Regulation of Extramuscular Fuel Sources During Exercise

The signaling underlying FITnessThis paper is one of a selection of papers published in this Special Issue, entitled 14th International Biochemistry of Exercise Conference – Muscles as Molecular and Metabolic Machines, and has undergone the Journal’s usual peer review process

Exercise results in highly specific physiological adaptations. Resistance exercise increases muscle mass and force production, while endurance exercise increases aerobic capacity. As the physical and chemical signals underlying this specificity become better understood, scientists are beginning to identify the key molecular effectors of exercise specificity. This review focuses on how variations in load, metabolic stress, and calcium flux are transduced to increases in muscle mass and endurance capacity. Specific attention is paid to the mammalian target of rapamycin, AMP-activated protein kinase, and the calcium-calmodulin-activated protein kinases, and the way these proteins interact during concurrent training.

Variable effects of exercise intensity on reduced glutathione, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance levels, and glucose concentration

BACKGROUND

Physical exercise may be associated with a 10- to 20-fold increase in whole body oxygen uptake. Generation of free oxygen radicals (FORs) is elevated to a level that overwhelms tissue antioxidant defense systems in exercise. One of the most reliable indices of exercise-induced oxidant production is tissue glutathione oxidation.

METHODS

In this study three different volunteer groups carried out various sports disciplines and worked at least as amateurs for 6-7 years before and after aerobic (Aer)-, anaerobic (Anae)-, or aerobic + anaerobic (Aer-Anae)-dominant exercises. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, glucose concentration was measured, and we investigated their relationships with different types of exercise. From all groups (n=60, each group comprising 10 females and 10 males), we collected blood samples at the following five different times: before exercise; immediately after exercise, and 4, 24, and 48 h after completion of exercise. These samples were assayed for whole blood GSH, plasma TBARS levels, and glucose concentration.

RESULTS

Significant increase in Aer-Anae was noted in levels of TBARS while decrease was observed in glutathione levels in exercise group as compared with prior levels in all groups. However, no statistical difference was observed in total group levels before and after exercise and in male and female groups compared before and after exercise. When gender differences were taken into account, females generally had higher levels of GSH, whereas TBARS levels were higher in males. When compared either before or after exercise, levels of glucose concentration--especially immediately after exercise period in all groups--were higher. In addition, in Anae groups glucose concentrations were higher at 4 and 24 h in females than in males. Aer exercise caused oxidative stress to a lesser degree, whereas Aer-Anae exercise caused oxidative stress of higher degree that was statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

According to our findings, exercise increased TBARS level significantly in all groups, especially more so in Aer-Anae groups. In addition, GSH was increased more in females than in males, while concentration of glucose did not change remarkably. Additionally, it can be stated that women are more resistant to oxidative stress.

Effect of short-term fasting and refeeding on transcriptional regulation of metabolic genes in human skeletal muscle

During short-term fasting, substrate utilization in skeletal muscle shifts from predominantly carbohydrate to fat as a means of conserving glucose. To examine the potential influence of short-term fasting and refeeding on transcriptional regulation in skeletal muscle, muscle biopsies were obtained from nine male subjects at rest, after 20 h of fasting, and 1 h after consuming either a high-carbohydrate (CHO trial) or a low-carbohydrate (FAT trial) meal. Fasting induced an increase in transcription of the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) (10-fold), lipoprotein lipase (LPL) ( approximately 2-fold), uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) ( approximately 5-fold), and carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT I) ( approximately 2.5-fold) genes. Surprisingly, transcription of PDK4 and LPL increased further in response to refeeding (both trials) to more than 50-fold and 6- to 10-fold, respectively, over prefasting levels. However, responses varied among subjects with two subjects in particular displaying far greater activation of PDK4 (>100-fold) and LPL (>20-fold) than the other subjects (mean approximately 8-fold and approximately 2-fold, respectively). Transcription of UCP3 decreased to basal levels after the CHO meal but remained elevated after the FAT meal, whereas CPT I remained elevated after both refeeding meals. The present findings demonstrate that short-term fasting/refeeding in humans alters the transcription of several genes in skeletal muscle related to lipid metabolism. Marked heterogeneity in the transcriptional response to the fasting/refeeding protocol suggests that individual differences in genetic profile may play an important role in adaptive molecular responses to metabolic challenges.

Prevention of overt hypoglycemia during exercise: stimulation of endogenous glucose production independent of hepatic catecholamine action and changes in pancreatic hormone concentration

These studies were conducted to determine the magnitude and mechanism of compensation for impaired glucagon and insulin responses to exercise. For this purpose, dogs underwent surgery >16 days before experiments, at which time flow probes were implanted and silastic catheters were inserted. During experiments, glucagon and insulin were fixed at basal levels during rest and exercise using a pancreatic clamp with glucose clamped (PC/GC; n = 5), a pancreatic clamp with glucose unclamped (PC; n = 7), or a pancreatic clamp with glucose unclamped + intraportal propranolol and phentolamine hepatic alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptor blockade (PC/HAB; n = 6). Glucose production (R(a)) was measured isotopically. Plasma glucose was constant in PC/GC, but fell from basal to exercise in PC and PC/HAB. R(a) was unchanged with exercise in PC/GC, but was slightly increased during exercise in PC and PC/HAB. Despite minimal increases in epinephrine in PC/GC, epinephrine increased approximately sixfold in PC and PC/HAB during exercise. In summary, during moderate exercise, 1) the increase in R(a) is absent in PC/GC; 2) only a moderate fall in arterial glucose occurs in PC, due to a compensatory increase in R(a); and 3) the increase in R(a) is preserved in PC/HAB. In conclusion, stimulation of R(a) by a mechanism independent of pancreatic hormones and hepatic adrenergic stimulation is a primary defense against overt hypoglycemia.