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Beslity J, Shaw SB, Drake JE, Fridley J, Stella JC, Stark J, Singh K. A low cost, low power sap flux device for distributed and intensive monitoring of tree transpiration. HARDWAREX 2022; 12:e00351. [PMID: 36117543 PMCID: PMC9478450 DOI: 10.1016/j.ohx.2022.e00351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Accurate estimation of transpiration in individual trees is important for understanding plant responses to environmental drivers, closing the water balance in forest stands and catchments, and calibrating earth system models, among other applications. However, the cost and power consumption of commercial systems based on sap flow methods still limit their usage. We developed and tested a cost-effective (<$150), simple to construct, and energy efficient sap flux device based on the heat pulse method. Energy savings were achieved by reducing the voltage of heat pulses and using an internal clock to completely shut down the device between pulses. Device accuracy was confirmed by laboratory estimates of sap flow made on excised branches of Acer saccharum and Tsuga canadensis (adjusted R2 = 0.96). In a 174-d field installation of 12 devices, batteries (eight rechargeable Ni-MH AA) needed to be replaced every 14 days. Sap flux measurements in the field tracked expected variations in vapor pressure deficit and tree phenology. The low cost, compact design, reliability, and power consumption of this device enable sap flux studies to operate with more replication and in more diverse ecological settings than has been practical in the past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Beslity
- SUNY College of Environmental Science & Forestry, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Stephen B. Shaw
- SUNY College of Environmental Science & Forestry, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - John E. Drake
- SUNY College of Environmental Science & Forestry, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | | | - John C. Stella
- SUNY College of Environmental Science & Forestry, Syracuse, NY, USA
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2
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Gutierrez Lopez J, Tor-Ngern P, Oren R, Kozii N, Laudon H, Hasselquist NJ. How tree species, tree size, and topographical location influenced tree transpiration in northern boreal forests during the historic 2018 drought. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2021; 27:3066-3078. [PMID: 33949757 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Trees in northern latitude ecosystems are projected to experience increasing drought stress as a result of rising air temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns in northern latitude ecosystems. However, most drought-related studies on high-latitude boreal forests (>50°N) have been conducted in North America, with few studies quantifying the response in European and Eurasian boreal forests. Here, we tested how daily whole-tree transpiration (Q, Liters day-1 ) and Q normalized for mean daytime vapor pressure deficit (QDZ , Liters day-1 kPa-1 ) were affected by the historic 2018 drought in Europe. More specifically, we examined how tree species, size, and topographic position affected drought response in high-latitude mature boreal forest trees. We monitored 30 Pinus sylvestris (pine) and 30 Picea abies (spruce) trees distributed across a topographic gradient in northern Sweden. In general, pine showed a greater QDZ control compared to spruce during periods of severe drought (standardized precipitation-evapotranspiration index: SPEI < -1.5), suggesting that the latter are more sensitive to drought. Overall, QDZ reductions (using non-drought QDZ as reference) were less pronounced in larger trees during severe drought, but there was a species-specific pattern: QDZ reductions were greater in pine trees at high elevations and greater in spruce trees at lower elevations. Despite lower QDZ during severe drought, drought spells were interspersed with small precipitation events and overcast conditions, and QDZ returned to pre-drought conditions relatively quickly. This study highlights unique species-specific responses to drought, which are additionally driven by a codependent interaction among tree size, relative topographic position, and unique regional climate conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Gutierrez Lopez
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Pantana Tor-Ngern
- Department of Environmental Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Environment, Health and Social Data Analytics Research Group, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Water Science and Technology for Sustainable Environment Research Group, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ram Oren
- Division of Environmental Science & Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Forest Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nataliia Kozii
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Hjalmar Laudon
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Niles J Hasselquist
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
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3
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Exploring the Influence of Biological Traits and Environmental Drivers on Water Use Variations across Contrasting Forests. FORESTS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/f12020161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Understanding species-specific water use patterns across contrasting sites and how sensitivity of responses to environmental variables changes for different species is critical for evaluating potential forest dynamics and land use changes under global change. To quantify water use patterns and the sensitivity of tree transpiration to environmental drivers among sites and species, sap flow and meteorological data sets from three contrasting climatic zones were combined and compared in this analysis. Agathis australis from NZHP site, Schima wallichii Choisy (native) and Acacia mangium Willd (exotic) from CHS site, Liquidamber formosana Hance, Quercus variabilis Blume and Quercus acutissima Carruth from CJGS site were the dominant trees chosen as our study species. Biological traits were collected to explain the underlying physiological mechanisms for water use variation. Results showed that the strongest environmental drivers of sap flow were photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and temperature across sites, indicating that the response of water use to abiotic drivers converged across sites. Water use magnitude was site specific, which was controlled by site characteristics, species composition and local weather conditions. The species with higher sap flow density (Fd) generally had greater stomatal conductance. Native deciduous broadleaved species had a higher Fd and faster response to stomatal regulation than that of native evergreen broadleaved species (S. wallichii) and conifer species A. australis. The analysis also showed that exotic species (A. mangium) consumed more water than native species (S. wallichii). Trees with diffuse porous and lower wood density had relatively higher Fd for angiosperms, suggesting that water use was regulated by physiological differences. Water use characteristics across sites are controlled by both external factors such as site-specific characteristics (local environmental conditions and species composition) and internal factors such as biological traits (xylem anatomy, root biomass and leaf area), which highlights the complexity of quantifying land water budgets for areas covered by different species.
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Andriyas T, Leksungnoen N, Tor-Ngern P. Comparison of water-use characteristics of tropical tree saplings with implications for forest restoration. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1745. [PMID: 33462324 PMCID: PMC7813824 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81334-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Tropical forests are experiencing reduced productivity and will need restoration with suitable species. Knowledge of species-specific responses to changing environments during early stage can help identify the appropriate species for sustainable planting. Hence, we investigated the variability in whole-tree canopy conductance and transpiration (Gt and EL) in potted saplings of common urban species in Thailand, viz., Pterocarpus indicus, Lagerstroemia speciosa, and Swietenia macrophylla, across wet and dry seasons in 2017-2018. Using a Bayesian modeling framework, Gt and EL were estimated from sap flux density, informed by the soil, atmospheric and tree measurements. Subsequently, we evaluated their variations with changing vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and soil moisture across timescales and season. We found that Gt and EL were higher and highly variable in L. speciosa across seasons than S. macrophylla and P. indicus. Our results implied that water-use in these species was sensitive to seasonal VPD. L. speciosa may be suitable under future climate variability, given its higher Gt and EL across atmospheric and soil moisture conditions. With their lower Gt and EL, P. indicus and S. macrophylla may photosynthesize throughout the year, maintaining their stomatal opening even under high VPD. These findings benefit reforestation and reclamation programs of degraded lands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tushar Andriyas
- Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Nisa Leksungnoen
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
| | - Pantana Tor-Ngern
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
- Environment, Health and Social Data Analytics Research Group, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
- Water Science and Technology for Sustainable Environment Research Group, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
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5
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Tarvainen L, Wallin G, Linder S, Näsholm T, Oren R, Ottosson Löfvenius M, Räntfors M, Tor-Ngern P, Marshall JD. Limited vertical CO2 transport in stems of mature boreal Pinus sylvestris trees. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 41:63-75. [PMID: 32864696 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpaa113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have suggested that CO2 transport in the transpiration stream can considerably bias estimates of root and stem respiration in ring-porous and diffuse-porous tree species. Whether this also happens in species with tracheid xylem anatomy and lower sap flow rates, such as conifers, is currently unclear. We infused 13C-labelled solution into the xylem near the base of two 90-year-old Pinus sylvestris L. trees. A custom-built gas exchange system and an online isotopic analyser were used to sample the CO2 efflux and its isotopic composition continuously from four positions along the bole and one upper canopy shoot in each tree. Phloem and needle tissue 13C enrichment was also evaluated at these positions. Most of the 13C label was lost by diffusion within a few metres of the infusion point indicating rapid CO2 loss during vertical xylem transport. No 13C enrichment was detected in the upper bole needle tissues. Furthermore, mass balance calculations showed that c. 97% of the locally respired CO2 diffused radially to the atmosphere. Our results support the notion that xylem CO2 transport is of limited magnitude in conifers. This implies that the concerns that stem transport of CO2 derived from root respiration biases chamber-based estimates of forest carbon cycling may be unwarranted for mature conifer stands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lasse Tarvainen
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Skogmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Carl Skottsbergs gata 22B, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, Linnaeus väg 6, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Göran Wallin
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Carl Skottsbergs gata 22B, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Sune Linder
- Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU, PO Box 49, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Torgny Näsholm
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Skogmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Ram Oren
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Grainger Hall, 9 Circuit Drive, Box 90328, Durham, NC 27708-0328, USA
- Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, 305 Teer Building, Box 90271, Durham, NC 27708-0271, USA
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Latokartanonkaari 7, Box 27, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikaell Ottosson Löfvenius
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Skogmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Mats Räntfors
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Carl Skottsbergs gata 22B, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Pantana Tor-Ngern
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Rd, Wang Mai, Pathum Wan District, 10330 Bangkok, Thailand
- Environment, Health and Social Data Analytics Research Group, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Rd, Wang Mai, Pathum Wan District, 10330 Bangkok, Thailand
| | - John D Marshall
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Skogmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
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6
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Liu C, Hölttä T, Tian X, Berninger F, Mäkelä A. Weaker Light Response, Lower Stomatal Conductance and Structural Changes in Old Boreal Conifers Implied by a Bayesian Hierarchical Model. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:579319. [PMID: 33240299 PMCID: PMC7677260 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.579319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Age-related effects on whole-tree hydraulics are one of the key challenges to better predicting the production and growth of old-growth forests. Previous models have described the optimal state of stomatal behaviour, and field studies have implied on age/size-induced trends in tree ecophysiology related to hydraulics. On these bases, we built a Bayesian hierarchical model to link sap flow density and drivers of transpiration directly. The model included parameters with physiological meanings and accounted for variations in leaf-sapwood area ratio and the time lag between sap flow and transpiration. The model well-simulated the daily pattern of sap flow density and the variation between tree age groups. The results of parameterization show that (1) the usually higher stomatal conductance in young than old trees during mid-summer was mainly because the sap flow of young trees were more activated at low to medium light intensity, and (2) leaf-sapwood area ratio linearly decreased while time lag linearly increased with increasing tree height. Uncertainty partitioning and cross-validation, respectively, indicated a reliable and fairly robust parameter estimation. The model performance may be further improved by higher data quality and more process-based expressions of the internal dynamics of trees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Che Liu
- Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teemu Hölttä
- Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Xianglin Tian
- Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Frank Berninger
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland
| | - Annikki Mäkelä
- Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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7
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Vernay A, Tian X, Chi J, Linder S, Mäkelä A, Oren R, Peichl M, Stangl ZR, Tor-Ngern P, Marshall JD. Estimating canopy gross primary production by combining phloem stable isotopes with canopy and mesophyll conductances. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2020; 43:2124-2142. [PMID: 32596814 DOI: 10.1111/pce.13835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Gross primary production (GPP) is a key component of the forest carbon cycle. However, our knowledge of GPP at the stand scale remains uncertain, because estimates derived from eddy covariance (EC) rely on semi-empirical modelling and the assumptions of the EC technique are sometimes not fully met. We propose using the sap flux/isotope method as an alternative way to estimate canopy GPP, termed GPPiso/SF , at the stand scale and at daily resolution. It is based on canopy conductance inferred from sap flux and intrinsic water-use efficiency estimated from the stable carbon isotope composition of phloem contents. The GPPiso/SF estimate was further corrected for seasonal variations in photosynthetic capacity and mesophyll conductance. We compared our estimate of GPPiso/SF to the GPP derived from PRELES, a model parameterized with EC data. The comparisons were performed in a highly instrumented, boreal Scots pine forest in northern Sweden, including a nitrogen fertilized and a reference plot. The resulting annual and daily GPPiso/SF estimates agreed well with PRELES, in the fertilized plot and the reference plot. We discuss the GPPiso/SF method as an alternative which can be widely applied without terrain restrictions, where the assumptions of EC are not met.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Vernay
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Xianglin Tian
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jinshu Chi
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sune Linder
- Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Annikki Mäkelä
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ram Oren
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Division of Environmental Science & Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Matthias Peichl
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Zsofia R Stangl
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Pantana Tor-Ngern
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Environment, Health and Social Data Analytics Research Group, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - John D Marshall
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
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8
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Marshall JD, Cuntz M, Beyer M, Dubbert M, Kuehnhammer K. Borehole Equilibration: Testing a New Method to Monitor the Isotopic Composition of Tree Xylem Water in situ. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:358. [PMID: 32351515 PMCID: PMC7175398 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Forest water use has been difficult to quantify. One promising approach is to measure the isotopic composition of plant water, e.g., the transpired water vapor or xylem water. Because different water sources, e.g., groundwater versus shallow soil water, often show different isotopic signatures, isotopes can be used to investigate the depths from which plants take up their water and how this changes over time. Traditionally such measurements have relied on the extraction of wood samples, which provide limited time resolution at great expense, and risk possible artifacts. Utilizing a borehole drilled through a tree's stem, we propose a new method based on the notion that water vapor in a slow-moving airstream approaches isotopic equilibration with the much greater mass of liquid water in the xylem. We present two empirical data sets showing that the method can work in practice. We then present a theoretical model estimating equilibration times and exploring the limits at which the approach will fail. The method provides a simple, cheap, and accurate means of continuously estimating the isotopic composition of the source water for transpiration.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D. Marshall
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Matthias Cuntz
- Université de Lorraine, AgroParisTech, INRAE, UMR Silva, Nancy, France
| | - Matthias Beyer
- IGOE, Umweltgeochemie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
- Department B2.3: Groundwater Resources and Dynamics, German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Hanover, Germany
| | - Maren Dubbert
- Ecosystem Physiology, University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- IGB Berlin, Landscape Ecohydrology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kathrin Kuehnhammer
- IGOE, Umweltgeochemie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
- Ecosystem Physiology, University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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9
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Lin W, Domec JC, Ward EJ, Marshall J, King JS, Laviner MA, Fox TR, West JB, Sun G, McNulty S, Noormets A. Using δ13C and δ18O to analyze loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) response to experimental drought and fertilization. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 39:1984-1994. [PMID: 31748787 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpz096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 06/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Drought frequency and intensity are projected to increase throughout the southeastern USA, the natural range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), and are expected to have major ecological and economic implications. We analyzed the carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions in tree ring cellulose of loblolly pine in a factorial drought (~30% throughfall reduction) and fertilization experiment, supplemented with trunk sap flow, allometry and microclimate data. We then simulated leaf temperature and applied a multi-dimensional sensitivity analysis to interpret the changes in the oxygen isotope data. This analysis found that the observed changes in tree ring cellulose could only be accounted for by inferring a change in the isotopic composition of the source water, indicating that the drought treatment increased the uptake of stored moisture from earlier precipitation events. The drought treatment also increased intrinsic water-use efficiency, but had no effect on growth, indicating that photosynthesis remained relatively unaffected despite 19% decrease in canopy conductance. In contrast, fertilization increased growth, but had no effect on the isotopic composition of tree ring cellulose, indicating that the fertilizer gains in biomass were attributable to greater leaf area and not to changes in leaf-level gas exchange. The multi-dimensional sensitivity analysis explored model behavior under different scenarios, highlighting the importance of explicit consideration of leaf temperature in the oxygen isotope discrimination (Δ18Oc) simulation and is expected to expand the inference space of the Δ18Oc models for plant ecophysiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Lin
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, 2820 Faucette Drive, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Boulevard, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518060, China
| | - Jean-Christophe Domec
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, 2820 Faucette Drive, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
- Bordeaux Sciences Agro, UMR 1391 INRA-ISPA, 33195 Gradignan Cedex, France
| | - Eric J Ward
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, 2820 Faucette Drive, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
- US Geological Survey, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, 700 Cajundome Boulevard, Lafayette, LA 70501, USA
| | - John Marshall
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skogens ekologi och skötsel, 901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - John S King
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, 2820 Faucette Drive, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Marshall A Laviner
- Department of Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 310 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Thomas R Fox
- Department of Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 310 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
- Rayonier Inc., 851582 Highway 17N, Yulee, FL 32097, USA
| | - Jason B West
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, Texas A&M University, 495 Horticulture Street, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Ge Sun
- Eastern Forest Environmental Threat Assessment Center, United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 3041 East Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Steve McNulty
- Eastern Forest Environmental Threat Assessment Center, United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 3041 East Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Asko Noormets
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, 2820 Faucette Drive, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, Texas A&M University, 495 Horticulture Street, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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10
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Pashkovskiy PP, Vankova R, Zlobin IE, Dobrev P, Ivanov YV, Kartashov AV, Kuznetsov VV. Comparative analysis of abscisic acid levels and expression of abscisic acid-related genes in Scots pine and Norway spruce seedlings under water deficit. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2019; 140:105-112. [PMID: 31091491 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Abscisic acid (ABA) is one of the main participants in the regulation of plant responses to water deficiency. Knowledge of the ABA signal transduction pathways in gymnosperms is rather limited, especially in comparison with those in angiosperms. Seedlings of Scots pine and Norway spruce are known for their contrasting behaviour strategies under water deficit. To characterize the possible role of ABA in these differences, ABA dynamics were investigated under conditions of water deficit in seedlings of these two species. The content of ABA and its catabolites was followed in the roots and needles of seedlings of Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies under conditions of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced water deficiency (-0.15 and -0.5 MPa) for 10 days. The expression of the main genes for ABA-biosynthetic enzymes was also analysed. ABA showed more pronounced stress-dependent dynamics in pine roots than in spruce roots, whereas in needles, the response was greater for spruce than pine. The ABA increase during drought was mainly due to de novo synthesis and the shift in the balance between ABA synthesis and catabolism towards synthesis. The ABA-glucosyl ester did not serve as a reserve for the release of free ABA under water deficiency. The expression levels of the main ABA biosynthetic genes showed a weak or no correlation with changes in ABA content under water stress, i.e., the ABA content in the seedlings of both species was not directly linked to the transcript levels of the main ABA biosynthetic genes. Less-pronounced stress-induced changes in ABA in pine needles than in spruce needles may be related to pine seedlings having a less conservative strategy of growth and maintenance of water balance under water deficit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel P Pashkovskiy
- Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 127276, Moscow, Russia
| | - Radomira Vankova
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 6, Lysolaje, Czech Republic
| | - Ilya E Zlobin
- Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 127276, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Petre Dobrev
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 6, Lysolaje, Czech Republic
| | - Yury V Ivanov
- Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 127276, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander V Kartashov
- Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 127276, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir V Kuznetsov
- Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 127276, Moscow, Russia
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11
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Polley HW, Aspinwall MJ, Collins HP, Gibson AE, Gill RA, Jackson RB, Jin VL, Khasanova AR, Reichmann LG, Fay PA. CO 2 enrichment and soil type additively regulate grassland productivity. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 222:183-192. [PMID: 30367488 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric CO2 enrichment usually increases the aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) of grassland vegetation, but the magnitude of the ANPP-CO2 response differs among ecosystems. Soil properties affect ANPP via multiple mechanisms and vary over topographic to geographic gradients, but have received little attention as potential modifiers of the ANPP-CO2 response. We assessed the effects of three soil types, sandy loam, silty clay and clay, on the ANPP response of perennial C3 /C4 grassland communities to a subambient to elevated CO2 gradient over 10 yr in Texas, USA. We predicted an interactive, rather than additive, effect of CO2 and soil type on ANPP. Contrary to prediction, CO2 and soil additively influenced grassland ANPP. Increasing CO2 by 250 μl l-1 increased ANPP by 170 g m-2 across soil types. Increased clay content from 10% to 50% among soils reduced ANPP by 50 g m-2 . CO2 enrichment increased ANPP via a predominant direct effect, accompanied by a smaller indirect effect mediated by a successional shift to increased dominance of the C4 tallgrass Sorghastrum nutans. Our results indicate a large, positive influence of CO2 enrichment on grassland productivity that resulted from the direct physiological benefits of CO2 augmented by species succession, and was expressed similarly across soils of differing physical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Wayne Polley
- Agricultural Research Service, Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory, USDA, 808 East Blackland Road, Temple, TX, 76502, USA
| | - Michael J Aspinwall
- Section of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C0930, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
- Department of Biology, University of North Florida, 1 UNF Drive, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Harold P Collins
- Agricultural Research Service, Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory, USDA, 808 East Blackland Road, Temple, TX, 76502, USA
| | - Anne E Gibson
- Agricultural Research Service, Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory, USDA, 808 East Blackland Road, Temple, TX, 76502, USA
| | - Richard A Gill
- Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, 4102 LSB, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Robert B Jackson
- Department of Earth System Science, Woods Institute for the Environment and Precourt Institute for Energy, Stanford University, Y2E2 Building, 379B, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Virginia L Jin
- Agricultural Research Service, ARS Agroecosystem Management Research Unit, USDA, University of Nebraska, 251 Filley Hall, Lincoln, NE, 68583, USA
| | - Albina R Khasanova
- Section of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C0930, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Lara G Reichmann
- Section of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C0930, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
- Data Institute, University of San Francisco, 101 Howard St., San Francisco, CA, 94105, USA
| | - Philip A Fay
- Agricultural Research Service, Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory, USDA, 808 East Blackland Road, Temple, TX, 76502, USA
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Ward EJ, Oren R, Seok Kim H, Kim D, Tor-Ngern P, Ewers BE, McCarthy HR, Oishi AC, Pataki DE, Palmroth S, Phillips NG, Schäfer KVR. Evapotranspiration and water yield of a pine-broadleaf forest are not altered by long-term atmospheric [CO 2 ] enrichment under native or enhanced soil fertility. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2018; 24:4841-4856. [PMID: 29949220 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 06/30/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Changes in evapotranspiration (ET) from terrestrial ecosystems affect their water yield (WY), with considerable ecological and economic consequences. Increases in surface runoff observed over the past century have been attributed to increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations resulting in reduced ET by terrestrial ecosystems. Here, we evaluate the water balance of a Pinus taeda (L.) forest with a broadleaf component that was exposed to atmospheric [CO2 ] enrichment (ECO2 ; +200 ppm) for over 17 years and fertilization for 6 years, monitored with hundreds of environmental and sap flux sensors on a half-hourly basis. These measurements were synthesized using a one-dimensional Richard's equation model to evaluate treatment differences in transpiration (T), evaporation (E), ET, and WY. We found that ECO2 did not create significant differences in stand T, ET, or WY under either native or enhanced soil fertility, despite a 20% and 13% increase in leaf area index, respectively. While T, ET, and WY responded to fertilization, this response was weak (<3% of mean annual precipitation). Likewise, while E responded to ECO2 in the first 7 years of the study, this effect was of negligible magnitude (<1% mean annual precipitation). Given the global range of conifers similar to P. taeda, our results imply that recent observations of increased global streamflow cannot be attributed to decreases in ET across all ecosystems, demonstrating a great need for model-data synthesis activities to incorporate our current understanding of terrestrial vegetation in global water cycle models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Ward
- Division of Environmental Science and Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
- Environmental Sciences Division and Climate Change Science Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
| | - Ram Oren
- Division of Environmental Science and Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Hyun Seok Kim
- Division of Environmental Science and Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
- Department of Forest Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- Institute of Future Environmental and Forest Resources, Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- National Center for Agro-Meteorology, Seoul, Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Agriculture and Forest Meteorology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dohyoung Kim
- Division of Environmental Science and Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
| | - Pantana Tor-Ngern
- Division of Environmental Science and Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Brent E Ewers
- Department of Botany and Program in Ecology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
| | - Heather R McCarthy
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
| | - Andrew Christopher Oishi
- Division of Environmental Science and Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
- USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, Otto, North Carolina
| | - Diane E Pataki
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | - Sari Palmroth
- Division of Environmental Science and Policy, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Nathan G Phillips
- Department of Earth and Environment, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Karina V R Schäfer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
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13
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Tor-ngern P, Unawong W, Tancharoenlarp T, Aunroje P, Panha S. Comparison of water-use characteristics of landscape tree (Tabebuia argentea) and palm (Ptychosperma macarthurii) species in a tropical roof garden with implications for urban water management. Urban Ecosyst 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-018-0735-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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14
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Tarvainen L, Wallin G, Lim H, Linder S, Oren R, Ottosson Löfvenius M, Räntfors M, Tor-Ngern P, Marshall J. Photosynthetic refixation varies along the stem and reduces CO2 efflux in mature boreal Pinus sylvestris trees. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 38:558-569. [PMID: 29077969 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpx130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Trees are able to reduce their carbon (C) losses by refixing some of the CO2 diffusing out of their stems through corticular photosynthesis. Previous studies have shown that under ideal conditions the outflowing CO2 can be completely assimilated in metabolically active, young stem and branch tissues. Fewer studies have, however, been carried out on the older stem sections of large trees and, accordingly, the importance of refixation is still unclear under natural environmental conditions. We investigated the spatial and temporal variation in refixation in ~90-year-old boreal Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees by utilizing month-long continuous measurements of stem CO2 efflux (Ec) made at four heights along the bole. Refixation rates were found to vary considerably along the bole, leading to a 28% reduction in long-term Ec in the upper stem compared with a negligible reduction at breast height. This vertical pattern correlated with variation in light availability, bark chlorophyll content and bark type. Analysis of the vertical and diurnal patterns in Ec further suggested that the influence of sap flow on the observed daytime reduction in Ec was small. The areal rates of corticular photosynthesis were much lower than previous estimates of photosynthetic rates per unit leaf area from the same trees, implying that the impact of refixation on tree-scale C uptake was small. However, upscaling of refixation indicated that 23-27% of the potential Ec was refixed by the bole and the branches, thereby significantly reducing the woody tissue C losses. Thus, our results suggest that refixation needs to be considered when evaluating the aboveground C cycling of mature P. sylvestris stands and that breast-height estimates should not be extrapolated to the whole tree.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lasse Tarvainen
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Göran Wallin
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Hyungwoo Lim
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sune Linder
- Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU, PO Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Ram Oren
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Mikaell Ottosson Löfvenius
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Mats Räntfors
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Pantana Tor-Ngern
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - John Marshall
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
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15
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Predicting canopy biophysical properties and sensitivity of plant carbon uptake to water limitations with a coupled eco-hydrological framework. Ecol Modell 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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16
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Lim H, Oren R, Linder S, From F, Nordin A, Fahlvik N, Lundmark T, Näsholm T. Annual climate variation modifies nitrogen induced carbon accumulation of Pinus sylvestris forests. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2017; 27:1838-1851. [PMID: 28464423 DOI: 10.1002/eap.1571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 03/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We report results from long-term simulated external nitrogen (N) input experiments in three northern Pinus sylvestris forests, two of moderately high and one of moderately low productivity, assessing effects on annual net primary production (NPP) of woody mass and its interannual variation in response to variability in weather conditions. A sigmoidal response of wood NPP to external N inputs was observed in the both higher and lower productivity stands, reaching a maximum of ~65% enhancement regardless of the native site productivity, saturating at an external N input of 4-5 g N·m-2 ·yr-1 . The rate of increase in wood NPP and the N response efficiency (REN , increase in wood NPP per external N input) were maximized at an external N input of ~3 g N·m-2 ·yr-1 , regardless of site productivity. The maximum REN was greater in the higher productivity than the lower productivity stand (~20 vs. ~14 g C/g N). The N-induced enhancement of wood NPP and its REN were, however, markedly contingent on climatic variables. In both of the higher and lower productivity stands, wood NPP increased with growing season precipitation (P), but only up to ~400 mm. The sensitivity of the response to P increased with increasing external N inputs. Increasing growing season temperature (T) somewhat increased the N-induced drought effect, whereas decreasing T reduced the drought effect. These responses of wood NPP infused a large temporal variation to REN , making the use of a fixed value unadvisable. Based on these results, we suggest that regional climate conditions and future climate scenarios should be considered when modeling carbon sequestration in response to N deposition in boreal P. sylvestris, and possibly other forests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyungwoo Lim
- Department of Forest Ecology & Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Ram Oren
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708, USA
- Hydrospheric-Atmospheric Research Center, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Sune Linder
- Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Fredrik From
- Department of Forest Ecology & Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Annika Nordin
- Department of Forest Ecology & Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Nils Fahlvik
- Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Tomas Lundmark
- Department of Forest Ecology & Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Torgny Näsholm
- Department of Forest Ecology & Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden
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17
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The Relationship between Sap Flow Density and Environmental Factors in the Yangtze River Delta Region of China. FORESTS 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/f8030074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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18
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Poyatos R, Granda V, Molowny-Horas R, Mencuccini M, Steppe K, Martínez-Vilalta J. SAPFLUXNET: towards a global database of sap flow measurements. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 36:1449-1455. [PMID: 27885171 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpw110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Plant transpiration is the main evaporative flux from terrestrial ecosystems; it controls land surface energy balance, determines catchment hydrological responses and influences regional and global climate. Transpiration regulation by plants is a key (and still not completely understood) process that underlies vegetation drought responses and land evaporative fluxes under global change scenarios. Thermometric methods of sap flow measurement have now been widely used to quantify whole-plant and stand transpiration in forests, shrublands and orchards around the world. A large body of research has applied sap flow methods to analyse seasonal and diurnal patterns of transpiration and to quantify their responses to hydroclimatic variability, but syntheses of sap flow data at regional to global scales are extremely rare. Here we present the SAPFLUXNET initiative, aimed at building the first global database of plant-level sap flow measurements. A preliminary metadata survey launched in December 2015 showed an encouraging response by the sap flow community, with sap flow data sets from field studies representing >160 species and >120 globally distributed sites. The main goal of SAPFLUXNET is to analyse the ecological factors driving plant- and stand-level transpiration. SAPFLUXNET will open promising research avenues at an unprecedented global scope, namely: (i) exploring the spatio-temporal variability of plant transpiration and its relationship with plant and stand attributes, (ii) summarizing physiological regulation of transpiration by means of few water-use traits, usable for land surface models, (iii) improving our understanding of the coordination between gas exchange and plant-level traits (e.g., hydraulics) and (iv) analysing the ecological factors controlling stand transpiration and evapotranspiration partitioning. Finally, SAPFLUXNET can provide a benchmark to test models of physiological controls of transpiration, contributing to improve the accuracy of individual water stress responses, a key element to obtain robust predictions of vegetation responses to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Poyatos
- CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain
- Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | | | | | - Maurizio Mencuccini
- ICREA at CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JN, UK
| | - Kathy Steppe
- Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Jordi Martínez-Vilalta
- CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain
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