Aminoindanes-the next wave of ‘legal highs’?

Catalyst-Free [4+1] Annulation of α-Imidoyl Sulfoxonium Ylides and Diazo Compounds Enabling the Modular Synthesis of 2-Indanones and 3(2H)-Furanones

A novel substrate-regulated [4+1] annulation of α-imidoyl sulfoxonium ylides with diazoketones under catalyst-free conditions is described. The reaction proceeds through a coupling of sulfoxonium ylides and in situ-generated ketenes to form the key reactive zwitterionic intermediates, followed by selective formation of C-C or C-O bonds to achieve five-membered ring systems. The cascade reaction permits the direct synthesis of synthetically useful 2-indanones and 3(2H)-furanones, which expands the reaction pattern of sulfoxonium ylides in annulation transformation.

Acute psychotropic, autonomic, and endocrine effects of 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI) compared with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in human volunteers: A self-administration study

The acute psychoactive, autonomic, and endocrine effects of the new psychoactive substance (NPS) 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI; 3.0 mg/kg, range 180-228 mg) were investigated in six healthy volunteers (four males, two females) in a non-blinded fashion without placebo. Subjective, cardiovascular, and endocrine responses were compared with two different doses of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (75 mg and 125 mg) described in previously published placebo-controlled studies, which used identical outcome measures including Visual Analogue Scales (VAS), the Adjective Mood Rating Scale (AMRS), and the 5 Dimensions of Altered States of Consciousness (5D-ASC) scale. MDAI was well tolerated and produced subjective effects comparable with those of 125 mg MDMA. MDAI increased blood pressure similar to 125 mg MDMA but did not increase heart rate or body temperature. MDAI increased cortisol and prolactin levels and could be detected in serum about 20 min post ingestion and remained detectable at least for 4 days. In urine, MDAI was detectable over a period of at least 6 days. Further clinical investigations are warranted to assess whether MDAI could serve as drug with medicinal properties.

Analysis of Google Trends to monitor new psychoactive substance. Is there an added value?

The past decade has seen an increase in the development and availability of a broad category of drugs, known as new psychoactive substances (NPS). NPS are challenging for public health authorities, therefore the two major drug monitoring bodies - the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) - have implemented the EU Early Warning System (EWS) and Early Warning Advisory (EWA), respectively. While these monitoring systems are informative, it is difficult to keep up with the constant and rapid developmental rate of NPS. The EMCDDA has recognised the need for an alternative and technologically derived early warning system. The aim of this research is to determine whether Google Trends and drug discussion forum data can be used to complement early warning systems for NPS. Forty-eight substances were used in this study and classed into groups based on their chemical structure, following the UNODC classification system. Google Trends data (time range: 2004-2019) and drug forum data (time range: 2003-2018) were extracted for each substance and visual trend profiles were created for class groups as well as individual substances. Analysis was conducted to determine when a substance first appeared on Google Trends and a drug discussion forum as well as their trends over time. This date of first appearance was then compared to the date the substance was first reported to UNODC. Of the three data sources utilised, substances were most likely to appear on Google Trends first. Amongst the different classes of NPS, discernible trends ('block', 'successive', and 'generational' trends) were observed. These trends reflect the evolution of the manufacture of substances or generations of substances that has been observed in the literature. For example, in the synthetic cannabinoids' category, a generational trend is observed that corresponds to the different generations of synthetic cannabinoids. When comparing Google Trends and Drugs-Forum directly, the order of appearance and duration of presence for substances aligns accurately for most classes. Google Trends showed the emergence, persistence, or transient nature of substances, which could direct the focus of law enforcement, health organisation and laboratory resources towards a limited number of substances. When one considers the reliance of individual information seeking on the Web as well as the prominence of NPS on the Web, it becomes clear that Google Trends and drug discussion forums could be used as a complement to current early warning systems.

Metabolism Study of N-Methyl 2-Aminoindane (NM2AI) and Determination of Metabolites in Biological Samples by LC-HRMS

Since the widespread diffusion of new psychoactive substances, forensic laboratories are often required to identify new drugs and their metabolites for which information or reference standards are lacking. We performed a study on N-methyl-2-aminoindane (NM2AI) metabolism in silico and in vivo, in order to identify the main metabolites to be screened in the different biological samples. We performed the in silico metabolism prediction of NM2AI using MetaSiteTM software and subsequently verified the presence of metabolites in the blood, urine and hair of mice after NM2AI administration. The samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) with a benchtop Orbitrap Exactive mass detector. This allowed the evaluation of the agreement between software prediction and experimental results in biological samples. LC-HRMS analysis identified seven main metabolites in the urine. They were identified, by their accurate masses and fragmentation patterns, as 2-aminoindane (2AI), two hydroxy-2AI and four hydroxy-NM2AI; one of the hydroxy-NM2AI and one of the hydroxy-2AI underwent also to conjugation. NM2AI and 2AI were also detected by LC-HRMS in the hair and blood. Based on these findings, we developed an LC-HRMS method for the screening of NM2AI and metabolites in urine, blood and hair samples. This can be of primary effectiveness to uncover the abuse of NM2AI and related possible intoxications.

Beyond ecstasy: Alternative entactogens to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine with potential applications in psychotherapy

The last two decades have seen a revival of interest in the entactogen 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA) as an adjunct to psychotherapy, particularly for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. While clinical results are highly promising, and MDMA is expected to be approved as a treatment in the near future, it is currently the only compound in its class of action that is being actively investigated as a medicine. This lack of alternatives to MDMA may prove detrimental to patients who do not respond well to the particular mechanism of action of MDMA or whose treatment calls for a modification of MDMA's effects. For instance, patients with existing cardiovascular conditions or with a prolonged history of stimulant drug use may not fit into the current model of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy, and could benefit from alternative drugs. This review examines the existing literature on a host of entactogenic drugs, which may prove to be useful alternatives in the future, paying particularly close attention to any neurotoxic risks, neuropharmacological mechanism of action and entactogenic commonalities with MDMA. The substances examined derive from the 1,3-benzodioxole, cathinone, benzofuran, aminoindane, indole and amphetamine classes. Several compounds from these classes are identified as potential alternatives to MDMA.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of eight aminoindanes: 2-Aminoindane, N-methyl-2-, 5-methoxy-, 5-methoxy-6-methyl-, 4,5-methylenedioxy-, 5,6-methylenedioxy- and 5-iodo-2-aminoindane, and rasagiline

RATIONALE

Aminoindanes are one class of many new psychoactive substances that have emerged over the last decade. Analogues of 2-aminoindane (2-AI) are being encountered in crime laboratories and analytical data for most aminoindanes are limited. Interpretation and optimization of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry data will enhance reliability in characterizing aminoindanes.

METHODS

This study focuses on the electron ionization mass spectrometric fragmentation of eight aminoindane analogues and the gas chromatographic separation of these eight aminoindane analogues using four different column stationary phases, Rxi®-1Sil MS, Rxi®-5Sil MS, Rxi®-35Sil MS, and Rxi®-624Sil MS. Split injection (25:1) was utilized and each column had the same configuration (30 m × 25 mm × 0.25 μm), with the exception of the Rxi®-624Sil MS column (30 m × 25 mm ×1.4 μm).

RESULTS

Mass spectra showed strong molecular ions for all aminoindanes, except for rasagiline that produced a uniquely abundant [M - 1] ion. Other characteristic fragmentation that was present for all the aminoindanes included indane and indene ions (m/z 115-117), the tropylium ion (m/z 91), and subsequent loss of diene to produce smaller ions that followed: phenyl (m/z 77), cyclopentadienyl (m/z 65), cyclobutadienyl (m/z 51), and cyclopropenyl (m/z 39).

CONCLUSIONS

Separation of eight aminoindanes was optimized, and linear retention indices were determined for the compounds on four capillary columns. Based on the retention data, all eight aminoindanes were resolved on an Rxi®-624Sil MS column. Each aminoindane exhibited unique fragmentation ions in the mass spectra to distinguish between similar analogues. The results of this study will strengthen the analytical profiles of 2-AI and seven analogues, assisting forensic scientists in their analysis and identification of these substances.

Potential 2-Aminoindane Fatality Invalidated By Careful Mass Spectrometric Analysis

We describe herewith the case of a patient presenting to the emergency department for worsening ear-nose-throat symptoms. As chemsex was evocated by the family, patient's serum was submitted to a new psychoactive substances screening. After a simple liquid liquid extraction, serum was injected on a high-resolution mass spectrometer using quite usual conditions (C18 column, gradient mode with acidic buffer, methanol and acetonitrile). An almost perfect match with 2-aminoindane (2-AI) was observed considering that the precursor ion was present in the sample but absent in the commercial library. Literature concerning 2-AI is sparse, and further investigations were undertaken. After injection of the reference standard, a small retention time shift has been observed (0.3 min) between the standard and the sample. The case was only closed while spiking the sample with the standard, giving rise to two distinct peaks. As a result, 2-AI was then considered as absent from the sample and death was attributed only to infection. Moreover, a rapid liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method dedicated to 2-AI was developed. It generated the same false positive result highlighted by significant differences observed in ion ratios (2.37 for the sample versus 6.62 for the neat standard).

Understanding the Contribution of Individual Amino Acid Residues in the Binding of Psychoactive Substances to Monoamine Transporters

The development of point-of-care detection methodologies for biologically relevant analytes that can facilitate rapid and appropriate treatment is at the forefront of current research efforts and interests. Among the various approaches, those exploiting host-guest chemistries where the optoelectronic signals of the chemical sensor can be modulated upon interaction with the target analyte are of particular interest. In aiding their rational development, judicious selection of peripheral functional groups anchored to core motifs with desired properties is critical. Herein, we report an in-depth investigation of the binding of three psychoactive substances, MDAI, mexedrone, and phenibut, to receptors of the monoamine transporters for dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, particularly focusing on the role of individual amino acid residues. We first evaluated the conformational flexibility of the ligands by comparing their experimentally determined crystal structure geometries to those optimized by means of quantum as well as molecular mechanics, observing significant changes in the case of phenibut. Molecular docking studies were employed to identify preferential binding sites by means of calculated docking scores. In all cases, irrespective of the monoamine transporter, psychoactive substances exhibited preferred interaction with the S1 or central site of the proteins, in line with previous studies. However, we observed that experimental trends for their relative potency on the three transporters were only reproduced in the case of mexedrone. Subsequently, to further understand these findings and to pave the way for the rational development of superior chemical sensors for these substances, we computed the individual contributions of each nearest neighbor amino acid residue to the binding to the target analytes. Interestingly, these results are now in agreement with those experimental potency trends. In addition, these observations were in all cases associated with key intermolecular interactions with neighboring residues, such as tyrosine and aspartic acid, in the binding of the ligands to the monoamine transporter for dopamine. As a result, we believe this work will be of interest to those engaged in the rational development of chemical sensors for small molecule analytes as well as to those interested in the use of computational approaches to further understand protein-ligand interactions.

Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects

Psychoactive substances with chemical structures or pharmacological profiles that are similar to traditional drugs of abuse continue to emerge on the recreational drug market. Internet vendors may at least temporarily sell these so-called designer drugs without adhering to legal statutes or facing legal consequences. Overall, the mechanism of action and adverse effects of designer drugs are similar to traditional drugs of abuse. Stimulants, such as amphetamines and cathinones, primarily interact with monoamine transporters and mostly induce sympathomimetic adverse effects. Agonism at μ-opioid receptors and γ-aminobutyric acid-A (GABAA) or GABAB receptors mediates the pharmacological effects of sedatives, which may induce cardiorespiratory depression. Dissociative designer drugs primarily act as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists and pose similar health risks as the medically approved dissociative anesthetic ketamine. The cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor is thought to drive the psychoactive effects of synthetic cannabinoids, which are associated with a less desirable effect profile and more severe adverse effects compared with cannabis. Serotonergic 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A) receptors mediate alterations of perception and cognition that are induced by serotonergic psychedelics. Because of their novelty, designer drugs may remain undetected by routine drug screening, thus hampering evaluations of adverse effects. Intoxication reports suggest that several designer drugs are used concurrently, posing a high risk for severe adverse effects and even death.

The metabolic fate of two new psychoactive substances - 2-aminoindane and N-methyl-2-aminoindane - studied in vitro and in vivo to support drug testing

The aim of this study was to characterize the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of 2-aminoindane (2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine, 2-AI), and N-methyl-2-aminoindane (N-methyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine, NM-2-AI) after incubations using pooled human liver microsomes (pHLMs), pooled human liver S9 fraction (pS9), and rat urine after oral administration. After analysis using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry, pHLM incubations revealed that 2-AI was left unmetabolized, while NM-2-AI formed a hydroxylamine and diastereomers of a metabolite formed after hydroxylation in beta position. Incubations using pS9 led to the formation of an acetyl conjugation in the case of 2-AI and merely a hydroxylamine for NM-2-AI. Investigations on rat urine showed that 2-AI was hydroxylated also forming diasteromers as described for NM-2-AI or acetylated similar to incubations using pS9. All hydroxylated metabolites of NM-2-AI except the hydroxylamine were found in rat urine as additional sulfates. Assuming similar patterns in humans, urine screening procedures might be focused on the parent compounds but should also include their metabolites. An activity screening using human recombinant N-acetyl transferase (NAT) isoforms 1 and 2 revealed that 2-AI was acetylated exclusively by NAT2, which is polymorphically expressed.

Pharmacology of MDMA- and Amphetamine-Like New Psychoactive Substances

New psychoactive substances (NPS) with amphetamine-, aminoindan-, and benzofuran basic chemical structures have recently emerged for recreational drug use. Detailed information about their psychotropic effects and health risks is often limited. At the same time, it emerged that the pharmacological profiles of these NPS resemble those of amphetamine or 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Amphetamine-like NPS induce psychostimulation and euphoria mediated predominantly by norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) transporter (NET and DAT) inhibition and transporter-mediated release of NE and DA, thus showing a more catecholamine-selective profile. MDMA-like NPS frequently induce well-being, empathy, and prosocial effects and have only moderate psychostimulant properties. These MDMA-like substances primarily act by inhibiting the serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) and NET, also inducing 5-HT and NE release. Monoamine receptor interactions vary considerably among amphetamine- and MDMA-like NPS. Clinically, amphetamine- and MDMA-like NPS can induce sympathomimetic toxicity. The aim of this chapter is to review the state of knowledge regarding these substances with a focus on the description of the in vitro pharmacology of selected amphetamine- and MDMA-like NPS. In addition, it is aimed to provide links between pharmacological profiles and in vivo effects and toxicity, which leads to the conclusion that abuse liability for amphetamine-like NPS may be higher than for MDMA-like NPS, but that the risk for developing the life-threatening serotonin syndrome may be increased for MDMA-like NPS.

Amide-Directed C-H Sodiation by a Sodium Hydride/Iodide Composite

A new protocol for amide-directed ortho and lateral C-H sodiation is enabled by sodium hydride (NaH) in the presence of either sodium iodide (NaI) or lithium iodide (LiI). The transient organosodium intermediates could be transformed into functionalized aromatic compounds.

Identification of new psychoactive substances (NPS) using handheld Raman spectroscopy employing both 785 and 1064nm laser sources

The chemical identification of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in the field is challenging due not only to the plethora of substances available, but also as a result of the chemical complexity of products and the chemical similarity of NPS analogues. In this study, handheld Raman spectroscopy and the use of two excitation wavelengths, 785 and 1064nm, were evaluated for the identification of 60 NPS products. The products contained a range of NPS from classes including the aminoindanes, arylalkylamines, benzodiazepines, and piperidines & pyrrolidines. Identification was initially assessed using the instruments' in built algorithm (i.e., % HQI) and then further by visual inspection of the Raman spectra. Confirmatory analysis was preformed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry. For the 60 diverse products, an NPS was successfully identified via the algorithm in 11 products (18%) using the 785nm source and 29 products (48%) using the 1064nm source. Evaluation of the Raman spectra showed that increasing the excitation wavelength from 785 to 1064nm improved this 'first pass' identification primarily due to a significant reduction in fluorescence, which increased S/N of the characteristic peaks of the substance identified. True positive correlations between internet products and NPS signatures ranged from 57.0 to 91.3% HQI with typical RSDs<10%. Tablet formulations and branded products were particularly challenging as a result of low NPS concentration and high chemical complexity, respectively. This study demonstrates the advantage of using a 1064nm source with handheld Raman spectroscopy for improved 'first pass' NPS identification when minimal spectral processing is required, such as when working in field. Future investigations will focus on the use of mixture algorithms, effect of NPS concentration, and further improvement of spectral libraries.

Locomotor, discriminative stimulus, and place conditioning effects of MDAI in rodents

5,6-Methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI) has become a common substitute for (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in Ecstasy. MDAI is known to produce MDMA-like discriminative stimulus effects, but it is not known whether MDAI has psychostimulant or hallucinogen-like effects. MDAI was tested for locomotor stimulant effects in mice and subsequently for discriminative stimulus effects in rats trained to discriminate cocaine (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally), methamphetamine (1 mg/kg, intraperitoneally), ±MDMA (1.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally), or (-)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine hydrochloride (0.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) from saline. The ability of MDAI to produce conditioned place preference was also tested in mice. MDAI (3 to 30 mg/kg) depressed locomotor activity from 10 to 60 min. A rebound stimulant effect was observed at 1 to 3.5 h following 30 mg/kg. Lethality occurred in 8/8 mice following 100 mg/kg MDAI. Similarly, MDMA depressed locomotor activity immediately following the administration of 0.25 mg/kg and stimulant effects were observed 50-70 min following the administration of 0.5 and 1 mg/kg. MDAI fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of MDMA (2.5 mg/kg), (-)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine hydrochloride (5 mg/kg), and cocaine (7.5 mg/kg), but produced only 73% methamphetamine-appropriate responding at a dose that suppressed responding (7.5 mg/kg). MDAI produced tremors at 10 mg/kg in one methamphetamine-trained rat. MDAI produced conditioned place preference from 0.3 to 10 mg/kg. The effects of MDAI on locomotor activity and drug discrimination were similar to those produced by MDMA, having both psychostimulant-like and hallucinogen-like effects; thus, MDAI may have similar abuse potential as MDMA.

An overview of recent developments in the analytical detection of new psychoactive substances (NPSs)

New psychoactive substances (NPSs), sometimes referred to as "legal highs" in more colloquial environments/the media, are a class of compounds that have been recently made available for abuse (not necessarily recently discovered) which provide similar effects to the traditional well studied illegal drugs but are not always controlled under existing local, regional or international drug legislation. Following an unprecedented increase in the number of NPSs in the last 5 years (with 101 substances discovered for the first time in 2014 alone) its, occasionally fatal, consequences have been extensively reported in the media. Such NPSs are typically marketed as 'not for human consumption' and are instead labelled and sold as plant food, bath salts as well as a whole host of other equally nondescript aliases in order to bypass legislative controls. NPSs are a new multi-disciplinary research field with the main emphasis in terms of forensic identification due to their adverse health effects, which can range from minimal to life threatening and even fatalities. In this mini-review we overview this recent emerging research area of NPSs and the analytical approaches reported to provide detection strategies as well as detailing recent reports towards providing point-of-care/in-the-field NPS ("legal high") sensors.

Effects and risks associated with novel psychoactive substances: mislabeling and sale as bath salts, spice, and research chemicals

BACKGROUND

The number of newly reported psychoactive substances in Europe is now higher than ever. In order to evade legal restrictions, old and novel psychoactive substances from medical research and their derivatives are commonly mislabeled as "not for human consumption" and offered for sale on the Internet and elsewhere. Such substances are widely taken by young people as "club drugs." Their consumption must be considered in the differential diagnosis of psychiatric, neurological, cardiovascular, or metabolic disturbances of unclear origin in a young patient.

METHOD

Selective review of pertinent literature retrieved by a PubMed search, including publications by government-sponsored organizations.

RESULTS

From 2010 to 2012, 163 substances were reported to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), mostly either synthetic cannabinoids (39.3%) or synthetic cathinones (16.6%). Synthetic cannabinoids alter mood and perception; intoxications cause agitation, tachy cardia, and arterial hypertension. Synthetic cathinones are hallucinogenic stimulants with predominantly cardiovascular and psychiatric side effects. Severe intoxications cause serotonin syndrome and potentially fatal rhabdomyolysis. Substances in either of these classes often escape detection in screening tests.

CONCLUSION

Young persons who present with agitation and cardiovascular and/or psychiatric manifestations of unclear origin and whose drug screening tests are negative may be suffering from an intoxication with a novel psychoactive substance. Physicians should know the classes of such substances and their effects. Targeted toxicological analysis can be carried out in a toxicology laboratory or a facility for forensic medicine.

Rasagiline, a suicide inhibitor of monoamine oxidases, binds reversibly to α-synuclein

Rasagiline (N-propargyl-1-R-aminoindan) and selegiline (1-deprenyl) are MAO-B inhibitors which are used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. The binding of rasagiline, selegiline, and their metabolites including 1-aminoindan, 2-aminoindan, and methamphetamine to α-synuclein was investigated by nanopore analysis and isothermal titration calorimetry. Blockade current histograms of α-synuclein alone give a peak at -86 pA which is due to translocation of the protein through the pore. In the presence of rasagiline and R-1-aminoindan, this peak shifts to about -80 pA. In the presence of selegiline and R-methamphetamine, the number of events at -86 pA is reduced and there is a higher proportion of bumping events at about -25 pA which are due to a more compact conformation. Rasagiline can also bind to sites in both the N- and C-terminal regions of α-synuclein. The binding constants of rasagiline and selegiline were estimated by isothermal titration calorimetry to be about 5 × 10(5) and <10(4) M(-1), respectively. A model is presented in which both rasagiline and R-1-aminoindan bind to α-synuclein, forming a loop structure which is less likely to aggregate or form fibrils. In contrast, selegiline binds and forms a more compact structure similar to that formed by methamphetamine.

Pharmacological profiles of aminoindanes, piperazines, and pipradrol derivatives

Aminoindanes, piperazines, and pipradrol derivatives are novel psychoactive substances found in "Ecstasy" tablets as replacements for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or substances sold as "ivory wave." The pharmacology of these MDMA- and methylphenidate-like substances is poorly known. We characterized the pharmacology of the aminoindanes 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI), 5-iodoaminoindane (5-IAI), and 2-aminoindane (2-AI), the piperazines meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP), trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP), and 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP), and the pipradrol derivatives desoxypipradrol (2-diphenylmethylpiperidine [2-DPMP]), diphenylprolinol (diphenyl-2-pyrrolidinemethanol [D2PM]), and methylphenidate. We investigated norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) uptake inhibition using human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK 293) cells that express the respective human monoamine transporters (NET, DAT, and SERT). We also evaluated the drug-induced efflux of NE, DA, and 5-HT from monoamine-preloaded cells and the binding affinity to monoamine transporters and receptors, including trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). 5-IAI and MDAI preferentially inhibited the SERT and NET and released 5-HT. 2-AI interacted with the NET. BZP blocked the NET and released DA. m-CPP and TFMPP interacted with the SERT and serotonergic receptors. The pipradrol derivatives were potent and selective catecholamine transporter blockers without substrate releasing properties. BZP, D2PM, and 2-DPMP lacked serotonergic activity and TAAR1 binding, in contrast to the aminoindanes and phenylpiperazines. In summary, all of the substances were monoamine transporter inhibitors, but marked differences were found in their DAT vs. SERT inhibition profiles, release properties, and receptor interactions. The pharmacological profiles of D2PM and 2-DPMP likely predict a high abuse liability.

MDAI (5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane; 6,7-dihydro-5H-cyclopenta[f][1,3]benzodioxol-6-amine; 'sparkle'; 'mindy') toxicity: a brief overview and update

OBJECTIVES

MDAI (5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane; 6,7-dihydro-5H-cyclopenta[f][1,3]benzodioxol-6-amine; 'sparkle'; 'mindy') is a psychoactive substance, sold primarily over the Internet and in 'head' shops as a 'legal high'. Synthesised and used as a research chemical in the 1990s, MDAI has structural similarities to MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine) and shares its behavioural properties. Recreational use of MDAI appears to have started in Europe around 2007, with a noticeable increase after 2009 in the UK and other countries. Calls to National Poisons Information Services started in 2010, although there were few presentations to emergency departments by patients complaining of undesirable physical and psychiatric effects after taking MDAI. Recreational use of this drug has been reported only occasionally by online user fora. There is little scientifically based literature on the pharmacological, physiological, psychopharmacological, toxicological and epidemiological characteristics of this drug.

METHODS

Recent literature (including 'grey') was searched to update what is known about MDAI, especially on its toxicity.

RESULTS

The resultant information is presented, including on the first three UK deaths involving MDAI use in 2011 and 2012. 'Serotonin syndrome' appears to be a possible factor in these fatalities.

CONCLUSION

It is vital that any other cases, including non-fatal overdoses, are documented so that a scientific evidence base can be established for them.

5-Iodo-2-aminoindan (5-IAI): chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of a research chemical producing MDMA-like effects

In 2010, an internet snapshot of EMCDDA anticipated the presence of 5-iodo-2-aminoindan (5-IAI) within the recreational drug market. In 2011, this compound, a psychoactive derivative of 2-aminoindane, was identified in recreational products sold in the United Kingdom. 5-IAI is a rigid analogue of p-iodoamphetamine producing MDMA-like effects. The aim of this paper is to summarize the clinical, pharmacological, and toxicological information about this new potential drug of abuse.

Impact of the emergence of designer drugs upon sports doping testing

Historically, dope-testing methods have been developed to target specific and known threats to the integrity of sport. Traditionally, the source of new analytical targets for which testing was required were derived almost exclusively from the pharmaceutical industry. More recently, the emergence of designer drugs, such as tetrahydrogestrinone that are specifically intended to evade detection, or novel chemicals intended to circumvent laws controlling the sale and distribution of recreational drugs, such as anabolic steroids, stimulants and cannabinoids, have become a significant issue. In this review, we shall consider the emergence of designer drugs and the response of dope-testing laboratories to these new threats, in particular developments in analytical methods, instrumentation and research intended to detect their abuse, and we consider the likely future impact of these approaches.