Fullerene as a doxorubicin nanotransporter for targeted breast cancer therapy: Capillary electrophoresis analysis

Breaking barriers: Innovative approaches for skin delivery of RNA therapeutics

RNA therapeutics represent a rapidly expanding platform with game-changing prospects in personalized medicine. The disruptive potential of this technology will overhaul the standard of care with reference to both primary and specialty care. To date, RNA therapeutics have mostly been delivered parenterally via injection, but topical administration followed by intradermal or transdermal delivery represents an attractive method that is convenient to patients and minimally invasive. The skin barrier, particularly the lipid-rich stratum corneum, presents a significant hurdle to the uptake of large, charged oligonucleotide drugs. Therapeutic oligonucleotides need to be engineered for stability and specificity and formulated with state-of-the-art delivery strategies for efficient uptake. This review will cover various passive and active strategies deployed to enhance permeation through the stratum corneum and achieve effective delivery of RNA therapeutics to treat both local skin disorders and systemic diseases. Some strategies to achieve selectivity between local and systemic administration will also be discussed.

Advances in inorganic nanoparticles-based drug delivery in targeted breast cancer theranostics

Theranostic nanoparticles (NPs) have the potential to dramatically improve cancer management by providing personalized medicine. Inorganic NPs have attracted widespread interest from academic and industrial communities because of their unique physicochemical properties (including magnetic, thermal, and catalytic performance) and excellent functions with functional surface modifications or component dopants (e.g., imaging and controlled release of drugs). To date, only a restricted number of inorganic NPs are deciphered into clinical practice. This review highlights the recent advances of inorganic NPs in breast cancer therapy. We believe that this review can provides various approaches for investigating and developing inorganic NPs as promising compounds in the future prospects of applications in breast cancer treatment and material science.

Carbon-Based Nanostructures as Emerging Materials for Gene Delivery Applications

Gene therapeutics are promising for treating diseases at the genetic level, with some already validated for clinical use. Recently, nanostructures have emerged for the targeted delivery of genetic material. Nanomaterials, exhibiting advantageous properties such as a high surface-to-volume ratio, biocompatibility, facile functionalization, substantial loading capacity, and tunable physicochemical characteristics, are recognized as non-viral vectors in gene therapy applications. Despite progress, current non-viral vectors exhibit notably low gene delivery efficiency. Progress in nanotechnology is essential to overcome extracellular and intracellular barriers in gene delivery. Specific nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon quantum dots (CQDs), nanodiamonds (NDs), and similar carbon-based structures can accommodate diverse genetic materials such as plasmid DNA (pDNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), small interference RNA (siRNA), micro RNA (miRNA), and antisense oligonucleotides (AONs). To address challenges such as high toxicity and low transfection efficiency, advancements in the features of carbon-based nanostructures (CBNs) are imperative. This overview delves into three types of CBNs employed as vectors in drug/gene delivery systems, encompassing their synthesis methods, properties, and biomedical applications. Ultimately, we present insights into the opportunities and challenges within the captivating realm of gene delivery using CBNs.

Norcantharidin-Encapsulated C60-Modified Nanomicelles: A Potential Approach to Mitigate Cytotoxicity in Renal Cells and Simultaneously Enhance Anti-Tumor Activity in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine the preparation process of DSPE-PEG-C60/NCTD micelles and assess the impact of fullerenol (C60)-modified micelles on the nephrotoxicity and antitumor activity of NCTD.

METHOD

The micelles containing NCTD were prepared using the ultrasonic method and subsequently optimized and characterized. The cytotoxicity of micelles loaded with NCTD was assessed using the CCK-8 method on human hepatoma cell lines HepG2 and BEL-7402, as well as normal cell lines HK-2 and L02. Acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) double staining and flow cytometry were employed to assess the impact of NCTD-loaded micelles on the apoptosis of the HK-2 cells and the HepG2 cells. Additionally, JC-1 fluorescence was utilized to quantify the alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential. The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) following micelle treatment was determined through 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFDA) staining.

RESULTS

The particle size distribution of the DSPE-PEG-C60/NCTD micelles was determined to be 91.57 nm (PDI = 0.231). The zeta potential of the micelles was found to be -13.8 mV. The encapsulation efficiency was measured to be 91.9%. The in vitro release behavior of the micelles followed the Higuchi equation. Cellular experiments demonstrated a notable decrease in the toxicity of the C60-modified micelles against the HK-2 cells, accompanied by an augmented inhibitory effect on cancer cells. Compared to the free NCTD group, the DSPE-PEG-C60 micelles exhibited a decreased apoptosis rate (12%) for the HK-2 cell line, lower than the apoptosis rate observed in the NCTD group (36%) at an NCTD concentration of 75 μM. The rate of apoptosis in the HepG2 cells exhibited a significant increase (49%), surpassing the apoptosis rate observed in the NCTD group (24%) at a concentration of 150 μM NCTD. The HK-2 cells exhibited a reduction in intracellular ROS and an increase in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔψM) upon exposure to C60-modified micelles compared to the NCTD group.

CONCLUSIONS

The DSPE-PEG-C60/NCTD micelles, as prepared in this study, demonstrated the ability to decrease cytotoxicity and ROS levels in normal renal cells (HK-2) in vitro. Additionally, these micelles showed an enhanced antitumor activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2, BEL-7402).

Using surface plasmon resonance, capillary electrophoresis and diffusion-ordered NMR spectroscopy to study drug release kinetics

Nanomedicines, including polymer nanocarriers with controlled drug release, are considered next-generation therapeutics with advanced therapeutic properties and reduced side effects. To develop safe and efficient nanomedicines, it is crucial to precisely determine the drug release kinetics. Herein, we present application of analytical methods, i.e., surface plasmon resonance biosensor technology (SPR), capillary electrophoresis, and 1H diffusion-ordered nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, which were innovatively applied for drug release determination. The methods were optimised to quantify the pH-triggered release of three structurally different drugs from a polymer carrier. The suitability of these methods for drug release characterisation was evaluated and compared using several parameters including applicability for diverse samples, the biological relevance of the experimental setup, method complexity, and the analysis outcome. The SPR method was the most universal method for the evaluation of diverse drug molecule release allowing continuous observation in the flow-through setting and requiring a small amount of sample.

The first facile optical density-dependent approach for the analysis of doxorubicin, an oncogenic agent accompanied with the co-prescribed drug; paclitaxel

Doxorubicin (DRB) is an anthracycline oncogenic drug extracted from cultures of Streptomyces peucetius var. caesius. It is frequently recommended as an anti-neoplastic agent for the treatment of diverse malignancies. It exerts its antineoplastic effect either via inhibiting the enzyme topoisomerase II and/or via intercalation to DNA or reactive oxygen species generation. In the present article, the direct, simple, one-pot, somewhat eco-safe, and non-extractive spectrophotometric system was executed to track doxorubicin, a chemotherapeutic remedy, in the presence of paclitaxel, a naturally occurring Taxan antineoplastic radical, through the greenness rated method. DRB's optical density was studied in various mediums and solvents to develop the current approach. An acidic ethanolic solution was found to increase the optical density of the sample significantly. At 480 nm., the most remarkable optical density was obtained. Various experimental factors, including intrinsic media, solvent, pH, and stability time, were investigated and controlled. The current approach achieved linearity within the 0.6-40.0 µg mL-1 range, accompanied by a limit of both detection and quantification (LOD and LOQ) of 0.18 and 0.55 µg mL-1, correspondingly. The approach was validated under the ICH guidelines (Quality Guidelines). The system's greenness and enhancement degree were estimated.

The Impact of Fullerenes as Doxorubicin Nano-Transporters on Metallothionein and Superoxide Dismutase Status in MCF-10A Cells

This study aimed to synthesise C₆₀–DOX complexes followed by the analysis of their effect on the concentration of metallothionein (MT) as a non-enzymatic antioxidant and on the concentration and activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) as an antioxidant enzyme in healthy human mammary MCF-10A cells. Dynamic light scattering and electrophoretic light scattering were used to establish the size and zeta potential of the complexes. The MT and SOD concentrations were determined using the ELISA method; SOD activity was determined by tetrazolium salt reduction inhibition. Lower MT concentration following exposure of cells to both DOX and C₆₀ fullerene compared to the control sample was found. However, the concentration of this protein increased as a consequence of the C₆₀–DOX complexes action on MCF-10A cells compared to the control. C₆₀ used alone did not affect the concentration and activity of SOD in MCF-10A cells. Application of free DOX did not activate cellular antioxidant defence in the form of an increase in SOD concentration or its activity. In contrast treatment of cells with the C₆₀–DOX complex resulted in a decrease in SOD1 concentration and a significant increase in SOD activity compared to cells treated with free DOX, C₆₀ and control. Thus, it was found that C₆₀–DOX complexes showed potential for protective effects against DOX-induced toxicity to MCF-10A cells.

The Application of Nanoparticles in Diagnosis and Treatment of Kidney Diseases

Nanomedicine is currently showing great promise for new methods of diagnosing and treating many diseases, particularly in kidney disease and transplantation. The unique properties of nanoparticles arise from the diversity of size effects, used to design targeted nanoparticles for specific cells or tissues, taking renal clearance and tubular secretion mechanisms into account. The design of surface particles on nanoparticles offers a wide range of possibilities, among which antibodies play an important role. Nanoparticles find applications in encapsulated drug delivery systems containing immunosuppressants and other drugs, in imaging, gene therapies and many other branches of medicine. They have the potential to revolutionize kidney transplantation by reducing and preventing ischemia-reperfusion injury, more efficiently delivering drugs to the graft site while avoiding systemic effects, accurately localizing and visualising the diseased site and enabling continuous monitoring of graft function. So far, there are known nanoparticles with no toxic effects on human tissue, although further studies are still needed to confirm their safety.

Carbon nanomaterials as emerging nanotherapeutic platforms to tackle the rising tide of cancer - A review

Cancer has become one of the main reasons for human death in recent years. Around 18 million new cancer cases and approximately 9.6 million deaths from cancer reported in 2018, and the annual number of cancer cases will have increased to 22 million in the next two decades. These alarming facts have rekindled researchers' attention to develop and apply different approaches for cancer therapy. Unfortunately, most of the applied methods for cancer therapy not only have adverse side effects like toxicity and damage of healthy cells but also have a short lifetime. To this end, introducing innovative and effective methods for cancer therapy is vital and necessary. Among different potential materials, carbon nanomaterials can cope with the rising threats of cancer. Due to unique physicochemical properties of different carbon nanomaterials including carbon, fullerene, carbon dots, graphite, single-walled carbon nanotube and multi-walled carbon nanotubes, they exhibit possibilities to address the drawbacks for cancer therapy. Carbon nanomaterials are prodigious materials due to their ability in drug delivery or remedial of small molecules. Functionalization of carbon nanomaterials can improve the cancer therapy process and decrement the side effects. These exceptional traits make carbon nanomaterials as versatile and prevalent materials for application in cancer therapy. This article spotlights the recent findings in cancer therapy using carbon nanomaterials (2015-till now). Different types of carbon nanomaterials and their utilization in cancer therapy were highlighted. The plausible mechanisms for the action of carbon nanomaterials in cancer therapy were elucidated and the advantages and disadvantages of each material were also illustrated. Finally, the current problems and future challenges for cancer therapy based on carbon nanomaterials were discussed.

Sustained-Release and pH-Adjusted Alginate Microspheres-Encapsulated Doxorubicin Inhibit the Viabilities in Hepatocellular Carcinoma-Derived Cells

The objective of this study aimed to develop biodegradable calcium alginate microspheres carrying doxorubicin (Dox) at the micrometer-scale for sustained release and the capacity of pH regulatory for transarterial chemoembolization. Ultrasonic atomization and CaCl₂ cross-linking technologies were used to prepare the microspheres. A 4-by-5 experiment was first designed to identify imperative parameters. The concentration of CaCl₂ and the flow rate of the pump were found to be critical to generate microspheres with a constant volume median diameter (~39 μm) across five groups with different alginate: NaHCO₃ ratios using each corresponding flow rate. In each group, the encapsulation efficiency was positively correlated to the Dox-loading %. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy showed that NaHCO₃ and Dox were step-by-step incorporated into the calcium alginate microspheres successfully. Microspheres containing alginate: NaHCO₃ = 1 exhibited rough and porous surfaces, high Young’s modulus, and hardness. In each group with the same alginate: NaHCO₃ ratio, the swelling rates of microspheres were higher in PBS containing 10% FBS compared to those in PBS alone. Microspheres with relatively high NaHCO₃ concentrations in PBS containing 10% FBS maintained better physiological pH and higher accumulated Dox release ratios. In two distinct hepatocellular carcinoma-derived cell lines, treatments with microspheres carrying Dox demonstrated that the cell viabilities decreased in groups with relatively high NaHCO₃ ratios in time- and dose-dependent manners. Our results suggested that biodegradable alginate microspheres containing relatively high NaHCO₃ concentrations improved the cytotoxicity effects in vitro.

A review on analytical methods with special reference to electroanalytical methods for the determination of some anticancer drugs in pharmaceutical and biological samples

It is widely accepted that cancer, the second leading cause of death, is a morbidity with big impacts on the global health. In the last few years, chemo-therapeutic treatment continually induces alone most lengthy consequents, which is extremely harmful for the physiological and psychological health of the patients. In the present research, we discuss the recent techniques for employed for extraction, and quantitative determination of such compounds in pharmaceutical, and biological specimens. In the frame of this information, this review aims to provide basic principles of chromatography, spectroscopy, and electroanalytical methods for the analysis of anticancer drugs published in the last three years. The review also describes the recent developments regarding enhancing the limit of detection (LOD), the linear dynamic range, and so forth. The results show that the LOD for the chromatographic techniques with the UV detector was obtained equaled over the range 2.0 ng mL^-1-0.2 μg mL^-1, whereas the LOD values for analysis by chromatographic technique with the mass spectrometry (MS) detector was found between 10.0 pg mL^-1-0.002 μg mL^-1. The biological fluids could be directly injected to capillary electrophoresis (CE) in cases where the medicine concentration is at the contents greater than mg L^-1 or g L^-1. Additionally, electrochemical detection of the anticancer drugs has been mainly conducted by the voltammetry techniques with diverse modified electrodes, and lower LODs were estimated between 3.0 ng mL^-1-0.3 μg mL^-1. It is safe to say that the analyses of anticancer drugs can be achieved by employing a plethora of techniques such as electroanalytical, spectroscopy, and chromatography techniques.

Synthesis, Characterization, Cellular Uptake, and In Vitro Anticancer Activity of Fullerenol-Doxorubicin Conjugates

Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most commonly used chemotherapeutic agents for treating human cancer. However, its clinical use has been limited by DOX-induced cardiotoxicity as well as other side effects. In the present study, we designed and synthesized the fullerenol (FU)-DOX conjugates and folic acid (FA)-grafted FU-DOX conjugates for improving the selectivity and activity of DOX in cancer cells. We further characterized the physicochemical properties and examined the release kinetics, cellular uptake, and in vitro anticancer activities of FU-DOX and FA-FU-DOX. The results showed that FU-DOX and FA-FU-DOX had a mean diameter of <200 nm and a low polydispersity. Both FU-DOX and FA-FU-DOX exhibited pH sensitivity and their DOX release rates were higher at pH 5.9 vs. pH 7.4. The cellular uptake studies indicated that FU conjugation enhanced the intracellular accumulation of DOX in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines (BEL-7402 and HepG2) and the immortalized normal human hepatocytes (L02). The conjugation of FA to FU-DOX further promoted the drug internalization in an FR-dependent manner and enhanced the cytotoxicity against HCC cells. In conclusion, the newly prepared FA-FU-DOX conjugates can optimize the safety and efficacy profile of DOX.

Sensitive analysis of doxorubicin and curcumin by micellar electromagnetic chromatography with a double wavelength excitation source

Doxorubicin has been extensively used to treat cancers, and there are recent findings that the anticancer activities can be enhanced by curcumin. Although the two compounds have native fluorescence, they can hardly be quantified directly simultaneously using the laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection method. To avoid complex fluorescence derivatization and introduction of interfering components, a highly sensitive double wavelength excitation source LIF (D-W-Ex-LIF) detector composed of a 445-nm and 488-nm commercial laser diode was constructed to detect them simultaneously. Rhodamine 6G was selected as an internal standard, because its fluorescence can be excited at 445 nm and 488 nm. The native fluorescence of doxorubicin and curcumin and their resolution were enhanced by introducing mixed micelles. The optimal electrophoretic separation buffer was 10 mM borate buffer containing 20 mM Triton X-100, 5 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate, and 30% (v/v) methanol at pH 9.00. Therefore, the developed method was specific, accurate, and easily operable. Its limits of detection for doxorubicin and curcumin in human urine samples were 4.00 × 10^-3 and 1.00 × 10^-2 μg/mL, respectively, and the limits of quantification were 1.00 × 10^-2 and 3.00 × 10^-2 μg/mL, respectively. The recoveries were 94.9-109.1%. Graphical abstract.

Glutathione, an Antioxidant Tripeptide: Dual Roles in Carcinogenesis and Chemoprevention

Glutathione (GSH or reduced glutathione) is a tripeptide of gamma-Glutamyl-cysteinylglycine and the predominant intracellular antioxidant in many organisms including humans. GSH and associated enzymes are controlled by a transcription factor-nuclear factor-2 related erythroid factor-2 (Nrf2). In cellular milieu, GSH protects the cells essentially against a wide variety of free radicals including reactive oxygen species, lipid hydroperoxides, xenobiotic toxicants, and heavy metals. It has two forms, the reduced form or reduced glutathione (GSH) and oxidized form (GSSG), where two GSH moieties combine by sulfhydryl bonds. Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione-s-transferase (GST) essentially perform the detoxification reactions using GSH, converting it into GSSG. Glutathione reductase (GR) operates the salvage pathway by converting GSSG to GSH with the expense of NADPH and restores the cellular GSH pool. Hence, GSH and GSH-dependent enzymes are necessary for maintaining the normal redox balance in the body and help in cell survival under stress conditions. In addition, GST removes various carcinogenic compounds offering a chemopreventive property, whereas the GSH system plays a significant role in regulating the cellular survival by offering redox stability in a variety of cancers including prostate, lung, breast, and colon cancer. Studies have also indicated that GSH inhibitors, such as buthionine sulfoximine, improve the chemo-sensitivity in cancer cells. In addition, GSH and dependent enzymes provide a survival advantage for cancer cells against chemotherapeutic drugs and radiotherapy.

Cytotoxicity of doxorubicin conjugated with C60 fullerene. Structural and in vitro studies

Conjugating an anticancer drug of high biological efficacy but large cytotoxicity with a “transporting” molecule of low toxicity constitutes a valuable approach to design safe drug delivery system. In the present study, doxorubicin (DOX) a drug of large cardiotoxicity was chemically conjugated to a C60-fullerene. The synthesized molecule, a fullerene-doxorubicin conjugate (Ful-DOX), was characterized using the 1H NMR and MALDI TOF mass spectrometry. The absorption and fluorescence spectra and dynamic light scattering of the conjugate were recorded in an aqueous solution, while the impact on viability of several cancer cell lines of the free DOX and the conjugate was compared using the SRB and WST-1 assays. A low antiproliferative activity of the conjugate as compared to the free DOX is a consequence of the presence of fullerene moiety in the former, which is also responsible for the conjugate aggregation in an aqueous solution. Unlike free DOX, these aggregates cannot pass through the nuclear membrane (as demonstrated by the confocal microscopy measurements), which makes them marginally cytotoxic.

Fullerene-based delivery systems

With the development of new drugs, there have been many attempts to explore innovative delivery routes. Targeted delivery systems are a desired solution designed to overcome the deficiency of routine methods. To transform this idea into reality, a wide range of nanoparticles has been proposed and studied. These nanoparticles should interact well with biological environments and pass through cell membranes to deliver therapeutic molecules. One of the pioneer classes of carbon-based nanoparticles for targeted delivery is the fullerenes. Fullerenes have a unique structure and possess suitable properties for interaction with the cellular environment. This short review concentrates on newly developed fullerene derivatives and their potential as advanced delivery systems for pharmaceutical applications.

Metallothionein and Superoxide Dismutase-Antioxidative Protein Status in Fullerene-Doxorubicin Delivery to MCF-7 Human Breast Cancer Cells

Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most frequently used anticancer drugs in breast cancer treatment. However, clinical applications of DOX are restricted, largely due to the fact that its action disturbs the pro/antioxidant balance in both cancerous and non-cancerous cells. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of fullerene (C₆₀) in cell treatment by DOX on the proliferation of human breast cancer cells (MCF-7), concentration of metallothionein (MT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and SOD activity in these cells. The use of C₆₀ in complexes with DOX causes a change in the level of cell proliferation of about 5% more than when caused by DOX alone (from 60–65% to 70%). The use of C₆₀ as a DOX nanotransporter reduced the MT level increase induced by DOX. C₆₀ alone caused an increase of SOD1 concentration. On the other hand, it led to a decrease of SOD activity. C₆₀ in complex with DOX caused a decrease of the DOX-induced SOD activity level. Exposure of MCF-7 cells to DOX-C₆₀ complexes results in a decrease in viable cells and may become a new therapeutic approach to breast cancer. The effects of C₆₀ in complexes with DOX on MCF-7 cells included a decreased enzymatic (SOD activity) and nonenzymatic (MT) antioxidant status, thus indicating their prooxidant role in MCF-7 cells.