with cell proliferation and leads to the activation of apoptotic cellular events in the prenatal cerebellum. BrdU effects across a wide range of doses (25-300 μg/g b.w.) were analyzed using immunohistochemical and ultrastructural procedures. The pregnant rats were injected with BrdU at embryonic day 13, and their fetuses were sacrificed from 5 to 35 hr after exposure. The quantification of several parameters such as the density of mitotic figures, and BrdU and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-reactive cells showed that, in comparison with the saline injected rats, the administration of BrdU impairs the proliferative behavior of neuroepithelial cells. The above-mentioned parameters were significantly reduced in rats injected with 100 μg/g b.w. of BrdU. The reduction was more evident using 200 μg/g b.w. The most severe effects were found with 300 μg/g b.w. of BrdU. The present findings also revealed that high doses of BrdU lead to the activation of apoptotic cellular events as evidenced by both terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay and immunohistochemistry for active caspase-3. In comparison with saline rats, many apoptotic cells were found in rats injected with 100 μg/g b.w. of BrdU. The number of dying cells increased with 200 μg/g b.w. The most important number of apoptotic cells were observed in animals injected with 300 μg/g b.w. of BrdU. Ultrastructural studies confirmed the presence of neuroblasts at different stages of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Rodríguez-Vázquez
- Unidad de Citología e Histología, Departament de Biologia Cellular, de Fisiologia i d'Immunologia, Facultad de Biociencias, Institut de Neurociències, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joaquín Martí
- Unidad de Citología e Histología, Departament de Biologia Cellular, de Fisiologia i d'Immunologia, Facultad de Biociencias, Institut de Neurociències, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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9
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Liu RX, Ma J, Wang B, Tian T, Guo N, Liu SJ. No DCX-positive neurogenesis in the cerebral cortex of the adult primate. Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:1290-1299. [PMID: 31960815 PMCID: PMC7047795 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.272610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether endogenous neurogenesis occurs in the adult cortex remains controversial. An increasing number of reports suggest that doublecortin (DCX)-positive neurogenesis persists in the adult primate cortex, attracting enormous attention worldwide. In this study, different DCX antibodies were used together with NeuN antibodies in immunohistochemistry and western blot assays using adjacent cortical sections from adult monkeys. Antibody adsorption, antigen binding, primary antibody omission and antibody-free experiments were used to assess specificity of the signals. We found either strong fluorescent signals, medium-weak intensity signals in some cells, weak signals in a few perikarya or near complete lack of labeling in adjacent cortical sections incubated with the various DCX antibodies. The putative DCX-positive cells in the cortex were also positive for NeuN, a specific marker of mature neurons. However, further experiments showed that most of these signals were either the result of antibody cross reactivity, the non-specificity of secondary antibodies or tissue autofluorescence. No confirmed DCX-positive cells were detected in the adult macaque cortex by immunofluorescence. Our findings show that DCX-positive neurogenesis does not occur in the cerebral cortex of adult primates, and that false-positive signals (artefacts) are caused by antibody cross reactivity and autofluorescence. The experimental protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Institute of Neuroscience, Beijing, China (approval No. IACUC-AMMS-2014-501).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-Xu Liu
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Ma
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tian Tian
- Department of Pharmacy, Medical College, Huanghe S&T University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Ning Guo
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shao-Jun Liu
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
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10
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Static Magnetic Field Exposure In Vivo Enhances the Generation of New Doublecortin-expressing Cells in the Sub-ventricular Zone and Neocortex of Adult Rats. Neuroscience 2019; 425:217-234. [PMID: 31809729 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Static magnetic field (SMF) is gaining interest as a potential technique for modulating CNS neuronal activity. Previous studies have shown a pro-neurogenic effect of short periods of extremely low frequency pulsatile magnetic fields (PMF) in vivo and pro-survival effect of low intensity SMF in cultured neurons in vitro, but little is known about the in vivo effects of low to moderate intensity SMF on brain functions. We investigated the effect of continuously-applied SMF on subventricular zone (SVZ) neurogenesis and immature doublecortin (DCX)-expressing cells in the neocortex of young adult rats and in primary cultures of cortical neurons in vitro. A small (3 mm diameter) magnetic disc was implanted on the skull of rats at bregma, producing an average field strength of 4.3 mT at SVZ and 12.9 mT at inner neocortex. Levels of proliferation of SVZ stem cells were determined by 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) labelling, and early neuronal phenotype development was determined by expression of doublecortin (DCX). To determine the effect of SMF on neurogenesis in vitro, permanent magnets were placed beneath the culture dishes. We found that low intensity SMF exposure enhances cell proliferation in SVZ and new DCX-expressing cells in neocortical regions of young adult rats. In primary cortical neuronal cultures, SMF exposure increased the expression of newly generated cells co-labelled with EdU and DCX or the mature neuronal marker NeuN, while activating a set of pro neuronal bHLH genes. SMF exposure has potential for treatment of neurodegenerative disease and conditions such as CNS trauma and affective disorders in which increased neurogenesis is desirable.
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11
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Sugiyama Y, Oishi T, Yamashita A, Murata Y, Yamamoto T, Takashima I, Isa T, Higo N. Neuronal and microglial localization of secreted phosphoprotein 1 (osteopontin) in intact and damaged motor cortex of macaques. Brain Res 2019; 1714:52-64. [PMID: 30790559 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
We previously reported that mRNA encoding secreted phosphoprotein 1 (SPP1), also known as osteopontin, is preferentially expressed in large neurons in layer V of the macaque motor cortex, most of which are presumed to be corticospinal tract neurons. As a first step to elucidating the cellular function of SPP1 in macaque neurons, we examined the localization of SPP1 in the primary motor cortex (M1) of the macaque by using immunohistochemistry. SPP1 immunoreactivity was found to be localized in the cell bodies of neurons, but not outside the cells, indicating that SPP1 was not secreted from these neurons. The results of electron microscope analysis and double-labeling analysis with marker proteins suggested that SPP1 was localized in the mitochondria of neurons. The distributions of SPP1 in the neurons corresponded to those of integrin αV, a putative receptor for SPP1. The distribution of SPP1 was also investigated in macaques whose M1 had been lesioned. We found that SPP1 was secreted by proliferated microglia in the lesioned area. Double-labeling analysis indicated that SPP1 immunoreactivity in the microglia was colocalized with CD44, another putative receptor for SPP1. Success rates in the small-object-retrieval task were positively correlated with SPP1 immunoreactivity in the neurons in the perilesional area. SPP1 has multiple roles in the macaque motor cortex, and it may be a key protein during recovery of hand movement after brain damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Sugiyama
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan; Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Science, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8574, Japan
| | - Takao Oishi
- Systems Neuroscience Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan
| | - Akiko Yamashita
- Division of Biology, Department of Liberal Education, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan
| | - Yumi Murata
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Yamamoto
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan; Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Tsukuba International University, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki 300-0051, Japan
| | - Ichiro Takashima
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan; Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Science, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8574, Japan
| | - Tadashi Isa
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Higo
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan.
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Lack of MeCP2 leads to region-specific increase of doublecortin in the olfactory system. Brain Struct Funct 2019; 224:1647-1658. [PMID: 30923887 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-019-01860-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The protein doublecortin is mainly expressed in migrating neuroblasts and immature neurons. The X-linked gene MECP2, associated to several neurodevelopmental disorders such as Rett syndrome, encodes the protein methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2), a regulatory protein that has been implicated in neuronal maturation and refinement of olfactory circuits. Here, we explored doublecortin immunoreactivity in the brain of young adult female Mecp2-heterozygous and male Mecp2-null mice and their wild-type littermates. The distribution of doublecortin-immunoreactive somata in neurogenic brain regions was consistent with previous reports in rodents, and no qualitative differences were found between genotypes or sexes. Quantitatively, we found a significant increase in doublecortin cell density in the piriform cortex of Mecp2-null males as compared to WT littermates. A similar increase was seen in a newly identified population of doublecortin cells in the olfactory tubercle. In these olfactory structures, however, the percentage of doublecortin immature neurons that also expressed NeuN was not different between genotypes. By contrast, we found no significant differences between genotypes in doublecortin immunoreactivity in the olfactory bulbs. Nonetheless, in the periglomerular layer of Mecp2-null males, we observed a specific decrease of immature neurons co-expressing doublecortin and NeuN. Overall, no differences were evident between Mecp2-heterozygous and WT females. In addition, no differences could be detected between genotypes in the density of doublecortin-immunoreactive cells in the hippocampus or striatum of either males or females. Our results suggest that MeCP2 is involved in neuronal maturation in a region-dependent manner.
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Vass RA, Kemeny A, Dergez T, Ertl T, Reglodi D, Jungling A, Tamas A. Distribution of bioactive factors in human milk samples. Int Breastfeed J 2019; 14:9. [PMID: 30792750 PMCID: PMC6371541 DOI: 10.1186/s13006-019-0203-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Breast milk provides nutrition for infants and also contains a variety of bioactive factors that influence the development of the newborn. Human milk is a complex biological fluid that can be separated into different layers (water phase and lipid phase with its component water and lipid fractions). It can affect the developing human body along the whole length of the gastrointestinal tract, and through the circulation, its factors may reach every organ. Methods In the present study, we analyzed milk samples collected monthly for 6 months from 16 mothers from the 4th week postpartum between 2014 and 2016 in Baranya County, Hungary. The 96 samples provided us information about the fluctuation of certain bioactive factors during the first 6 months of lactation. We investigated with Luminex technology the concentrations of several cytokines (CD40, Flt-3L), chemokines (MCP-1, RANTES, GRO, MIP-1ß, MDC, eotaxin, fractalkine), and epidermal growth factor (EGF). Paired t-tests and one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post-hoc tests were used to compare the data. Results We detected the presence of each bioactive factor in every layer of the milk samples during the first 6 months of breastfeeding in widespread concentration ranges. In the case of GRO, MIP-1ß, MDC, Flt-3L, fractalkine, and eotaxin, the concentrations were constant during the first 6 months of lactation. The water phase of human milk contained higher factor concentrations compared to both fractions of the lipid phase for most factors (except eotaxin and MIP-1ß). The concentrations of CD40, EGF, MCP-1, and RANTES in the first 3 months were significantly different compared to the values detected between 4th and 6th months. In the water phase, the level of MCP-1 was significantly decreased, while all of the other factors increased during the 4th through 6th months. We found significantly higher EGF, GRO, and RANTES levels in the water fraction compared to the lipid fraction of the lipid phase. Conclusions The novel findings of this investigation were the presence of Flt-3L and MDC in all layers of breast milk, and nearly all bioactive factors in the lipid phase. Due to their widespread physiological effects these factors may have an essential role in organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reka A Vass
- 1Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Group, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Agnes Kemeny
- 2Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy; Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,3Department of Medical Biology and Central Electron Microscope Laboratory, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Timea Dergez
- 4Institute of Bioanalysis, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Tibor Ertl
- 5Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Dora Reglodi
- 1Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Group, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Adel Jungling
- 1Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Group, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Andrea Tamas
- 1Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Group, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
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Unger MS, Marschallinger J, Kaindl J, Klein B, Johnson M, Khundakar AA, Roßner S, Heneka MT, Couillard-Despres S, Rockenstein E, Masliah E, Attems J, Aigner L. Doublecortin expression in CD8+ T-cells and microglia at sites of amyloid-β plaques: A potential role in shaping plaque pathology? Alzheimers Dement 2018; 14:1022-1037. [PMID: 29630865 DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2018.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Revised: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION One characteristic of Alzheimer's disease is the formation of amyloid-β plaques, which are typically linked to neuroinflammation and surrounded by inflammatory cells such as microglia and infiltrating immune cells. METHODS Here, we describe nonneurogenic doublecortin (DCX) positive cells, DCX being generally used as a marker for young immature neurons, at sites of amyloid-β plaques in various transgenic amyloid mouse models and in human brains with plaque pathology. RESULTS The plaque-associated DCX+ cells were not of neurogenic identity, instead most of them showed coexpression with markers for microglia (ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1) and for phagocytosis (CD68 and TREM2). Another subpopulation of plaque-associated DCX+ cells was negative for ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 but was highly positive for the pan-leukocyte marker CD45. These hematopoietic cells were identified as CD3-and CD8-positive and CD4-negative T-cells. DISCUSSION Peculiarly, the DCX+/ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1+ microglia and DCX+/CD8+ T-cells were closely attached, suggesting that these two cell types are tightly interacting and that this interaction might shape plaque pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Unger
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Julia Marschallinger
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Julia Kaindl
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Klein
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Mary Johnson
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Ahmad A Khundakar
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Steffen Roßner
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael T Heneka
- University Hospital Bonn, Clinic and Polyclinic for Neurology, Clinical Neuroscience, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sebastien Couillard-Despres
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Edward Rockenstein
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Eliezer Masliah
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Johannes Attems
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Ludwig Aigner
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
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15
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Higo N, Sato A, Yamamoto T, Oishi T, Nishimura Y, Murata Y, Onoe H, Isa T, Kojima T. Comprehensive analysis of area‐specific and time‐dependent changes in gene expression in the motor cortex of macaque monkeys during recovery from spinal cord injury. J Comp Neurol 2018; 526:1110-1130. [DOI: 10.1002/cne.24396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Higo
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)Tsukuba Ibaraki Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)Kawaguchi Saitama Japan
- Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO)Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)Kawaguchi Saitama Japan
| | - Akira Sato
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)Kawaguchi Saitama Japan
- Computational Systems Biology Research Group, Advanced Science Institute, RIKENYokohama Kanagawa Japan
| | - Tatsuya Yamamoto
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)Tsukuba Ibaraki Japan
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medical and Health SciencesTsukuba International UniversityTsuchiura Ibaraki Japan
| | - Takao Oishi
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)Kawaguchi Saitama Japan
- Systems Neuroscience SectionPrimate Research Institute, Kyoto University, KanrinInuyama Aichi Japan
| | - Yukio Nishimura
- Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO)Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)Kawaguchi Saitama Japan
- Department of Developmental PhysiologyNational Institute for Physiological Sciences (NIPS), National Institutes of Natural SciencesOkazaki Aichi Japan
- The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI)Hayama Kanagawa Japan
| | - Yumi Murata
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)Tsukuba Ibaraki Japan
| | - Hirotaka Onoe
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)Kawaguchi Saitama Japan
- Division of Bio‐function Dynamics ImagingCenter for Life Science Technologies (CLST), RIKENKobe Hyogo Japan
| | - Tadashi Isa
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)Kawaguchi Saitama Japan
- Department of Developmental PhysiologyNational Institute for Physiological Sciences (NIPS), National Institutes of Natural SciencesOkazaki Aichi Japan
- The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI)Hayama Kanagawa Japan
| | - Toshio Kojima
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)Kawaguchi Saitama Japan
- Computational Systems Biology Research Group, Advanced Science Institute, RIKENYokohama Kanagawa Japan
- Health Care CenterToyohashi University of TechnologyToyohashi Aichi Japan
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16
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Morton PD, Korotcova L, Lewis BK, Bhuvanendran S, Ramachandra SD, Zurakowski D, Zhang J, Mori S, Frank JA, Jonas RA, Gallo V, Ishibashi N. Abnormal neurogenesis and cortical growth in congenital heart disease. Sci Transl Med 2018; 9:9/374/eaah7029. [PMID: 28123074 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aah7029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2015] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Long-term neurological deficits due to immature cortical development are emerging as a major challenge in congenital heart disease (CHD). However, cellular mechanisms underlying dysregulation of perinatal corticogenesis in CHD remain elusive. The subventricular zone (SVZ) represents the largest postnatal niche of neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs). We show that the piglet SVZ resembles its human counterpart and displays robust postnatal neurogenesis. We present evidence that SVZ NSPCs migrate to the frontal cortex and differentiate into interneurons in a region-specific manner. Hypoxic exposure of the gyrencephalic piglet brain recapitulates CHD-induced impaired cortical development. Hypoxia reduces proliferation and neurogenesis in the SVZ, which is accompanied by reduced cortical growth. We demonstrate a similar reduction in neuroblasts within the SVZ of human infants born with CHD. Our findings demonstrate that SVZ NSPCs contribute to perinatal corticogenesis and suggest that restoration of SVZ NSPCs' neurogenic potential is a candidate therapeutic target for improving cortical growth in CHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul D Morton
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA.,Children's National Heart Institute, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Ludmila Korotcova
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA.,Children's National Heart Institute, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Bobbi K Lewis
- Frank Laboratory and Laboratory of Diagnostic Radiology Research, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Shivaprasad Bhuvanendran
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Shruti D Ramachandra
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA.,Children's National Heart Institute, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - David Zurakowski
- Departments of Anesthesia and Surgery, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jiangyang Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Susumu Mori
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Joseph A Frank
- Frank Laboratory and Laboratory of Diagnostic Radiology Research, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.,Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Richard A Jonas
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA. .,Children's National Heart Institute, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Vittorio Gallo
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA.
| | - Nobuyuki Ishibashi
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA. .,Children's National Heart Institute, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC 20010, USA
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17
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Dragatsis I, Dietrich P, Ren H, Deng YP, Del Mar N, Wang HB, Johnson IM, Jones KR, Reiner A. Effect of early embryonic deletion of huntingtin from pyramidal neurons on the development and long-term survival of neurons in cerebral cortex and striatum. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 111:102-117. [PMID: 29274742 PMCID: PMC5821111 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We evaluated the impact of early embryonic deletion of huntingtin (htt) from pyramidal neurons on cortical development, cortical neuron survival and motor behavior, using a cre-loxP strategy to inactivate the mouse htt gene (Hdh) in emx1-expressing cell lineages. Western blot confirmed substantial htt reduction in cerebral cortex of these Emx-httKO mice, with residual cortical htt in all likelihood restricted to cortical interneurons of the subpallial lineage and/or vascular endothelial cells. Despite the loss of htt early in development, cortical lamination was normal, as revealed by layer-specific markers. Cortical volume and neuron abundance were, however, significantly less than normal, and cortical neurons showed reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and reduced activation of BDNF signaling pathways. Nonetheless, cortical volume and neuron abundance did not show progressive age-related decline in Emx-httKO mice out to 24 months. Although striatal neurochemistry was normal, reductions in striatal volume and neuron abundance were seen in Emx-httKO mice, which were again not progressive. Weight maintenance was normal in Emx-httKO mice, but a slight rotarod deficit and persistent hyperactivity were observed throughout the lifespan. Our results show that embryonic deletion of htt from developing pallium does not substantially alter migration of cortical neurons to their correct laminar destinations, but does yield reduced cortical and striatal size and neuron numbers. The Emx-httKO mice were persistently hyperactive, possibly due to defects in corticostriatal development. Importantly, deletion of htt from cortical pyramidal neurons did not yield age-related progressive cortical or striatal pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Dragatsis
- Department of Physiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - P Dietrich
- Department of Physiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - H Ren
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - Y P Deng
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - N Del Mar
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - H B Wang
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - I M Johnson
- Department of Physiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - K R Jones
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, & Developmental Biology, 347 UCB, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, United States
| | - A Reiner
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, United States.
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18
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Chen KS, Harris L, Lim JWC, Harvey TJ, Piper M, Gronostajski RM, Richards LJ, Bunt J. Differential neuronal and glial expression of nuclear factor I proteins in the cerebral cortex of adult mice. J Comp Neurol 2017; 525:2465-2483. [PMID: 28295292 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The nuclear factor I (NFI) family of transcription factors plays an important role in the development of the cerebral cortex in humans and mice. Disruption of nuclear factor IA (NFIA), nuclear factor IB (NFIB), or nuclear factor IX (NFIX) results in abnormal development of the corpus callosum, lateral ventricles, and hippocampus. However, the expression or function of these genes has not been examined in detail in the adult brain, and the cell type-specific expression of NFIA, NFIB, and NFIX is currently unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the expression of each NFI protein shows a distinct laminar pattern in the adult mouse neocortex and that their cell type-specific expression differs depending on the family member. NFIA expression was more frequently observed in astrocytes and oligodendroglia, whereas NFIB expression was predominantly localized to astrocytes and neurons. NFIX expression was most commonly observed in neurons. The NFI proteins were equally distributed within microglia, and the ependymal cells lining the ventricles of the brain expressed all three proteins. In the hippocampus, the NFI proteins were expressed during all stages of neural stem cell differentiation in the dentate gyrus, with higher expression intensity in neuroblast cells as compared to quiescent stem cells and mature granule neurons. These findings suggest that the NFI proteins may play distinct roles in cell lineage specification or maintenance, and establish the basis for further investigation of their function in the adult brain and their emerging role in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok-Siong Chen
- The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Lachlan Harris
- The School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jonathan W C Lim
- The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Tracey J Harvey
- The School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael Piper
- The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,The School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Richard M Gronostajski
- Department of Biochemistry, Program in Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics, Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York
| | - Linda J Richards
- The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,The School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jens Bunt
- The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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19
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Keiner S, Niv F, Neumann S, Steinbach T, Schmeer C, Hornung K, Schlenker Y, Förster M, Witte OW, Redecker C. Effect of skilled reaching training and enriched environment on generation of oligodendrocytes in the adult sensorimotor cortex and corpus callosum. BMC Neurosci 2017; 18:31. [PMID: 28279169 PMCID: PMC5345235 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-017-0347-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background
Increased motor activity or social interactions through enriched environment are strong stimulators of grey and white matter plasticity in the adult rodent brain. In the present study we evaluated whether specific reaching training of the dominant forelimb (RT) and stimulation of unspecific motor activity through enriched environment (EE) influence the generation of distinct oligodendrocyte subpopulations in the sensorimotor cortex and corpus callosum of the adult rat brain. Animals were placed in three different housing conditions: one group was transferred to an EE, a second group received daily RT, whereas a third group remained in the standard cage. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was applied at days 2–6 after start of experiments and animals were allowed to survive for 10 and 42 days. Results Enriched environment and daily reaching training of the dominant forelimb significantly increased the number of newly differentiated GSTπ+ oligodendrocytes at day 10 and newly differentiated CNPase+ oligodendrocytes in the sensorimotor cortex at day 42. The myelin level as measured by CNPase expression was increased in the frontal cortex at day 42. Distribution of newly differentiated NG2+ subpopulations changed between 10 and 42 days with an increase of GSTπ+ subtypes and a decrease of NG2+ cells in the sensorimotor cortex and corpus callosum. Analysis of neuronal marker doublecortin (DCX) showed that more than half of NG2+ cells express DCX in the cortex. The number of new DCX+NG2+ cells was reduced by EE at day 10. Conclusions Our results indicate for the first time that specific and unspecific motor training conditions differentially alter the process of differentiation from oligodendrocyte subpopulations, in particular NG2+DCX+ cells, in the sensorimotor cortex and corpus callosum. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12868-017-0347-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Keiner
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany.
| | - Fanny Niv
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Susanne Neumann
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Tanja Steinbach
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Schmeer
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Katrin Hornung
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Yvonne Schlenker
- Pneumology, Internal Medicine I, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Martin Förster
- Pneumology, Internal Medicine I, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Otto W Witte
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Christoph Redecker
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
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Chareyron LJ, Amaral DG, Lavenex P. Selective lesion of the hippocampus increases the differentiation of immature neurons in the monkey amygdala. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:14420-14425. [PMID: 27911768 PMCID: PMC5167145 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1604288113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A large population of immature neurons is present in the ventromedial portion of the adult primate amygdala, a region that receives substantial direct projections from the hippocampal formation. Here, we show the effects of neonatal (n = 8) and adult (n = 6) hippocampal lesions on the populations of mature and immature neurons in the paralaminar, lateral, and basal nuclei of the adult monkey amygdala. Compared with unoperated controls (n = 7), the number of mature neurons was about 70% higher in the paralaminar nucleus of neonate- and adult-lesioned monkeys, and 40% higher in the lateral and basal nuclei of neonate-lesioned monkeys. The number of immature neurons in the paralaminar nucleus was 40% higher in neonate-lesioned monkeys and 30% lower in adult-lesioned monkeys. Similar changes in neuron numbers were also found in two monkeys with nonexperimental, selective, bilateral hippocampal damage. These changes in neuron numbers following hippocampal lesions appear to reflect the differentiation of immature neurons present in the paralaminar nucleus. After adult lesions, the differentiation of immature neurons was essentially restricted to the paralaminar nucleus and was associated with a decrease in the population of immature neurons. In contrast, after neonatal lesions, the differentiation of immature neurons involved the paralaminar, lateral, and basal nuclei. It was associated with an increase in the population of immature neurons in the paralaminar nucleus. Such lesion-induced neuronal plasticity sheds new light on potential mechanisms that may facilitate functional recovery following focal brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc J Chareyron
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - David G Amaral
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Pierre Lavenex
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland;
- Laboratory for Experimental Research on Behavior, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Distribution and fate of DCX/PSA-NCAM expressing cells in the adult mammalian cortex: A local reservoir for adult cortical neuroplasticity? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11515-016-1403-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Surbhi, Rastogi A, Malik S, Rani S, Kumar V. Seasonal neuronal plasticity in song-control and auditory forebrain areas in subtropical nonmigratory and palearctic-indian migratory male songbirds. J Comp Neurol 2016; 524:2914-29. [DOI: 10.1002/cne.24000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Surbhi
- DST-IRHPA Center for Excellence in Biological Rhythms Research and Indo-U.S. Center for Biological Timing, University of Delhi; Delhi 110 007 India
- Department of Zoology; University of Delhi; Delhi 110 007 India
| | - Ashutosh Rastogi
- DST-IRHPA Center for Excellence in Biological Rhythms Research and Indo-U.S. Center for Biological Timing, University of Delhi; Delhi 110 007 India
- Department of Zoology; University of Lucknow; Lucknow 226 007 India
| | - Shalie Malik
- DST-IRHPA Center for Excellence in Biological Rhythms Research and Indo-U.S. Center for Biological Timing, University of Delhi; Delhi 110 007 India
- Department of Zoology; University of Lucknow; Lucknow 226 007 India
| | - Sangeeta Rani
- DST-IRHPA Center for Excellence in Biological Rhythms Research and Indo-U.S. Center for Biological Timing, University of Delhi; Delhi 110 007 India
- Department of Zoology; University of Lucknow; Lucknow 226 007 India
| | - Vinod Kumar
- DST-IRHPA Center for Excellence in Biological Rhythms Research and Indo-U.S. Center for Biological Timing, University of Delhi; Delhi 110 007 India
- Department of Zoology; University of Delhi; Delhi 110 007 India
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He X, Deng FJ, Ge JW, Yan XX, Pan AH, Li ZY. Effects of total saponins of Panax notoginseng on immature neuroblasts in the adult olfactory bulb following global cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. Neural Regen Res 2015; 10:1450-6. [PMID: 26604906 PMCID: PMC4625511 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.165514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The main active components extracted from Panax notoginseng are total saponins. They have been shown to inhibit platelet aggregation, increase cerebral blood flow, improve neurological behavior, decrease infarct volume and promote proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells in the hippocampus and lateral ventricles. However, there is a lack of studies on whether total saponins of Panax notoginseng have potential benefits on immature neuroblasts in the olfactory bulb following ischemia and reperfusion. This study established a rat model of global cerebral ischemia and reperfusion using four-vessel occlusion. Rats were administered total saponins of Panax notoginseng at 75 mg/kg intraperitoneally 30 minutes after ischemia then once a day, for either 7 or 14 days. Total saponins of Panax notoginseng enhanced the number of doublecortin (DCX)+ neural progenitor cells and increased co-localization of DCX with neuronal nuclei and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding/DCX+ neural progenitor cells in the olfactory bulb at 7 and 14 days post ischemia. These findings indicate that following global brain ischemia/reperfusion, total saponins of Panax notoginseng promote differentiation of DCX+ cells expressing immature neuroblasts in the olfactory bulb and the underlying mechanism is related to the activation of the signaling pathway of cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu He
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China ; Department of Anatomy, Yiyang Medical College, Yiyang, Hunan Province, China
| | - Feng-Jun Deng
- Department of Pharmacy, Yiyang Medical College, Yiyang, Hunan Province, China
| | - Jin-Wen Ge
- Department of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
| | - Xiao-Xin Yan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
| | - Ai-Hua Pan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
| | - Zhi-Yuan Li
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
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Paredes MF, Sorrells SF, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Alvarez-Buylla A. Brain size and limits to adult neurogenesis. J Comp Neurol 2015; 524:646-64. [PMID: 26417888 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The walls of the cerebral ventricles in the developing embryo harbor the primary neural stem cells from which most neurons and glia derive. In many vertebrates, neurogenesis continues postnatally and into adulthood in this region. Adult neurogenesis at the ventricle has been most extensively studied in organisms with small brains, such as reptiles, birds, and rodents. In reptiles and birds, these progenitor cells give rise to young neurons that migrate into many regions of the forebrain. Neurogenesis in adult rodents is also relatively widespread along the lateral ventricles, but migration is largely restricted to the rostral migratory stream into the olfactory bulb. Recent work indicates that the wall of the lateral ventricle is highly regionalized, with progenitor cells giving rise to different types of neurons depending on their location. In species with larger brains, young neurons born in these spatially specified domains become dramatically separated from potential final destinations. Here we hypothesize that the increase in size and topographical complexity (e.g., intervening white matter tracts) in larger brains may severely limit the long-term contribution of new neurons born close to, or in, the ventricular wall. We compare the process of adult neuronal birth, migration, and integration across species with different brain sizes, and discuss how early regional specification of progenitor cells may interact with brain size and affect where and when new neurons are added.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes F Paredes
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Shawn F Sorrells
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Jose M Garcia-Verdugo
- Laboratory of Comparative Neurobiology, Instituto Cavanilles, Universidad de Valencia, CIBERNED, 46980 Valencia, Spain
| | - Arturo Alvarez-Buylla
- Department of Neurological Surgery and The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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Capilla-Gonzalez V, Herranz-Pérez V, García-Verdugo JM. The aged brain: genesis and fate of residual progenitor cells in the subventricular zone. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:365. [PMID: 26441536 PMCID: PMC4585225 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) persist in the adult mammalian brain through life. The subventricular zone (SVZ) is the largest source of stem cells in the nervous system, and continuously generates new neuronal and glial cells involved in brain regeneration. During aging, the germinal potential of the SVZ suffers a widespread decline, but the causes of this turn down are not fully understood. This review provides a compilation of the current knowledge about the age-related changes in the NSC population, as well as the fate of the newly generated cells in the aged brain. It is known that the neurogenic capacity is clearly disrupted during aging, while the production of oligodendroglial cells is not compromised. Interestingly, the human brain seems to primarily preserve the ability to produce new oligodendrocytes instead of neurons, which could be related to the development of neurological disorders. Further studies in this matter are required to improve our understanding and the current strategies for fighting neurological diseases associated with senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivian Capilla-Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Comparative Neurobiology, Department of Cell Biology, Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, University of Valencia, CIBERNED Valencia, Spain ; Department of Stem Cells, Andalusian Center for Molecular Biology and Regenerative Medicine Seville, Spain
| | - Vicente Herranz-Pérez
- Laboratory of Comparative Neurobiology, Department of Cell Biology, Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, University of Valencia, CIBERNED Valencia, Spain ; Multiple Sclerosis and Neuroregeneration Mixed Unit, IIS Hospital La Fe Valencia, Spain
| | - Jose Manuel García-Verdugo
- Laboratory of Comparative Neurobiology, Department of Cell Biology, Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, University of Valencia, CIBERNED Valencia, Spain ; Multiple Sclerosis and Neuroregeneration Mixed Unit, IIS Hospital La Fe Valencia, Spain
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Sensitivity to the photoperiod and potential migratory features of neuroblasts in the adult sheep hypothalamus. Brain Struct Funct 2015; 221:3301-14. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-015-1101-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Yang Y, Xie MX, Li JM, Hu X, Patrylo PR, Luo XG, Cai Y, Li Z, Yan XX. Prenatal genesis of layer II doublecortin expressing neurons in neonatal and young adult guinea pig cerebral cortex. Front Neuroanat 2015; 9:109. [PMID: 26321922 PMCID: PMC4530311 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2015.00109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells expressing doublecortin (DCX+) occur at cortical layer II, predominantly over the paleocortex in mice/rats, but also across the neocortex among larger mammals. Here, we explored the time of origin of these cells in neonatal and 2-month-old guinea pigs following prenatal BrdU pulse-chasing. In the neocortex, BrdU+ cells birth-dated at embryonic day 21 (E21), E28, and E35 laminated over the cortical plate with an inside-out order. In the piriform cortex, cells generated at E21 and E28 occurred with a greater density in layer II than III. Many cells were generated at later time points until birth, occurring in the cortex without a laminar preference. DCX+ cells in the neocortex and piriform cortex partially co-colocalized with BrdU (up to 7.5%) in the newborns after pulse-chasing from E21 to E49 and in the 2 month-old animals after pulse-chasing from E28 to E60/61, with higher rates seen among the E21-E35 groups. Together, layer II DCX+ cells in neonatal and young adult guinea pigs may be produced over a wide prenatal time window, but mainly during the early phases of corticogenesis. Our data also show an earlier establishment of the basic lamination in the piriform relative to neocortical areas in guinea pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Yang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University School of Basic Medicine Changsha, China ; Department of Nursing in Internal Medicine, Xiangtan Vocational and Technical College Xiangtan, China
| | - Mi-Xin Xie
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University School of Basic Medicine Changsha, China
| | - Jian-Ming Li
- Neuroscience Research Center, Changsha Medical University Changsha, China
| | - Xia Hu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University School of Basic Medicine Changsha, China
| | - Peter R Patrylo
- Center for Integrated Research in Cognitive and Neural Sciences, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine Carbondale, IL, USA
| | - Xue-Gang Luo
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University School of Basic Medicine Changsha, China
| | - Yan Cai
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University School of Basic Medicine Changsha, China
| | - Zhiyuan Li
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University School of Basic Medicine Changsha, China
| | - Xiao-Xin Yan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University School of Basic Medicine Changsha, China
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Kunze A, Achilles A, Keiner S, Witte OW, Redecker C. Two distinct populations of doublecortin-positive cells in the perilesional zone of cortical infarcts. BMC Neurosci 2015; 16:20. [PMID: 25881110 PMCID: PMC4404690 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-015-0160-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recovery following stroke depends on cellular plasticity in the perilesional zone (PZ). Doublecortin (DCX), a protein mainly labeling immature neurons in neurogenic niches is also highly expressed in the vicinity of focal cortical infarcts. Notably, the number of DCX+ cells positively correlates with the recovery of functional deficits after stroke though the nature and origin of these cells remains unclear. Results In the present study, we aimed to characterize the population of DCX+ cells in the vicinity of ischemic infarcts in a mouse model in detail. Employing a photothrombosis model, distinct immunohistochemical techniques, stereology and confocal microscopy, we show that: i) DCX+ cells in the perilesional zone do not constitute a homogenous population and two cell types, stellate and polar cells can be distinguished according to their morphology. ii) Stellate cells are mainly located in the lateral and medial vicinity of the insult and express astrocytic markers. iii) Polar cells are found almost exclusively in the corpus callosum region including in the preserved deep cortical layers close to the subventricular zone (SVZ). Further, they do not show any colocalisation of glial markers. Polar morphology and distribution suggest a migration towards the lesion. Conclusions In summary, our findings provide evidence that in mice DCX+ cells in the perilesional zone of cortical infarcts comprise a distinct cell population and the majority of cells are of glial nature. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12868-015-0160-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albrecht Kunze
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany.
| | - Alexandra Achilles
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany.
| | - Silke Keiner
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany.
| | - Otto W Witte
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany. .,Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.
| | - Christoph Redecker
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany.
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Batailler M, Droguerre M, Baroncini M, Fontaine C, Prevot V, Migaud M. DCX-expressing cells in the vicinity of the hypothalamic neurogenic niche: a comparative study between mouse, sheep, and human tissues. J Comp Neurol 2014; 522:1966-85. [PMID: 24288185 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2013] [Revised: 11/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem and precursor cells persist postnatally throughout adulthood and are capable of responding to numerous endogenous and exogenous signals by modifying their proliferation and differentiation. Whereas adult neurogenesis has been extensively studied in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation and in the subventricular zone adjacent to the wall of the lateral ventricles, we and others have recently reported constitutive adult neurogenesis in other brain structures, including the hypothalamus. In this study, we used immunohistochemistry to study the expression of the neuroblast marker doublecortin (DCX), and compared its expression pattern in adult ovine, mouse, and human hypothalamic tissues. Our results indicate that DCX-positive cells resembling immature and developing neurons occur in a wide range of hypothalamic nuclei in all three species, although with different distribution patterns. In addition, the morphology of DCX-positive cells varied depending on their location. DCX-positive cells near the third ventricle had the morphology of very immature neuroblasts, a round shape with no processes, whereas those located deeper in the parenchyma such as in the ventromedial nucleus were fusiform and showed a bipolar morphology. Extending this observation, we showed that among the cohort of immature neurons entering the ventromedial nucleus, some appeared to undergo maturation, as revealed by the partial colocalization of DCX with markers of more mature neurons, e.g., human neuronal protein C and D (HuC/D). This study provides further confirmation of the existence of an adult hypothalamic neurogenic niche and argues for the potential existence of a migratory path within the hypothalamus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martine Batailler
- INRA, Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, F-37380, Nouzilly, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 7247, F-37380, Nouzilly, France; Université de Tours, F-37041, Tours, France; Institut Français du Cheval et de l'équitation (IFCE), F-37380, Nouzilly, France
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Patzke N, LeRoy A, Ngubane NW, Bennett NC, Medger K, Gravett N, Kaswera-Kyamakya C, Gilissen E, Chawana R, Manger PR. The distribution of doublecortin-immunopositive cells in the brains of four afrotherian mammals: the Hottentot golden mole (Amblysomus hottentotus), the rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), the eastern rock sengi (Elephantulus myurus) and the four-toed sengi (Petrodromus tetradactylus). BRAIN, BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTION 2014; 84:227-41. [PMID: 25377859 DOI: 10.1159/000367934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis in the mammalian brain is now a widely accepted phenomenon, typically occurring in two forebrain structures: the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone (SVZ). Until recently, the majority of studies have focused on laboratory rodents, and it is under debate whether the process of adult neurogenesis occurs outside of the SGZ and the SVZ in other mammalian species. In the present study, we investigated potential adult neurogenetic sites in the brains of two elephant shrews/sengis, a golden mole and a rock hyrax, all members of the superorder Afrotheria. Doublecortin (DCX) immunoreactivity was used as a proxy to visualise adult neurogenesis, which is expressed in neuronal precursor cells and immature neurons. In all four species, densely packed DCX-positive cells were present in the SVZ, from where cells appear to migrate along the rostral migratory stream towards the olfactory bulb (OB). DCX-immunopositive cells were present in the granular cell layer and the glomerular layer of the OB. In the hippocampus, DCX-immunopositive cells were observed in the SGZ and in the granular layer of the dentate gyrus, with DCX-immunopositive processes extending into the molecular layer. In addition to these well-established adult neurogenic regions, DCX-immunopositive cells were also observed in layer II of the neocortex and the piriform cortex. While the present study reveals a similar pattern of adult neurogenesis to that reported previously in other mammals, further studies are needed to clarify if the cortical DCX-immunopositive cells are newly generated neurons or cells undergoing cortical remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Patzke
- School of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Postoperative cognitive dysfunction: Involvement of neuroinflammation and neuronal functioning. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 38:202-10. [PMID: 24517920 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 01/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) has been hypothesized to be mediated by surgery-induced inflammatory processes, which may influence neuronal functioning either directly or through modulation of intraneuronal pathways, such as the brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mediated pathway. To study the time course of post-surgical (neuro)inflammation, changes in the BDNF-pathway and POCD, we subjected 3months old male Wistar rats to abdominal surgery and implanted a jugular vein catheter for timed blood sampling. Cognition, affective behavior and markers for (neuro)inflammation, BDNF and neurogenesis were assessed at 1, 2 and 3weeks following surgery. Rats displayed changes in exploratory activity shortly after surgery, associated with postoperatively elevated IL-6 plasma levels. Spatial learning and memory were temporarily impaired in the first 2weeks following surgery, whereas non-spatial cognitive functions seemed unaffected. Analysis of brain tissue revealed increased neuroinflammation (IL-1B and microgliosis) 7days following surgery, decreased BDNF levels on postoperative day 14 and 21, and decreased neurogenesis until at least 21days following surgery. These findings indicate that in young adult rats only spatial learning and memory is affected by surgery, suggesting hippocampal dependent cognition is especially vulnerable to surgery-induced impairment. The observed differences in time course following surgery and relation to plasma IL-6 suggest cognitive dysfunction and mood changes comprise distinct features of postoperative behavioral impairment. The postoperative changes in neuroinflammation, BDNF and neurogenesis may represent aspects of the underlying mechanism for POCD. Future research should be aimed to elucidate how these players interact.
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Bloch J, Brunet JF, McEntire CRS, Redmond DE. Primate adult brain cell autotransplantation produces behavioral and biological recovery in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced parkinsonian St. Kitts monkeys. J Comp Neurol 2014; 522:2729-40. [PMID: 24610674 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Revised: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The potential for "replacement cells" to restore function in Parkinson's disease has been widely reported over the past 3 decades, rejuvenating the central nervous system rather than just relieving symptoms. Most such experiments have used fetal or embryonic sources that may induce immunological rejection and generate ethical concerns. Autologous sources, in which the cells to be implanted are derived from recipients' own cells after reprogramming to stem cells, direct genetic modifications, or epigenetic modifications in culture, could eliminate many of these problems. In a previous study on autologous brain cell transplantation, we demonstrated that adult monkey brain cells, obtained from cortical biopsies and kept in culture for 7 weeks, exhibited potential as a method of brain repair after low doses of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) caused dopaminergic cell death. The present study exposed monkeys to higher MPTP doses to produce significant parkinsonism and behavioral impairments. Cerebral cortical cells were biopsied from the animals, held in culture for 7 weeks to create an autologous neural cell "ecosystem" and reimplanted bilaterally into the striatum of the same six donor monkeys. These cells expressed neuroectodermal and progenitor markers such as nestin, doublecortin, GFAP, neurofilament, and vimentin. Five to six months after reimplantation, histological analysis with the dye PKH67 and unbiased stereology showed that reimplanted cells survived, migrated bilaterally throughout the striatum, and seemed to exert a neurorestorative effect. More tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive neurons and significant behavioral improvement followed reimplantation of cultured autologous neural cells as a result of unknown trophic factors released by the grafts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyne Bloch
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Vellema M, Hertel M, Urbanus SL, Van der Linden A, Gahr M. Evaluating the predictive value of doublecortin as a marker for adult neurogenesis in canaries (Serinus canaria). J Comp Neurol 2014; 522:1299-315. [DOI: 10.1002/cne.23476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michiel Vellema
- Department of Behavioural Neurobiology; Max Planck Institute for Ornithology; D-82319 Seewiesen Germany
- Bio-Imaging Lab; University of Antwerp; B-2020 Antwerp Belgium
| | - Moritz Hertel
- Department of Behavioural Neurobiology; Max Planck Institute for Ornithology; D-82319 Seewiesen Germany
| | - Susan L. Urbanus
- Institute of Genetics; University of Munich; D-82152 Martinsried Germany
| | | | - Manfred Gahr
- Department of Behavioural Neurobiology; Max Planck Institute for Ornithology; D-82319 Seewiesen Germany
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He X, Zhang XM, Wu J, Fu J, Mou L, Lu DH, Cai Y, Luo XG, Pan A, Yan XX. Olfactory experience modulates immature neuron development in postnatal and adult guinea pig piriform cortex. Neuroscience 2013; 259:101-12. [PMID: 24316472 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.11.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Revised: 11/23/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Immature neurons expressing doublecortin (DCX+) are present around cortical layer II in various mammals including guinea pigs and humans, especially enriched in the paleocortex. However, little is known whether and how functional experience affects the development of this population of neurons. We attempted to explore a modulation by experience to layer II DCX+ cells in the primary olfactory cortex in postnatal and adult guinea pigs. Neonatal and 1-year-old guinea pigs were subjected to unilateral naris-occlusion, followed 1 and 2months later by morphometry of DCX+ cells in the piriform cortex. DCX+ somata and processes were reduced in the deprived relative to the non-deprived piriform cortex in both age groups at the two surviving time points. The number of DCX+ cells was decreased in the deprived side relative to internal control at 1 and 2months in the youths and at 2months in the adults post-occlusion. The mean somal area of DCX+ cells showed a trend of decrease in the deprived side relative to the internal control in the youths. In addition, DCX+ cells in the deprived side exhibited a lower frequency of colocalization with the neuron-specific nuclear antigen (NeuN) relative to counterparts. These results suggest that normal olfactory experience is required for the maintenance and development of DCX+ immature neurons in postnatal and adult guinea pig piriform cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- X He
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - X-M Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150086, China
| | - J Wu
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150086, China
| | - J Fu
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150086, China
| | - L Mou
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China; Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150086, China
| | - D-H Lu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - Y Cai
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - X-G Luo
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - A Pan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - X-X Yan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China.
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Yamada J, Jinno S. S100A6 (calcyclin) is a novel marker of neural stem cells and astrocyte precursors in the subgranular zone of the adult mouse hippocampus. Hippocampus 2013; 24:89-101. [PMID: 24115312 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
S100A6 (calcyclin), an EF-hand calcium binding protein, is considered to play various roles in the brain, for example, cell proliferation and differentiation, calcium homeostasis, and neuronal degeneration. In addition to some limbic nuclei, S100A6 is distributed in the rostral migratory stream, one of the major neurogenic niches of the adult brain. However, the potential involvement of S100A6 in adult neurogenesis remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the role of S100A6 in the other major neurogenic niche, the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus in the adult mouse hippocampus. Immunofluorescent multiple labeling showed that S100A6 was highly expressed in neural stem cells labeled by sex determining region Y-box 2, brain lipid-binding protein protein and glial fibrillary acidic protein. S100A6+ cells often extended a long process typical of radial glial morphology. In addition, S100A6 was found in some S100β+ astrocyte lineage cells. Interestingly, proliferating cell nuclear antigen was detected in a fraction of S100A6+/S100β+ cells. These cells were considered to be lineage-restricted astrocyte precursors maintaining mitotic potential. On the other hand, S100A6 was rarely seen in neural lineage cells labeled by T-box brain protein 2, doublecortin, calretinin and calbindin D28K. Cell fate-tracing experiment using BrdU showed that the majority of newly generated immature astrocytes were immunoreactive for S100A6, while mature astrocytes lacked S100A6 immunoreactivity. Administration of S100 protein inhibitor, trifluoperazine, caused a reduction in production of S100β+ astrocyte lineage cells, but had no impact on neurogenesis. Overall, our data provide the first evidence that S100A6 is a specific marker of neural stem cells and astrocyte precursors, and may be especially important for generation of astrocytes in the adult hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yamada
- Department of Developmental Molecular Anatomy, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Apoptosis of glutamatergic neurons fails to trigger a neurogenic response in the adult neocortex. J Neurosci 2013; 33:6278-84. [PMID: 23575827 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5885-12.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis is actively studied in part because of the potential to manipulate endogenous neural stem and progenitor cells for tissue repair. Although constitutive generation of neurons in the adult rodent olfactory bulb and hippocampal dentate gyrus is widely accepted and stroke-induced generation of striatal inhibitory neurons consistently observed, evidence supporting the generation of neurons in the neocortex after neuronal loss remains slim. Nevertheless, a few studies suggested that targeted apoptosis of neocortical glutamatergic neurons could trigger the generation of new ones in the adult brain. In light of such studies, we tested whether apoptosis of glutamatergic cortical neurons using two novel transgenic approaches in mice, an inducible Caspase-8 protein and an inducible diphtheria toxin gene, results in new neurons. After a thorough analysis, no new neurons were detected in the neocortex. Interestingly, an increase in the expression of the neuroblast marker DCX was observed in both models, in some cases in cells with morphologies previously associated with poststroke neuroblasts, but DCX(+) cells coexpressed the oligodendrocyte precursor marker Olig2, suggesting caution when using DCX as a marker for neuroblasts after injury. Given that the adult neocortex lacks an innate potential to regenerate lost glutamatergic neurons, future strategies should concentrate on manipulating the differentiation potential of endogenous or exogenous precursor cells.
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Kremer T, Jagasia R, Herrmann A, Matile H, Borroni E, Francis F, Kuhn HG, Czech C. Analysis of adult neurogenesis: evidence for a prominent "non-neurogenic" DCX-protein pool in rodent brain. PLoS One 2013; 8:e59269. [PMID: 23690918 PMCID: PMC3653925 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we have developed a highly sensitive immunoassay for Dcx to characterize expression in brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of rodents. We demonstrate that Dcx is widely expressed during development in various brain regions and as well can be detected in cerebrospinal fluid of rats (up to 30 days postnatal). While Dcx protein level decline in adulthood and were detectable in neurogenic regions of the adult rodent brain, similar levels were also detectable in brain regions expected to bear no neurogenesis including the cerebral cortex and CA1/CA3 enriched hippocampus. We monitored DCX protein levels after paradigms to increase or severely decrease adult hippocampal neurogenesis, namely physical activity and cranial radiation, respectively. In both paradigms, Dcx protein- and mRNA-levels clearly reflected changes in neurogenesis in the hippocampus. However, basal Dcx-levels are unaffected in non-neurogenic regions (e.g. CA1/CA3 enriched hippocampus, cortex). These data suggest that there is a substantial "non-neurogenic" pool of Dcx- protein, whose regulation can be uncoupled from adult neurogenesis suggesting caution for the interpretation of such studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kremer
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, Pharma Research & Early Development, DTA Neuroscience, Basel, Switzerland.
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Lever M, Brand-Saberi B, Theiss C. Neurogenesis, gliogenesis and the developing chicken optic tectum: an immunohistochemical and ultrastructural analysis. Brain Struct Funct 2013; 219:1009-24. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-013-0550-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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De Nevi E, Marco-Salazar P, Fondevila D, Blasco E, Pérez L, Pumarola M. Immunohistochemical study of doublecortin and nucleostemin in canine brain. Eur J Histochem 2013; 57:e9. [PMID: 23549468 PMCID: PMC3683616 DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2013.e9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Revised: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Finding a marker of neural stem cells remains a medical research priority. It was reported that the proteins doublecortin and nucleostemin were related with stem/progenitor cells in central nervous system. The aim of the present immunohistochemical study was to evaluate the expression of these proteins and their pattern of distribution in canine brain, including age-related changes, and in non-nervous tissues. We found that doublecortin had a more specific expression pattern, related with neurogenesis and neuronal migration, while nucleostemin was expressed in most cells of almost every tissue studied. The immunolabeling of both proteins decreased with age. We may conclude that nucleostemin is not a specific marker of stem/progenitor cells in the dog. Doublecortin, however, is not an exclusive marker of neural stem cells, but also of neuronal precursors.
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Affiliation(s)
- E De Nevi
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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Ortensi B, Setti M, Osti D, Pelicci G. Cancer stem cell contribution to glioblastoma invasiveness. Stem Cell Res Ther 2013; 4:18. [PMID: 23510696 PMCID: PMC3706754 DOI: 10.1186/scrt166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and lethal brain tumor in adults. Its invasive nature currently represents the most challenging hurdle to surgical resection. The mechanism adopted by GBM cells to carry out their invasive strategy is an intricate program that recalls what takes place in embryonic cells during development and in carcinoma cells during metastasis formation, the so-called epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. GBM cells undergo a series of molecular and conformational changes shifting the tumor toward mesenchymal traits, including extracellular matrix remodeling, cytoskeletal re-patterning, and stem-like trait acquisition. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms driving the whole infiltrative process represents the first step toward successful treatment of this pathology. Here, we review recent findings demonstrating the invasive nature of GBM cancer stem cells, together with novel candidate molecules associated with both cancer stem cell biology and GBM invasion, like doublecortin and microRNAs. These findings may affect the design of effective therapies currently not considered for GBM invasive progression.
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Ajao DO, Pop V, Kamper JE, Adami A, Rudobeck E, Huang L, Vlkolinsky R, Hartman RE, Ashwal S, Obenaus A, Badaut J. Traumatic brain injury in young rats leads to progressive behavioral deficits coincident with altered tissue properties in adulthood. J Neurotrauma 2012; 29:2060-74. [PMID: 22697253 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2011.1883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects many infants and children, and results in enduring motor and cognitive impairments with accompanying changes in white matter tracts, yet few experimental studies in rodent juvenile models of TBI (jTBI) have examined the timeline and nature of these deficits, histologically and functionally. We used a single controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury to the parietal cortex of rats at post-natal day (P) 17 to evaluate behavioral alterations, injury volume, and morphological and molecular changes in gray and white matter, with accompanying measures of electrophysiological function. At 60 days post-injury (dpi), we found that jTBI animals displayed behavioral deficits in foot-fault and rotarod tests, along with a left turn bias throughout their early developmental stages and into adulthood. In addition, anxiety-like behaviors on the zero maze emerged in jTBI animals at 60 dpi. The final lesion constituted only ∼3% of brain volume, and morphological tissue changes were evaluated using MRI, as well as immunohistochemistry for neuronal nuclei (NeuN), myelin basic protein (MBP), neurofilament-200 (NF200), and oligodendrocytes (CNPase). White matter morphological changes were associated with a global increase in MBP immunostaining and reduced compound action potential amplitudes at 60 dpi. These results suggest that brain injury early in life can induce long-term white matter dysfunction, occurring in parallel with the delayed development and persistence of behavioral deficits, thus modeling clinical and longitudinal TBI observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- David O Ajao
- Department of Physiology, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, USA
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Age-dependent modulation of cortical transcriptomes in spinal cord injury and repair. PLoS One 2012; 7:e49812. [PMID: 23236355 PMCID: PMC3517588 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 10/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Both injury and aging of the central nervous system reportedly produce profound changes in gene expression. Therefore, aging may interfere with the success of therapeutic interventions which were tailored for young patients. Using genome-scale transcriptional profiling, we identified distinct age-dependent expression profiles in rat sensorimotor cortex during acute, subacute and chronic phases of spinal cord injury (SCI). Aging affects the cortical transcriptomes triggered by transection of the corticospinal tract as there was only a small overlap between the significantly lesion-regulated genes in both age groups. Over-representation analysis of the lesion-regulated genes revealed that, in addition to biological processes in common, such as lipid metabolism, others, such as activation of complement cascade, were specific for aged animals. When a recently developed treatment to suppress fibrotic scarring (anti-scarring treatment AST) was applied to the injured spinal cord of aged (22 months) and young (2 months) rats, we found that the cortical gene expression in old rats was modulated to resemble regeneration-associated profiles of young animals including the up-regulation of known repair promoting growth and transcription factors at 35 dpo. In combination with recent immunohistochemical findings demonstrating regenerative axon growth upon AST in aged animals, the present investigation on the level of gene expression strongly supports the feasibility of a successful AST therapy in elderly patients.
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Pan A, Li M, Gao JY, Xue ZQ, Li Z, Yuan XY, Luo DW, Luo XG, Yan XX. Experimental epidural hematoma causes cerebral infarction and activates neocortical glial and neuronal genesis in adult guinea pigs. J Neurosci Res 2012; 91:249-61. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2012] [Revised: 08/26/2012] [Accepted: 09/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Chronic lead exposure reduces doublecortin-expressing immature neurons in young adult guinea pig cerebral cortex. BMC Neurosci 2012; 13:82. [PMID: 22812564 PMCID: PMC3444321 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-13-82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic lead (Pb) poisoning remains an environmental risk especially for the pediatric population, and it may affect brain development. Immature neurons expressing doublecortin (DCX+) exist around cortical layer II in various mammals, including adult guinea pigs and humans. Using young adult guinea pigs as an experimental model, the present study explored if chronic Pb exposure affects cortical DCX + immature neurons and those around the subventricular and subgranular zones (SVZ, SGZ). Results Two month-old guinea pigs were treated with 0.2% lead acetate in drinking water for 2, 4 and 6 months. Blood Pb levels in these animals reached 10.27 ± 0.62, 16.25 ± 0.78 and 19.03 ± 0.86 μg/dL at the above time points, respectively, relative to ~3 μg/dL in vehicle controls. The density of DCX + neurons was significantly reduced around cortical layer II, SVZ and SGZ in Pb-treated animals surviving 4 and 6 months relative to controls. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) pulse-chasing studies failed to find cellular colocalization of this DNA synthesis indicator in DCX + cells around layer II in Pb-treated and control animals. These cortical immature neurons were not found to coexist with active caspase-3 or Fluoro-Jade C labeling. Conclusion Chronic Pb exposure can lead to significant reduction in the number of the immature neurons around cortical layer II and in the conventional neurogenic sites in young adult guinea pigs. No direct evidence could be identified to link the reduced cortical DCX expression with alteration in local neurogenesis or neuronal death.
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Representation of motor habit in a sequence of repetitive reach and grasp movements performed by macaque monkeys: evidence for a contribution of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Cortex 2012; 49:1404-19. [PMID: 22809698 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Revised: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 05/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
In the context of an autologous cell transplantation study, a unilateral biopsy of cortical tissue was surgically performed from the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) in two intact adult macaque monkeys (dlPFC lesioned group), together with the implantation of a chronic chamber providing access to the left motor cortex. Three other monkeys were subjected to the same chronic chamber implantation, but without dlPFC biopsy (control group). All monkeys were initially trained to perform sequential manual dexterity tasks, requiring precision grip. The motor performance and the prehension's sequence (temporal order to grasp pellets from different spatial locations) were analysed for each hand. Following the surgery, transient and moderate deficits of manual dexterity per se occurred in both groups, indicating that they were not due to the dlPFC lesion (most likely related to the recording chamber implantation and/or general anaesthesia/medication). In contrast, changes of motor habit were observed for the sequential order of grasping in the two monkeys with dlPFC lesion only. The changes were more prominent in the monkey subjected to the largest lesion, supporting the notion of a specific effect of the dlPFC lesion on the motor habit of the monkeys. These observations are reminiscent of previous studies using conditional tasks with delay that have proposed a specialization of the dlPFC for visuo-spatial working memory, except that this is in a different context of "free-will", non-conditional manual dexterity task, without a component of working memory.
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Werner L, Müller-Fielitz H, Ritzal M, Werner T, Rossner M, Schwaninger M. Involvement of doublecortin-expressing cells in the arcuate nucleus in body weight regulation. Endocrinology 2012; 153:2655-64. [PMID: 22492306 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Hypothalamic functions, including feeding behavior, show a high degree of plasticity throughout life. Doublecortin (DCX) is a marker of plasticity and neuronal migration expressed in the hypothalamus. Therefore, we wanted to map the fate of DCX(+) cells in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus. For this purpose, we generated a BAC transgenic mouse line that expresses the inducible recombinase CreER(T2) under control of the DCX locus. Crossing this line with the Rosa26 or Ai14 reporter mouse lines, we found reporter(+) cells in the ARC upon tamoxifen treatment. They were born prenatally and expressed both DCX and the plasticity marker TUC-4. Immediately after labeling, reporter(+) cells had an enlarged soma that normalized over time, suggesting morphological remodeling. Reporter(+) cells expressed β-endorphin and BSX, neuronal markers of the feeding circuit. Furthermore, leptin treatment led to phosphorylation of STAT3 in reporter(+) cells in accordance with the concept that they are part of the feeding circuits. Indeed, we found a negative correlation between the number of reporter(+) cells and body weight and epididymal fat pads. Our data suggest that DCX(+) cells in the ARC represent a cellular correlate of plasticity that is involved in controlling energy balance in adult mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Werner
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Lübeck, 23538 Lübeck, Germany
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Bonfanti L, Nacher J. New scenarios for neuronal structural plasticity in non-neurogenic brain parenchyma: the case of cortical layer II immature neurons. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 98:1-15. [PMID: 22609484 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Revised: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian central nervous system, due to its interaction with the environment, must be endowed with plasticity. Conversely, the nervous tissue must be substantially static to ensure connectional invariability. Structural plasticity can be viewed as a compromise between these requirements. In adult mammals, brain structural plasticity is strongly reduced with respect to other animal groups in the phylogenetic tree. It persists under different forms, which mainly consist of remodeling of neuronal shape and connectivity, and, to a lesser extent, the production of new neurons. Adult neurogenesis is mainly restricted within two neurogenic niches, yet some gliogenic and neurogenic processes also occur in the so-called non-neurogenic tissue, starting from parenchymal progenitors. In this review we focus on a population of immature, non-newly generated neurons in layer II of the cerebral cortex, which were previously thought to be newly generated since they heavily express the polysialylated form of the neural cell adhesion molecule and doublecortin. These unusual neurons exhibit characteristics defining an additional type of structural plasticity, different from either synaptic plasticity or adult neurogenesis. Evidences concerning their morphology, antigenic features, ultrastructure, phenotype, origin, fate, and reaction to different kind of stimulations are gathered and analyzed. Their possible role is discussed in the context of an enriched complexity and heterogeneity of mammalian brain structural plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole 10, Orbassano (TO), and Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
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Homman-Ludiye J, Merson TD, Bourne JA. The early postnatal nonhuman primate neocortex contains self-renewing multipotent neural progenitor cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34383. [PMID: 22470566 PMCID: PMC3314641 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The postnatal neocortex has traditionally been considered a non-neurogenic region, under non-pathological conditions. A few studies suggest, however, that a small subpopulation of neural cells born during postnatal life can differentiate into neurons that take up residence within the neocortex, implying that postnatal neurogenesis could occur in this region, albeit at a low level. Evidence to support this hypothesis remains controversial while the source of putative neural progenitors responsible for generating new neurons in the postnatal neocortex is unknown. Here we report the identification of self-renewing multipotent neural progenitor cells (NPCs) derived from the postnatal day 14 (PD14) marmoset monkey primary visual cortex (V1, striate cortex). While neuronal maturation within V1 is well advanced by PD14, we observed cells throughout this region that co-expressed Sox2 and Ki67, defining a population of resident proliferating progenitor cells. When cultured at low density in the presence of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and/or fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), dissociated V1 tissue gave rise to multipotent neurospheres that exhibited the ability to differentiate into neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. While the capacity to generate neurones and oligodendrocytes was not observed beyond the third passage, astrocyte-restricted neurospheres could be maintained for up to 6 passages. This study provides the first direct evidence for the existence of multipotent NPCs within the postnatal neocortex of the nonhuman primate. The potential contribution of neocortical NPCs to neural repair following injury raises exciting new possibilities for the field of regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihane Homman-Ludiye
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tobias D. Merson
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Florey Neuroscience Institutes and Centre for Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (TM); (JB)
| | - James A. Bourne
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (TM); (JB)
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Decrease in doublecortin expression without neuronal cell death in rat retrosplenial cortex after stress exposure. Neuroreport 2012; 23:211-5. [DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0b013e32834fca3a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Lecanu L, Hashim AI, McCourty A, Papadopoulos V. A steroid isolated from the water mold Achlya heterosexualis induces neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Steroids 2012; 77:224-32. [PMID: 22138207 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2011.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Revised: 11/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Using 22R-hydroxycholesterol as a sub-structure to screen natural compound databases, we identified a naturally occurring steroid (sc-7) with a 16-acetoxy-22R-hydroxycholesterol moiety, in which the hydroxyl groups in positions 3 and 22 are esterified by an acetoxy group and in which the carbon in position 26 carries a functional diacetylamino. sc-7 is an analog of the sex steroids dehydro-oogoniol and antheridiol, can be isolated from the water mold Achlya heterosexualis, and promoted neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Mouse embryonic teratocarcinoma P19 cells exposed to sc-7 for 2days followed by a 5-day wash-out differentiated into cholinergic neurons that expressed specific neuronal markers and displayed axonal formation. Axons continued growing up to 28days after treatment. In vivo, infusion of sc-7 for 2weeks into the left ventricle of the rat brain followed by a 3-week wash-out induced bromodeoxyuridine uptake by cells of the ependymal layer and subventricular zone that co-localized with doublecortin and glial fibrillary acidic protein immunostaining, demonstrating induction of proliferation and differentiation of neuronal progenitors. Migrating neuroblasts were also observed in the corpus callosum. Thus, under these experimental conditions, adult ependymal cells resumed proliferation and differentiation. Taken together, these results suggest that sc-7 is an interesting molecule for stimulating in situ neurogenesis from resident neuronal progenitors as part of neuron replacement therapy. sc-7 did not bind to nuclear steroid receptors and was not metabolized as a steroid, supporting our hypothesis that the neurogenic effect of sc-7 is not likely due to a steroid-like effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Lecanu
- The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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