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Xu F, Jin H, Liu L, Yang Y, Cen J, Wu Y, Chen S, Sun D. Architecture design and advanced manufacturing of heart-on-a-chip: scaffolds, stimulation and sensors. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2024; 10:96. [PMID: 39006908 PMCID: PMC11239895 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-024-00692-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Heart-on-a-chip (HoC) has emerged as a highly efficient, cost-effective device for the development of engineered cardiac tissue, facilitating high-throughput testing in drug development and clinical treatment. HoC is primarily used to create a biomimetic microphysiological environment conducive to fostering the maturation of cardiac tissue and to gather information regarding the real-time condition of cardiac tissue. The development of architectural design and advanced manufacturing for these "3S" components, scaffolds, stimulation, and sensors is essential for improving the maturity of cardiac tissue cultivated on-chip, as well as the precision and accuracy of tissue states. In this review, the typical structures and manufacturing technologies of the "3S" components are summarized. The design and manufacturing suggestions for each component are proposed. Furthermore, key challenges and future perspectives of HoC platforms with integrated "3S" components are discussed. Architecture design concepts of scaffolds, stimulation and sensors in chips.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Xu
- Pen-Tung Sah Institute of Micro-Nano Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Hang Jin
- Pen-Tung Sah Institute of Micro-Nano Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Lingling Liu
- Pen-Tung Sah Institute of Micro-Nano Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Yuanyuan Yang
- Pen-Tung Sah Institute of Micro-Nano Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Jianzheng Cen
- Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangzhou, 510080 China
| | - Yaobin Wu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515 China
| | - Songyue Chen
- Pen-Tung Sah Institute of Micro-Nano Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Daoheng Sun
- Pen-Tung Sah Institute of Micro-Nano Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
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Sunami H, Shimizu Y, Kishimoto H. Shape of scaffold controlling the direction of cell migration. Biophys Physicobiol 2023; 21:e210004. [PMID: 38803333 PMCID: PMC11128307 DOI: 10.2142/biophysico.bppb-v21.0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Cell migration plays an important role in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Factors that induce cell migration and mechanisms controlling their expression are important for determining the mechanisms of factor-induced cell migration. Despite progress in the study of factor-induced cytotaxis, including chemotaxis and haptotaxis, precise control of the direction of cell migration over a wide area has not yet been achieved. Success in this area would update the cell migration assays, superior cell separation technologies, and artificial organs with high biocompatibility. The present study therefore sought to control the direction of cell migration over a wide area by adjusting the three-dimensional shape of the cell scaffold. The direction of cell migration was influenced by the shape of the cell scaffold, thereby optimizing cell adhesion and protrusion. Anisotropic arrangement of these three-dimensional shapes into a periodic structure induced unidirectional cell migration. Three factors were required for unidirectional cell migration: 1) the sizes of the anisotropic periodic structures had to be equal to or lower than the size of the spreading cells, 2) cell migration was restricted to a runway approximately the width of the cell, and 3) cells had to be prone to extension of long protrusions in one direction. Because the first two factors had been identified previously in studies of cell migration in one direction using two-dimensional shaped patterns, these three factors are likely important for the mechanism by which cell scaffold shapes regulate cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Sunami
- Faculty of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan
| | - Yusuke Shimizu
- Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan
| | - Hidehiro Kishimoto
- Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan
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Kafili G, Kabir H, Jalali Kandeloos A, Golafshan E, Ghasemi S, Mashayekhan S, Taebnia N. Recent advances in soluble decellularized extracellular matrix for heart tissue engineering and organ modeling. J Biomater Appl 2023; 38:577-604. [PMID: 38006224 PMCID: PMC10676626 DOI: 10.1177/08853282231207216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2023]
Abstract
Despite the advent of tissue engineering (TE) for the remodeling, restoring, and replacing damaged cardiovascular tissues, the progress is hindered by the optimal mechanical and chemical properties required to induce cardiac tissue-specific cellular behaviors including migration, adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. Cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM) consists of numerous structural and functional molecules and tissue-specific cells, therefore it plays an important role in stimulating cell proliferation and differentiation, guiding cell migration, and activating regulatory signaling pathways. With the improvement and modification of cell removal methods, decellularized ECM (dECM) preserves biochemical complexity, and bio-inductive properties of the native matrix and improves the process of generating functional tissue. In this review, we first provide an overview of the latest advancements in the utilization of dECM in in vitro model systems for disease and tissue modeling, as well as drug screening. Then, we explore the role of dECM-based biomaterials in cardiovascular regenerative medicine (RM), including both invasive and non-invasive methods. In the next step, we elucidate the engineering and material considerations in the preparation of dECM-based biomaterials, namely various decellularization techniques, dECM sources, modulation, characterizations, and fabrication approaches. Finally, we discuss the limitations and future directions in fabrication of dECM-based biomaterials for cardiovascular modeling, RM, and clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Golara Kafili
- Institute for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hannaneh Kabir
- Molecular Cell Biomechanics Laboratory, Departments of Bioengineering and Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Elham Golafshan
- Institute for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sara Ghasemi
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shohreh Mashayekhan
- Institute for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nayere Taebnia
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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English EJ, Samolyk BL, Gaudette GR, Pins GD. Micropatterned fibrin scaffolds increase cardiomyocyte alignment and contractility for the fabrication of engineered myocardial tissue. J Biomed Mater Res A 2023; 111:1309-1321. [PMID: 36932841 PMCID: PMC11128133 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.37530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United States, which can result in blockage of a coronary artery, triggering a myocardial infarction (MI), scar tissue formation in the myocardium, and ultimately heart failure. Currently, the gold-standard solution for total heart failure is a heart transplantation. An alternative to total-organ transplantation is surgically remodeling the ventricle with the implantation of a cardiac patch. Acellular cardiac patches have previously been investigated using synthetic or decellularized native materials to improve cardiac function. However, a limitation of this strategy is that acellular cardiac patches only reshape the ventricle and do not increase cardiac contractile function. Toward the development of a cardiac patch, our laboratory previously developed a cell-populated composite fibrin scaffold and aligned microthreads to recapitulate the mechanical properties of native myocardium. In this study, we explore micropatterning the surfaces of fibrin gels to mimic anisotropic native tissue architecture and promote cellular alignment of human induced pluripotent stem cell cardiomyocytes (hiPS-CM), which is crucial for increasing scaffold contractile properties. hiPS-CMs seeded on micropatterned surfaces exhibit cellular elongation, distinct sarcomere alignment, and circumferential connexin-43 staining at 14 days of culture, which are necessary for mature contractile properties. Constructs were also subject to electrical stimulation during culture to promote increased contractile properties. After 7 days of stimulation, contractile strains of micropatterned constructs were significantly higher than unpatterned controls. These results suggest that the use of micropatterned topographic cues on fibrin scaffolds may be a promising strategy for creating engineered cardiac tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth J. English
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
- Tessera Therapeutics, Somerville, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Bryanna L. Samolyk
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Glenn R. Gaudette
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Engineering, Boston College, Newton, Massachusetts, USA
| | - George D. Pins
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
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Liu L, Xu F, Jin H, Qiu B, Yang J, Zhang W, Gao Q, Lin B, Chen S, Sun D. Integrated Manufacturing of Suspended and Aligned Nanofibrous Scaffold for Structural Maturation and Synchronous Contraction of HiPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes. Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:702. [PMID: 37370633 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10060702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrospun nanofiber constructs represent a promising alternative for mimicking the natural extracellular matrix in vitro and have significant potential for cardiac patch applications. While the effect of fiber orientation on the morphological structure of cardiomyocytes has been investigated, fibers only provide contact guidance without accounting for substrate stiffness due to their deposition on rigid substrates (e.g., glass or polystyrene). This paper introduces an in situ fabrication method for suspended and well aligned nanofibrous scaffolds via roller electrospinning, providing an anisotropic microenvironment with reduced stiffness for cardiac tissue engineering. A fiber surface modification strategy, utilizing oxygen plasma treatment combined with sodium dodecyl sulfate solution, was proposed to maintain the hydrophilicity of polycaprolactone (PCL) fibers, promoting cellular adhesion. Human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived cardiomyocytes (CMs), cultured on aligned fibers, exhibited an elongated morphology with extension along the fiber axis. In comparison to Petri dishes and suspended random fiber scaffolds, hiPSC-CMs on suspended aligned fiber scaffolds demonstrated enhanced sarcomere organization, spontaneous synchronous contraction, and gene expression indicative of maturation. This work demonstrates the suspended and aligned nano-fibrous scaffold provides a more realistic biomimetic environment for hiPSC-CMs, which promoted further research on the inducing effect of fiber scaffolds on hiPSC-CMs microstructure and gene-level expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingling Liu
- Sabondong Micron Nano Science and Technology Research Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Feng Xu
- Sabondong Micron Nano Science and Technology Research Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Hang Jin
- Sabondong Micron Nano Science and Technology Research Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Bin Qiu
- Sabondong Micron Nano Science and Technology Research Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Jianhui Yang
- Sabondong Micron Nano Science and Technology Research Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Wangzihan Zhang
- Sabondong Micron Nano Science and Technology Research Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Qiang Gao
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangzhou 510080, China
- Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Bin Lin
- Guangdong Beating Origin Regenerative Medicine Co., Ltd., Foshan 528231, China
| | - Songyue Chen
- Sabondong Micron Nano Science and Technology Research Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Daoheng Sun
- Sabondong Micron Nano Science and Technology Research Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
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Jimenez-Vazquez EN, Jain A, Jones DK. Enhancing iPSC-CM Maturation Using a Matrigel-Coated Micropatterned PDMS Substrate. Curr Protoc 2022; 2:e601. [PMID: 36383047 PMCID: PMC9710304 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cardiac myocytes isolated from adult heart tissue have a rod-like shape with highly organized intracellular structures. Cardiomyocytes derived from human pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-CMs), on the other hand, exhibit disorganized structure and contractile mechanics, reflecting their pronounced immaturity. These characteristics hamper research using iPSC-CMs. The protocol described here enhances iPSC-CM maturity and function by controlling the cellular shape and environment of the cultured cells. Microstructured silicone membranes function as a cell culture substrate that promotes cellular alignment. iPSC-CMs cultured on micropatterned membranes display an in-vivo-like rod-shaped morphology. This physiological cellular morphology along with the soft biocompatible silicone substrate, which has similar stiffness to the native cardiac matrix, promotes maturation of contractile function, calcium handling, and electrophysiology. Incorporating this technique for enhanced iPSC-CM maturation will help bridge the gap between animal models and clinical care, and ultimately improve personalized medicine for cardiovascular diseases. © 2022 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Cardiomyocyte differentiation of iPSCs Basic Protocol 2: Purification of differentiated iPSC-CMs using MACS negative selection Basic Protocol 3: Micropatterning on PDMS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Abhilasha Jain
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School
| | - David K. Jones
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School
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Dittloff KT, Spanghero E, Solís C, Banach K, Russell B. Transthyretin deposition alters cardiomyocyte sarcomeric architecture, calcium transients, and contractile force. Physiol Rep 2022; 10:e15207. [PMID: 35262277 PMCID: PMC8906053 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Age-related wild-type transthyretin amyloidosis (wtATTR) is characterized by systemic deposition of amyloidogenic fibrils of misfolded transthyretin (TTR) in the connective tissue of many organs. In the heart, this leads to age-related heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). The hypothesis tested is that TTR deposited in vitro disrupts cardiac myocyte cell-to-cell and cell-to-matrix adhesion complexes, resulting in altered calcium handling, force generation, and sarcomeric disorganization. Human iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes and neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVMs), when grown on TTR-coated polymeric substrata mimicking the stiffness of the healthy human myocardium (10 kPa), had decreased contraction and relaxation velocities as well as decreased force production measured using traction force microscopy. Both NRVMs and adult mouse atrial cardiomyocytes had altered calcium kinetics with prolonged transients when cultured on TTR fibril-coated substrates. Furthermore, NRVMs grown on stiff (~GPa), flat or microgrooved substrates coated with TTR fibrils exhibited significantly decreased intercellular electrical coupling as shown by FRAP dynamics of cells loaded with the gap junction-permeable dye calcein-AM, along with decreased gap junction content as determined by quantitative connexin 43 staining. Significant sarcomeric disorganization and loss of sarcomere content, with increased ubiquitin localization to the sarcomere, were seen in NRVMs on various TTR fibril-coated substrata. TTR presence decreased intercellular mechanical junctions as evidenced by quantitative immunofluorescence staining of N-cadherin and vinculin. Current therapies for wtATTR are cost-prohibitive and only slow the disease progression; therefore, better understanding of cardiomyocyte maladaptation induced by TTR amyloid may identify novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle T. Dittloff
- Department of Physiology and BiophysicsUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Emanuele Spanghero
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Christopher Solís
- Department of Physiology and BiophysicsUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Kathrin Banach
- Department of Internal Medicine/CardiologyRush University Medical CenterChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Brenda Russell
- Department of Physiology and BiophysicsUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinoisUSA
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Wei A, Wang Z, Rancu AL, Yang Z, Tan S, Borg TK, Gao BZ. In Vivo-Like Morphology of Intercalated Discs Achieved in a Neonatal Cardiomyocyte Culture Model. Tissue Eng Part A 2020; 26:1209-1221. [PMID: 32515285 PMCID: PMC7699015 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2020.0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro cultures to be used in various analytical investigations of cardiomyocyte (CM) growth and function for enhancing insight into physiological and pathological mechanisms should closely express in vivo morphology. The aim of the studies is to explore how to use microfabrication and physical-cue-addition techniques to establish a neonatal rat CM culture model that expresses an end-to-end connected rod shape with in vivo-like intercalated discs (ICDs). Freshly isolated neonatal rat CMs were cultured on microgrooved polydimethylsiloxane substrate. Cell alignment and ICD orientation were evaluated using confocal fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy under various combinations of different culture conditions. Cyclic stretch and blebbistatin tests were conducted to explore mechanical and electrical effects. Laboratory-made MATLAB software was developed to quantify cell alignment and ICD orientation. Our results demonstrate that the mechanical effect associated with the electrical stimulation may contribute to step-like ICD formation viewed from the top. In addition, our study reveals that a suspended elastic substrate that was slack with scattered folds, not taut, enabled CM contraction of equal strength on both apical and basal cell surfaces, allowing the cultured CMs to express a three-dimensional rod shape with disc-like ICDs viewed cross-sectionally. Impact statement In this article, we describe how the tugging forces generated by cardiomyocytes (CMs) facilitate the formation of the morphology of the intercalated discs (ICDs) to achieve mechanoelectrical coupling between CMs. Correspondingly, we report experimental techniques we developed to enable the in vivo-like behavior of the tugging forces to support the development of in vivo-like morphology in ICDs. These techniques will enhance insight into physiological and pathological mechanisms related to the development of tissue-engineered cardiac constructs in various analytical investigations of CM growth and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ailin Wei
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Zhonghai Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | | | - Zongming Yang
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Shenghao Tan
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Thomas Keith Borg
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Bruce Zhi Gao
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
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Alassaf A, Tansik G, Mayo V, Wubker L, Carbonero D, Agarwal A. Engineering anisotropic cardiac monolayers on microelectrode arrays for non-invasive analyses of electrophysiological properties. Analyst 2020; 145:139-149. [DOI: 10.1039/c9an01339c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Engineering cardiac tissues with physiological architectural and mechanical properties on microelectrode arrays enables long term culture and non-invasive collection of electrophysiological readouts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Alassaf
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- University of Miami
- Coral Gables
- USA
- Department of Medical Equipment Technology
| | - Gulistan Tansik
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- University of Miami
- Coral Gables
- USA
| | - Vera Mayo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- University of Miami
- Coral Gables
- USA
| | - Laura Wubker
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- University of Miami
- Coral Gables
- USA
| | - Daniel Carbonero
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- University of Miami
- Coral Gables
- USA
| | - Ashutosh Agarwal
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- University of Miami
- Coral Gables
- USA
- Dr. John T Macdonald Foundation Biomedical Nanotechnology Institute at the University of Miami
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10
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Appiah C, Arndt C, Siemsen K, Heitmann A, Staubitz A, Selhuber-Unkel C. Living Materials Herald a New Era in Soft Robotics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1807747. [PMID: 31267628 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201807747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Living beings have an unsurpassed range of ways to manipulate objects and interact with them. They can make autonomous decisions and can heal themselves. So far, a conventional robot cannot mimic this complexity even remotely. Classical robots are often used to help with lifting and gripping and thus to alleviate the effects of menial tasks. Sensors can render robots responsive, and artificial intelligence aims at enabling autonomous responses. Inanimate soft robots are a step in this direction, but it will only be in combination with living systems that full complexity will be achievable. The field of biohybrid soft robotics provides entirely new concepts to address current challenges, for example the ability to self-heal, enable a soft touch, or to show situational versatility. Therefore, "living materials" are at the heart of this review. Similarly to biological taxonomy, there is a recent effort for taxonomy of biohybrid soft robotics. Here, an expansion is proposed to take into account not only function and origin of biohybrid soft robotic components, but also the materials. This materials taxonomy key demonstrates visually that materials science will drive the development of the field of soft biohybrid robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clement Appiah
- Institute for Organic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Bremen, Leobener Str. 7, D-28359, Bremen, Germany
- MAPEX Center for Materials and Processes, University of Bremen, Bibliothekstraße 1, D-28359, Bremen, Germany
| | - Christine Arndt
- Institute for Materials Science, University of Kiel, Kaiserstr. 2, D-24143, Kiel, Germany
| | - Katharina Siemsen
- Institute for Materials Science, University of Kiel, Kaiserstr. 2, D-24143, Kiel, Germany
| | - Anne Heitmann
- Institute for Organic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Bremen, Leobener Str. 7, D-28359, Bremen, Germany
- MAPEX Center for Materials and Processes, University of Bremen, Bibliothekstraße 1, D-28359, Bremen, Germany
| | - Anne Staubitz
- Institute for Organic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Bremen, Leobener Str. 7, D-28359, Bremen, Germany
- MAPEX Center for Materials and Processes, University of Bremen, Bibliothekstraße 1, D-28359, Bremen, Germany
- Otto-Diels-Institute for Organic Chemistry, University of Kiel, Otto-Hahn-Platz 4, D-24118, Kiel, Germany
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11
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Le LV, Mkrtschjan MA, Russell B, Desai TA. Hang on tight: reprogramming the cell with microstructural cues. Biomed Microdevices 2019; 21:43. [PMID: 30955102 PMCID: PMC6791714 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-019-0394-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cells interact intimately with complex microdomains in their extracellular matrix (ECM) and maintain a delicate balance of mechanical forces through mechanosensitive cellular components. Tissue injury results in acute degradation of the ECM and disruption of cell-ECM contacts, manifesting in loss of cytoskeletal tension, leading to pathological cell transformation and the onset of disease. Recently, microscale hydrogel constructs have been developed to provide cells with microdomains to form focal adhesion binding sites, which enable restoration of cytoskeletal tension. These synthetic anchors can recapitulate the complex 3D architecture of the native ECM to provide microtopographical cues. The mechanical deformation of proteins at the cell surface can activate signaling cascades to modulate downstream gene-level transcription, making this a unique materials-based approach for reprogramming cell behavior. An overview of the mechanisms underlying these mechanosensitive interactions in fibroblasts, stem and other cell types is provided to review their effects on cellular reprogramming. Recent investigations on the fabrication, functionalization and implementation of these materials and microtopographical features for drug testing and therapeutic applications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long V Le
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, 1700 4th St Rm 204, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Michael A Mkrtschjan
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois, Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Brenda Russell
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois, Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Tejal A Desai
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, 1700 4th St Rm 204, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA.
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12
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Devarasetty M, Mazzocchi AR, Skardal A. Applications of Bioengineered 3D Tissue and Tumor Organoids in Drug Development and Precision Medicine: Current and Future. BioDrugs 2018; 32:53-68. [PMID: 29383499 DOI: 10.1007/s40259-017-0258-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, advances in biomedical and tissue engineering technologies, such as cell culture techniques, biomaterials, and biofabrication, have driven increasingly widespread use of three-dimensional (3D) cell culture platforms and, subsequently, the use of organoids in a variety of research endeavors. Given the 3D nature of these organoid systems, and the frequent inclusion of extracellular matrix components, these constructs typically have more physiologically accurate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions than traditional 2D cell cultures. As a result, 3D organoids can serve as better model systems than their 2D counterparts. Moreover, as organoids can be biofabricated from highly functional human cells, they have certain advantages over animal models, being human in nature and more easily manipulated in the laboratory. In this review, we describe such organoid technologies and their deployment in drug development and precision medicine efforts. Organoid technologies are rapidly being developed for these applications and now represent a wide variety of tissue types and diseases. Evidence is emerging that organoids are poised for widespread adoption, not only in academia but also in the pharmaceutical industry and in clinical diagnostic applications, positioning them as indispensable tools in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Devarasetty
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC, 27101, USA
| | - Andrea R Mazzocchi
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC, 27101, USA.,Virginia Tech - Wake Forest School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - Aleksander Skardal
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC, 27101, USA. .,Virginia Tech - Wake Forest School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA. .,Comprehensive Cancer Center at Wake Forest Baptist Medical, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA. .,Department of Cancer Biology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA.
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13
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Zhang Z, Xie Y, Pan H, Huang L, Zheng X. Influence of patterned titanium coatings on polarization of macrophage and osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stem cells. J Biomater Appl 2017; 32:977-986. [PMID: 29237352 DOI: 10.1177/0885328217746802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Biomaterial surface topography plays a vital role in the osteointegration of implants by regulating the early cell responses and tissue growth-in. However, most of the previous researches focused on the effects of osteogenic cells, only a little is known about the immune cells which dominate osteogenesis after implanting. In this paper, patterned titanium coatings were fabricated and the effects of surface topography on the macrophage behaviors were investigated. On patterned titanium surface, macrophages preferred to polarize to M2, while macrophages on traditional titanium coatings presented higher M1 polarization. Nearly 70% higher expression of anti-inflammatory genes, including interleukin-4, interleukin-10, interleukin-1ra, and arginase, were detected on the patterned titanium coatings. While the pro-inflammatory genes, such as interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and inducible nitric oxide synthase were notably depressed. Up-regulation of the osteoinductive cytokines were also detected on the patterned coatings, which indicated advantageous osteogenic microenvironment provided by macrophages. Immunomodulation effect on osteogenesis was also investigated in this study. Stimulated with RAW cells/patterned coatings conditioned medium, bone marrow stem cells presented nearly 1.5 fold higher expression of osteogenic genes and more mineralization nodules than the traditional sprayed Ti coatings. All these results suggested that modulating materials with a patterned surface might be a valuable strategy to endow the implants with favorable osteoimmunomodulatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zequan Zhang
- 1 Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, PR China.,2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19 Yuquan Road, Beijing, PR China
| | - Youtao Xie
- 1 Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Houhua Pan
- 1 Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Liping Huang
- 1 Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Xuebin Zheng
- 1 Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, PR China
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14
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Santoro F, van de Burgt Y, Keene ST, Cui B, Salleo A. Enhanced Cell-Chip Coupling by Rapid Femtosecond Laser Patterning of Soft PEDOT:PSS Biointerfaces. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:39116-39121. [PMID: 29083144 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b12308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Interfacing soft materials with biological systems holds considerable promise for both biosensors and recording live cells. However, the interface between cells and organic substrates is not well studied, despite its crucial role in the effectiveness of the device. Furthermore, well-known cell adhesion enhancers, such as microgrooves, have not been implemented on these surfaces. Here, we present a nanoscale characterization of the cell-substrate interface for 3D laser-patterned organic electrodes by combining electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electron microscopy/focused ion beam (SEM/FIB). We demonstrate that introducing 3D micropatterned grooves on organic surfaces enhances the cell adhesion of electrogenic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Santoro
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia , Naples 80125, Italy
| | - Yoeri van de Burgt
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology , Eindhoven 5612 AZ, The Netherlands
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15
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Caddeo S, Boffito M, Sartori S. Tissue Engineering Approaches in the Design of Healthy and Pathological In Vitro Tissue Models. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2017; 5:40. [PMID: 28798911 PMCID: PMC5526851 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2017.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the tissue engineering (TE) paradigm, engineering and life sciences tools are combined to develop bioartificial substitutes for organs and tissues, which can in turn be applied in regenerative medicine, pharmaceutical, diagnostic, and basic research to elucidate fundamental aspects of cell functions in vivo or to identify mechanisms involved in aging processes and disease onset and progression. The complex three-dimensional (3D) microenvironment in which cells are organized in vivo allows the interaction between different cell types and between cells and the extracellular matrix, the composition of which varies as a function of the tissue, the degree of maturation, and health conditions. In this context, 3D in vitro models can more realistically reproduce a tissue or organ than two-dimensional (2D) models. Moreover, they can overcome the limitations of animal models and reduce the need for in vivo tests, according to the "3Rs" guiding principles for a more ethical research. The design of 3D engineered tissue models is currently in its development stage, showing high potential in overcoming the limitations of already available models. However, many issues are still opened, concerning the identification of the optimal scaffold-forming materials, cell source and biofabrication technology, and the best cell culture conditions (biochemical and physical cues) to finely replicate the native tissue and the surrounding environment. In the near future, 3D tissue-engineered models are expected to become useful tools in the preliminary testing and screening of drugs and therapies and in the investigation of the molecular mechanisms underpinning disease onset and progression. In this review, the application of TE principles to the design of in vitro 3D models will be surveyed, with a focus on the strengths and weaknesses of this emerging approach. In addition, a brief overview on the development of in vitro models of healthy and pathological bone, heart, pancreas, and liver will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Caddeo
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
- Department of Oral Cell Biology, Academic Center for Dentistry Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Monica Boffito
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Susanna Sartori
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
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16
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Kofron CM, Mende U. In vitro models of the cardiac microenvironment to study myocyte and non-myocyte crosstalk: bioinspired approaches beyond the polystyrene dish. J Physiol 2017; 595:3891-3905. [PMID: 28116799 DOI: 10.1113/jp273100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The heart is a complex pluricellular organ composed of cardiomyocytes and non-myocytes including fibroblasts, endothelial cells and immune cells. Myocytes are responsible for electrical conduction and contractile force generation, while the other cell types are responsible for matrix deposition, vascularization, and injury response. Myocytes and non-myocytes are known to communicate and exert mutual regulatory effects. In concert, they determine the structural, electrical and mechanical characteristics in the healthy and remodelled myocardium. Dynamic crosstalk between myocytes and non-myocytes plays a crucial role in stress/injury-induced hypertrophy and fibrosis development that can ultimately lead to heart failure and arrhythmias. Investigations of heterocellular communication in the myocardium are hampered by the intricate interspersion of the different cell types and the complexity of the tissue architecture. In vitro models have facilitated investigations of cardiac cells in a direct and controllable manner and have provided important functional and mechanistic insights. However, these cultures often lack regulatory input from the other cell types as well as additional topographical, electrical, mechanical and biochemical cues from the cardiac microenvironment that all contribute to modulating cell differentiation, maturation, alignment, function and survival. Advancements in the development of more complex pluricellular physiological platforms that incorporate diverse cues from the myocardial microenvironment are expected to lead to more physiologically relevant cardiac tissue-like in vitro models for mechanistic biological research, disease modelling, therapeutic target identification, drug testing and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celinda M Kofron
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiovascular Institute, Rhode Island Hospital and Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Ulrike Mende
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiovascular Institute, Rhode Island Hospital and Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
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17
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In vitro cardiac tissue models: Current status and future prospects. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 96:203-13. [PMID: 26428618 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. Achieving the next phase of potential treatment strategies and better prognostic tools will require a concerted effort from interdisciplinary fields. Biomaterials-based cardiac tissue models are revolutionizing the area of preclinical research and translational applications. The goal of in vitro cardiac tissue modeling is to create physiological functional models of the human myocardium, which is a difficult task due to the complex structure and function of the human heart. This review describes the advances made in area of in vitro cardiac models using biomaterials and bioinspired platforms. The field has progressed extensively in the past decade, and we envision its applications in the areas of drug screening, disease modeling, and precision medicine.
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18
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Kwak EA, Ahn S, Jaworski J. Microfabrication of Custom Collagen Structures Capable of Guiding Cell Morphology and Alignment. Biomacromolecules 2015; 16:1761-70. [PMID: 25955148 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b00295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The patterning of biological components into structural analogues of native tissues to simulate an environment for directing cell growth is one important strategy in biomaterials fabrication. It is widely accepted that chemical, mechanical, and topological cues from the extracellular matrix (ECM) provide important signals for guiding cells to exhibit characteristic polarity, orientation, and morphology. To fully understand the delicate relationship between cell behavior and ECM features, biomaterials fabrication requires improved techniques for tailoring nano/microstructured patterns from relevant biological building blocks rather than using nonbiological materials. Here we reveal a unique approach for the nano/microfabrication of custom patterned biomaterials using collagen as the sole building material. With this new fabrication technique, we further revealed that custom collagen patterns could direct the orientation and morphology of fibroblast growth as a function of vertex density and pattern spacing. Our findings suggest that this technique may be readily adopted for the free form fabrication of custom cell scaffolds purely from natural biological molecules including collagen, among other relevant ECM components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-A Kwak
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133-791, South Korea
| | - Suji Ahn
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133-791, South Korea
| | - Justyn Jaworski
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133-791, South Korea
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19
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Doroudian G, Pinney J, Ayala P, Los T, Desai TA, Russell B. Sustained delivery of MGF peptide from microrods attracts stem cells and reduces apoptosis of myocytes. Biomed Microdevices 2014; 16:705-15. [PMID: 24908137 PMCID: PMC4418932 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-014-9875-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Local release of drugs may have many advantages for tissue repair but also presents major challenges. Bioengineering approaches allow microstructures to be fabricated that contain bioactive peptides for sustained local delivery. Heart tissue damage is associated with local increases in mechano growth factor (MGF), a member of the IGF-1 family. The E domain of MGF peptide is anti-apoptotic and a stem cell homing factor. The objectives of this study were to fabricate a microrod delivery device of poly (ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate (PEGDMA) hydrogel loaded with MGF peptide and to determine the elution profile and bioactivity of MGF. The injectable microrods are 30 kPa stiffness and 15 μm widths by 100 μm lengths, chosen to match heart stiffness and myocyte size. Successful encapsulation of native MGF peptide within microrods was achieved with delivery of MGF for 2 weeks, as measured by HPLC. Migration of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) increased with MGF microrod treatment (1.72 ± 0.23, p < 0.05). Inhibition of the apoptotic pathway in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes was induced by 8 h of hypoxia (1 % O2). Protection from apoptosis by MGF microrod treatment was shown by the TUNEL assay and increased Bcl-2 expression (2 ± 0.19, p < 0.05). Microrods without MGF regulated the cytoskeleton, adhesion, and proliferation of hMSCs, and MGF had no effect on these properties. Therefore, the combination microdevice provided both the mechanical cues and 2-week MGF bioactivity to reduce apoptosis and recruit stem cells, suggesting potential use of MGF microrods for cardiac regeneration therapy in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Golnar Doroudian
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - James Pinney
- Department of Physiology and Division of Bioengineering, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Perla Ayala
- Department of Physiology and Division of Bioengineering, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Tamara Los
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Tejal A. Desai
- Department of Physiology and Division of Bioengineering, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Brenda Russell
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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20
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Pinney JR, Melkus G, Cerchiari A, Hawkins J, Desai TA. Novel functionalization of discrete polymeric biomaterial microstructures for applications in imaging and three-dimensional manipulation. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2014; 6:14477-14485. [PMID: 25068888 PMCID: PMC4149329 DOI: 10.1021/am503778t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Adapting ways to functionalize polymer materials is becoming increasingly important to their implementation in translational biomedical sciences. By tuning the mechanical, chemical, and biological qualities of these materials, their applications can be broadened, opening the door for more advanced integration into modern medical techniques. Here, we report on a method to integrate chemical functionalizations into discrete, microscale polymer structures, which are used for tissue engineering applications, for in vivo localization, and three-dimensional manipulation. Iron oxide nanoparticles were incorporated into the polymer matrix using common photolithographic techniques to create stably functional microstructures with magnetic potential. Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), we can promote visualization of microstructures contained in small collections, as well as facilitate the manipulation and alignment of microtopographical cues in a realistic tissue environment. Using similar polymer functionalization techniques, fluorine-containing compounds were also embedded in the polymer matrix of photolithographically fabricated microstructures. The incorporation of fluorine-containing compounds enabled highly sensitive and specific detection of microstructures in physiologic settings using fluorine MRI techniques ((19)F MRI). These functionalization strategies will facilitate more reliable noninvasive tracking and characterization of microstructured polymer implants as well as have implications for remote microstructural scaffolding alignment for three-dimensional tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R. Pinney
- Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 Fourth Street, Byers Hall Room 203, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, 1700 Fourth Street, Byers Hall
Room 216, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Gerd Melkus
- Department
of Radiology, UCSF Imaging Center at China Basin, University of California, San Francisco, 185 Berry Street, Suite 190, Lobby 6, San Francisco, California 94107, United States
- Department
of Medical Imaging, Ottawa Hospital, 1053 Carling Avenue, Ottawa K1Y 4E9, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alec Cerchiari
- Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 Fourth Street, Byers Hall Room 203, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, 1700 Fourth Street, Byers Hall
Room 216, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - James Hawkins
- Department
of Radiology, UCSF Imaging Center at China Basin, University of California, San Francisco, 185 Berry Street, Suite 190, Lobby 6, San Francisco, California 94107, United States
| | - Tejal A. Desai
- Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 1700 Fourth Street, Byers Hall Room 203, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
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21
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Lücker PB, Javaherian S, Soleas JP, Halverson D, Zandstra PW, McGuigan AP. A microgroove patterned multiwell cell culture plate for high-throughput studies of cell alignment. Biotechnol Bioeng 2014; 111:2537-48. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.25298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2014] [Revised: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Petra B. Lücker
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry; University of Toronto; 200 College St. Toronto Ontario M5T 3J9 Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Sahar Javaherian
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry; University of Toronto; 200 College St. Toronto Ontario M5T 3J9 Canada
| | - John P. Soleas
- Institute of Medical Science; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Duncan Halverson
- Department of Chemistry; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Peter W. Zandstra
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Alison P. McGuigan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry; University of Toronto; 200 College St. Toronto Ontario M5T 3J9 Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
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22
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Salick MR, Napiwocki BN, Sha J, Knight GT, Chindhy SA, Kamp TJ, Ashton RS, Crone WC. Micropattern width dependent sarcomere development in human ESC-derived cardiomyocytes. Biomaterials 2014; 35:4454-64. [PMID: 24582552 PMCID: PMC4026015 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In this study, human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes were seeded onto controlled two-dimensional micropatterned features, and an improvement in sarcomere formation and cell alignment was observed in specific feature geometries. High-resolution photolithography techniques and microcontact printing were utilized to produce features of various rectangular geometries, with areas ranging from 2500 μm(2) to 160,000 μm(2). The microcontact printing method was used to pattern non-adherent poly(ethylene glycol) regions on gold coated glass slides. Matrigel and fibronectin extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins were layered onto the gold-coated glass slides, providing a controlled geometry for cell adhesion. We used small molecule-based differentiation and an antibiotic purification step to produce a pure population of immature cardiomyocytes from H9 human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). We then seeded this pure population of human cardiomyocytes onto the micropatterned features of various sizes and observed how the cardiomyocytes remodeled their myofilament structure in response to the feature geometries. Immunofluorescence was used to measure α-actinin expression, and phalloidin stains were used to detect actin presence in the patterned cells. Analysis of nuclear alignment was also used to determine how cell direction was influenced by the features. The seeded cells showed clear alignment with the features, dependent on the width rather than the overall aspect ratio of the features. It was determined that features with widths between 30 μm and 80 μm promoted highly aligned cardiomyocytes with a dramatic increase in sarcomere alignment relative to the long axis of the pattern. This creation of highly-aligned cell aggregates with robust sarcomere structures holds great potential in advancing cell-based pharmacological studies, and will help researchers to understand the means by which ECM geometries can affect myofilament structure and maturation in hESC-derived cardiomyocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max R Salick
- Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, 330 N Orchard St, Madison, WI 53715, USA; Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1500 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Materials Science Program, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1509 University Ave, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Brett N Napiwocki
- Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, 330 N Orchard St, Madison, WI 53715, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1550 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jin Sha
- Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, 330 N Orchard St, Madison, WI 53715, USA; School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Gavin T Knight
- Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, 330 N Orchard St, Madison, WI 53715, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1550 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Shahzad A Chindhy
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 750 Highland Ave, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Timothy J Kamp
- Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, 330 N Orchard St, Madison, WI 53715, USA; Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 750 Highland Ave, Madison, WI 53706, USA; WiCell Institute, 614 Walnut Street, Madison, WI 53726, USA; Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1300 University Ave, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Randolph S Ashton
- Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, 330 N Orchard St, Madison, WI 53715, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1550 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Wendy C Crone
- Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, 330 N Orchard St, Madison, WI 53715, USA; Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1500 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Materials Science Program, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1509 University Ave, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1550 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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23
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McCain ML, Agarwal A, Nesmith HW, Nesmith AP, Parker KK. Micromolded gelatin hydrogels for extended culture of engineered cardiac tissues. Biomaterials 2014; 35:5462-71. [PMID: 24731714 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Defining the chronic cardiotoxic effects of drugs during preclinical screening is hindered by the relatively short lifetime of functional cardiac tissues in vitro, which are traditionally cultured on synthetic materials that do not recapitulate the cardiac microenvironment. Because collagen is the primary extracellular matrix protein in the heart, we hypothesized that micromolded gelatin hydrogel substrates tuned to mimic the elastic modulus of the heart would extend the lifetime of engineered cardiac tissues by better matching the native chemical and mechanical microenvironment. To measure tissue stress, we used tape casting, micromolding, and laser engraving to fabricate gelatin hydrogel muscular thin film cantilevers. Neonatal rat cardiac myocytes adhered to gelatin hydrogels and formed aligned tissues as defined by the microgrooves. Cardiac tissues could be cultured for over three weeks without declines in contractile stress. Myocytes on gelatin had higher spare respiratory capacity compared to those on fibronectin-coated PDMS, suggesting that improved metabolic function could be contributing to extended culture lifetime. Lastly, human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiac myocytes adhered to micromolded gelatin surfaces and formed aligned tissues that remained functional for four weeks, highlighting their potential for human-relevant chronic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan L McCain
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Ashutosh Agarwal
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Haley W Nesmith
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Alexander P Nesmith
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Kevin Kit Parker
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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24
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Estimation of the Angles Migrating Cells Turn on Three-Dimensional Micro-Patterned Scaffolds by Live Cell Imaging with an Inverted Microscope. E-JOURNAL OF SURFACE SCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2014.289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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25
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Sunami H, Yokota I, Igarashi Y. Influence of the pattern size of micropatterned scaffolds on cell morphology, proliferation, migration and F-actin expression. Biomater Sci 2014; 2:399-409. [DOI: 10.1039/c3bm60237k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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26
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Hatano R, Mercurio K, Luna JI, Glaser DE, Leppert VJ, McCloskey KE. Endothelial cells derived from embryonic stem cells respond to cues from topographical surface patterns. J Biol Eng 2013; 7:18. [PMID: 23819656 PMCID: PMC3711924 DOI: 10.1186/1754-1611-7-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The generation of micro- and nano-topography similar to those found in the extra cellular matrix of three-dimensional tissues is one technique used to recapitulate the cell-tissue physiology found in the native tissues. Despite the fact that ample studies have been conducted on the physiological significance of endothelial cells alignment parallel to shear stress, as this is the normal physiologic arrangement for healthy arterial EC, very few studies have examined the use of topographical signals to initiate endothelial cell alignment. Here, we have examined the ability for our mouse embryonic stem cell-derived endothelial cells (ESC-EC) to align on various microchip topographical systems. Briefly, we generated metal molds with 'wrinkled' topography using 1) 15 nm and 2) 30 nm of gold coating on the pre-strained polystryene (PS) sheets. After thermal-induced shrinkage of the PS sheets, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microchips were then generated from the wrinkled molds. Using similar Shrink™-based technology, 3) larger selectively crazed acetone-etched lines in the PS sheets, and 4) fully crazed acetone-treated PS sheets of stochastic topographical morphology were also generated. The 15 nm and 30 nm gold coating generated 'wrinkles' of uniaxial anisotropic channels at nano-scaled widths while the crazing generated micron-sized channels. The ESC-EC were able to respond and align on the 320 nm, 510 nm, and the acetone-etched 10.5 μm channels, but not on the fully 'crazed' topographies. Moreover, the ESC-EC aligned most robustly on the wrinkles, and preferentially to ridge edges on the 10.5 μm-sized channels. The ability to robustly align EC on topographical surfaces enables a variety of controlled physiological studies of EC-EC and EC-ECM contact guidance, as well as having potential applications for the rapid endothelialization of stents and vascular grafts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Hatano
- School of Natural Sciences, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
| | - Kevin Mercurio
- Graduate Program in Biological Engineering and Small-scale Technologies, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
| | - Jesus Isaac Luna
- Graduate Program in Biological Engineering and Small-scale Technologies, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
| | - Drew E Glaser
- Graduate Program in Biological Engineering and Small-scale Technologies, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
| | - Valerie J Leppert
- Graduate Program in Biological Engineering and Small-scale Technologies, University of California, Merced, CA, USA ; School of Engineering, University of California, P.O. Box 2039, Merced, CA 95344, USA
| | - Kara E McCloskey
- Graduate Program in Biological Engineering and Small-scale Technologies, University of California, Merced, CA, USA ; School of Engineering, University of California, P.O. Box 2039, Merced, CA 95344, USA
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Kim HN, Jiao A, Hwang NS, Kim MS, Kang DH, Kim DH, Suh KY. Nanotopography-guided tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:536-58. [PMID: 22921841 PMCID: PMC5444877 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2012] [Revised: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human tissues are intricate ensembles of multiple cell types embedded in complex and well-defined structures of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The organization of ECM is frequently hierarchical from nano to macro, with many proteins forming large scale structures with feature sizes up to several hundred microns. Inspired from these natural designs of ECM, nanotopography-guided approaches have been increasingly investigated for the last several decades. Results demonstrate that the nanotopography itself can activate tissue-specific function in vitro as well as promote tissue regeneration in vivo upon transplantation. In this review, we provide an extensive analysis of recent efforts to mimic functional nanostructures in vitro for improved tissue engineering and regeneration of injured and damaged tissues. We first characterize the role of various nanostructures in human tissues with respect to each tissue-specific function. Then, we describe various fabrication methods in terms of patterning principles and material characteristics. Finally, we summarize the applications of nanotopography to various tissues, which are classified into four types depending on their functions: protective, mechano-sensitive, electro-active, and shear stress-sensitive tissues. Some limitations and future challenges are briefly discussed at the end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Nam Kim
- Division of WCU Multiscale Mechanical Design, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Alex Jiao
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Nathaniel S. Hwang
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute for Chemical Processing, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Sung Kim
- Division of WCU Multiscale Mechanical Design, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Do Hyun Kang
- Division of WCU Multiscale Mechanical Design, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Deok-Ho Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Kahp-Yang Suh
- Division of WCU Multiscale Mechanical Design, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
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Peng Lee C, Hsin Chen Y, Hang Wei Z. Fabrication of hexagonally packed cell culture substrates using droplet formation in a T-shaped microfluidic junction. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2013; 7:14101. [PMID: 24396524 PMCID: PMC3555912 DOI: 10.1063/1.4774315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
A method is here proposed to fabricate ordered hexagonally packed cell culture substrates with hexagonally arranged cell patterning areas. We generated photo-sensitive polymeric microdroplets in a T-shaped microfluidic junction by an immiscible liquid, and then solidified the collective self-assembled hexagonal droplet array to obtain the cell culture substrate, on which we took the grooves formed between the solidified droplets as the hexagonally arranged cell patterning areas. The most promising advantage of our method is that we can actively tune the droplet size by simply adopting different volumetric flow rates of the two immiscible fluids to form cell culture substrates with differently sized cell patterning areas. Besides, the examination results of the cell culture substrate's characteristics validate whether our method is capable of creating substrates with high spatial uniformity. To verify the cell patterning function of our cell culture substrates, we used the semi-adherent RAW cells to demonstrate the effectiveness of patterning of suspended/adherent cells before/after adhesion. Over 90% cell viability and cell patterning rate suggest that our method may be a promising approach for future applications of cell patterning on biochips.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiun Peng Lee
- Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
| | - Yi Hsin Chen
- Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
| | - Zung Hang Wei
- Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
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Curtis MW, Budyn E, Desai TA, Samarel AM, Russell B. Microdomain heterogeneity in 3D affects the mechanics of neonatal cardiac myocyte contraction. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2013; 12:95-109. [PMID: 22407215 PMCID: PMC3407350 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-012-0384-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Cardiac muscle cells are known to adapt to their physical surroundings, optimizing intracellular organization and contractile function for a given culture environment. A previously developed in vitro model system has shown that the inclusion of discrete microscale domains (or microrods) in three dimensions (3D) can alter long-term growth responses of neonatal ventricular myocytes. The aim of this work was to understand how cellular contact with such a domain affects various mechanical changes involved in cardiac muscle cell remodeling. Myocytes were maintained in 3D gels over 5 days in the presence or absence of 100-μm-long microrods, and the effect of this local heterogeneity on cell behavior was analyzed via several imaging techniques. Microrod abutment resulted in approximately twofold increases in the maximum displacement of spontaneously beating myocytes, as based on confocal microscopy scans of the gel xy-plane or the myocyte long axis. In addition, microrods caused significant increases in the proportion of aligned myofibrils (≤20° deviation from long axis) in fixed myocytes. Microrod-related differences in axial contraction could be abrogated by long-term interruption of certain signals of the RhoA-/Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) or protein kinase C (PKC) pathway. Furthermore, microrod-induced increases in myocyte size and protein content were prevented by ROCK inhibition. In all, the data suggest that microdomain heterogeneity in 3D appears to promote the development of axially aligned contractile machinery in muscle cells, an observation that may have relevance to a number of cardiac tissue engineering interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew W. Curtis
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 South Wolcott Avenue, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Elisa Budyn
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Tejal A. Desai
- Department of Physiology and Division of Bioengineering, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Allen M. Samarel
- The Cardiovascular Institute, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Brenda Russell
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 South Wolcott Avenue, Chicago, IL 60612, USA,
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Controlling the contractile strength of engineered cardiac muscle by hierarchal tissue architecture. Biomaterials 2012; 33:5732-41. [PMID: 22594976 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.04.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 04/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The heart is a muscular organ with a wrapping, laminar structure embedded with neural and vascular networks, collagen fibrils, fibroblasts, and cardiac myocytes that facilitate contraction. We hypothesized that these non-muscle components may have functional benefit, serving as important structural alignment cues in inter- and intra-cellular organization of cardiac myocytes. Previous studies have demonstrated that alignment of engineered myocardium enhances calcium handling, but how this impacts actual force generation remains unclear. Quantitative assays are needed to determine the effect of alignment on contractile function and muscle physiology. To test this, micropatterned surfaces were used to build 2-dimensional myocardium from neonatal rat ventricular myocytes with distinct architectures: confluent isotropic (serving as the unaligned control), confluent anisotropic, and 20 μm spaced, parallel arrays of multicellular myocardial fibers. We combined image analysis of sarcomere orientation with muscular thin film contractile force assays in order to calculate the peak sarcomere-generated stress as a function of tissue architecture. Here we report that increasing peak systolic stress in engineered cardiac tissues corresponds with increasing sarcomere alignment. This change is larger than would be anticipated from enhanced calcium handling and increased uniaxial alignment alone. These results suggest that boundary conditions (heterogeneities) encoded in the extracellular space can regulate muscle tissue function, and that structural organization and cytoskeletal alignment are critically important for maximizing peak force generation.
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Titushkin I, Sun S, Cho M. Structure and Biology of the Cellular Environment: The Extracellular Matrix. NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-31296-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Zhang B, Xiao Y, Hsieh A, Thavandiran N, Radisic M. Micro- and nanotechnology in cardiovascular tissue engineering. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2011; 22:494003. [PMID: 22101261 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/22/49/494003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
While in nature the formation of complex tissues is gradually shaped by the long journey of development, in tissue engineering constructing complex tissues relies heavily on our ability to directly manipulate and control the micro-cellular environment in vitro. Not surprisingly, advancements in both microfabrication and nanofabrication have powered the field of tissue engineering in many aspects. Focusing on cardiac tissue engineering, this paper highlights the applications of fabrication techniques in various aspects of tissue engineering research: (1) cell responses to micro- and nanopatterned topographical cues, (2) cell responses to patterned biochemical cues, (3) controlled 3D scaffolds, (4) patterned tissue vascularization and (5) electromechanical regulation of tissue assembly and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyang Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Rm 407, Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
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Tekin H, Sanchez JG, Tsinman T, Langer R, Khademhosseini A. Thermoresponsive Platforms for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. AIChE J 2011; 57:3249-3258. [PMID: 23105146 DOI: 10.1002/aic.12801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Halil Tekin
- Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
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Moraes C, Sun Y, Simmons CA. (Micro)managing the mechanical microenvironment. Integr Biol (Camb) 2011; 3:959-71. [PMID: 21931883 DOI: 10.1039/c1ib00056j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical forces are critical components of the cellular microenvironment and play a pivotal role in driving cellular processes in vivo. Dissecting cellular responses to mechanical forces is challenging, as even "simple" mechanical stimulation in vitro can cause multiple interdependent changes in the cellular microenvironment. These stimuli include solid deformation, fluid flows, altered physical and chemical surface features, and a complex transfer of loads between the various interacting components of a biological culture system. The active mechanical and biochemical responses of cells to these stimuli in generating internal forces, reorganizing cellular structures, and initiating intracellular signals that specify cell fate and remodel the surrounding environment further complicates cellular response to mechanical forces. Moreover, cells present a non-linear response to combinations of mechanical forces, materials, chemicals, surface features, matrix properties and other effectors. Microtechnology-based approaches to these challenges can yield key insights into the mechanical nature of cellular behaviour, by decoupling stimulation parameters; enabling multimodal control over combinations of stimuli; and increasing experimental throughput to systematically probe cellular response. In this critical review, we briefly discuss the complexities inherent in the mechanical stimulation of cells; survey and critically assess the applications of present microtechnologies in the field of experimental mechanobiology; and explore opportunities and possibilities to use these tools to obtain a deeper understanding of mechanical interactions between cells and their environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Moraes
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, 5 King's College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
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36
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Wang PY, Yu J, Lin JH, Tsai WB. Modulation of alignment, elongation and contraction of cardiomyocytes through a combination of nanotopography and rigidity of substrates. Acta Biomater 2011; 7:3285-93. [PMID: 21664306 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2011.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2010] [Revised: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The topographic and mechanical characteristics of engineered tissue constructs, simulating native tissues, should benefit tissue engineering. Previous studies reported that surface topography and substrate rigidity provide biomechanical cues to modulate cellular responses such as alignment, migration and differentiation. To fully address this issue, the present study aimed to examine the influence of nanogrooved substrates with different stiffnesses on the responses of rat cardiomyocytes. Nanogrooved substrates (450nm in groove/ridge width; 100 or 350nm in depth) made of polystyrene and polyurethane were prepared by imprinting from polydimethylsiloxane molds. The morphology and orientation of cardiomyocytes attached to the substrates were found to be influenced mainly by the nanogrooved structures, while the contractile function of the cells was regulated by the coupled effect of surface topography and substrate stiffness. The distribution of intracellular structural proteins such as vinculin and F-actin showed that the surface topography and substrate stiffness regulated the organization of the actin cytoskeleton and focal adhesion complexes, and consequently the contractile behavior of the cardiomyocytes. The beating rates of the cultured cardiomyocytes were dependent on both the surface topography and the substrate stiffness. The study provides insights into the interaction between cardiomyocytes and biomaterials, and benefits cardiac tissue engineering.
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Kai D, Prabhakaran MP, Jin G, Ramakrishna S. Polypyrrole-contained electrospun conductive nanofibrous membranes for cardiac tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A 2011; 99:376-85. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.33200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2011] [Revised: 06/20/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Kai D, Prabhakaran MP, Jin G, Ramakrishna S. Guided orientation of cardiomyocytes on electrospun aligned nanofibers for cardiac tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2011; 98:379-86. [PMID: 21681953 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.31862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Revised: 02/12/2011] [Accepted: 03/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac tissue engineering (TE) is one of the most promising strategies to reconstruct the infarct myocardium and the major challenge involves producing a bioactive scaffold with anisotropic properties that assist in cell guidance to mimic the heart tissue. In this study, random and aligned poly(ε-caprolactone)/gelatin (PG) composite nanofibrous scaffolds were electrospun to structurally mimic the oriented extracellular matrix (ECM). Morphological, chemical and mechanical properties of the electrospun PG nanofibers were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), water contact angle, attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and tensile measurements. Results indicated that PG nanofibrous scaffolds possessed smaller fiber diameters (239 ± 37 nm for random fibers and 269 ± 33 nm for aligned fibers), increased hydrophilicity, and lower stiffness compared to electrospun PCL nanofibers. The aligned PG nanofibers showed anisotropic wetting characteristics and mechanical properties, which closely match the requirements of native cardiac anisotropy. Rabbit cardiomyocytes were cultured on electrospun random and aligned nanofibers to assess the biocompatibility of scaffolds, together with its potential for cell guidance. The SEM and immunocytochemical analysis showed that the aligned PG scaffold greatly promoted cell attachment and alignment because of the biological components and ordered topography of the scaffolds. Moreover, we concluded that the aligned PG nanofibrous scaffolds could be more promising substrates suitable for the regeneration of infarct myocardium and other cardiac defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Kai
- NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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39
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Tekin H, Ozaydin-Ince G, Tsinman T, Gleason KK, Langer R, Khademhosseini A, Demirel MC. Responsive microgrooves for the formation of harvestable tissue constructs. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2011; 27:5671-9. [PMID: 21449596 PMCID: PMC3098811 DOI: 10.1021/la200183x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Given its biocompatibility, elasticity, and gas permeability, poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) is widely used to fabricate microgrooves and microfluidic devices for three-dimensional (3D) cell culture studies. However, conformal coating of complex PDMS devices prepared by standard microfabrication techniques with desired chemical functionality is challenging. This study describes the conformal coating of PDMS microgrooves with poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) by using initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD). These microgrooves guided the formation of tissue constructs from NIH-3T3 fibroblasts that could be retrieved by the temperature-dependent swelling property and hydrophilicity change of the PNIPAAm. The thickness of swollen PNIPAAm films at 24 °C was approximately 3 times greater than at 37 °C. Furthermore, PNIPAAm-coated microgroove surfaces exhibit increased hydrophilicity at 24 °C (contact angle θ = 30° ± 2) compared to 37 °C (θ = 50° ± 1). Thus PNIPAAm film on the microgrooves exhibits responsive swelling with higher hydrophilicity at room temperature, which could be used to retrieve tissue constructs. The resulting tissue constructs were the same size as the grooves and could be used as modules in tissue fabrication. Given its ability to form and retrieve cell aggregates and its integration with standard microfabrication, PNIPAAm-coated PDMS templates may become useful for 3D cell culture applications in tissue engineering and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Halil Tekin
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Department of Medicine, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Building 76-661, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Gozde Ozaydin-Ince
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Tonia Tsinman
- Department of Medicine, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Karen K. Gleason
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Robert Langer
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Building 76-661, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Prof. Melik C. Demirel - Corresponding-Author (), Prof. Ali Khademhosseini - Corresponding-Author (), Prof. Robert Langer - Corresponding-Author ()
| | - Ali Khademhosseini
- Department of Medicine, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02138
- Prof. Melik C. Demirel - Corresponding-Author (), Prof. Ali Khademhosseini - Corresponding-Author (), Prof. Robert Langer - Corresponding-Author ()
| | - Melik C. Demirel
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02138
- Materials Research Institute and Department of Engineering Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
- Prof. Melik C. Demirel - Corresponding-Author (), Prof. Ali Khademhosseini - Corresponding-Author (), Prof. Robert Langer - Corresponding-Author ()
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Orita T, Tomita M, Kato K. Regulation of cellular responses to macroporous inorganic films prepared by the inverse-opal method. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2011; 84:187-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Accepted: 12/29/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Luna JI, Ciriza J, Garcia-Ojeda ME, Kong M, Herren A, Lieu DK, Li RA, Fowlkes CC, Khine M, McCloskey KE. Multiscale Biomimetic Topography for the Alignment of Neonatal and Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Heart Cells. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2011; 17:579-88. [DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2010.0410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jesus Isaac Luna
- School of Engineering, University of California, Merced, California
- Graduate Program in Biological Engineering and Small-Scale Technologies, University of California, Merced, California
| | - Jesus Ciriza
- School of Natural Sciences, University of California, Merced, California
| | | | - Marco Kong
- Research Center of Heart, Brain, Hormone, and Healthy Aging, and Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Consortium, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Anthony Herren
- Department of Pharmocology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Deborah K. Lieu
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Ronald A. Li
- Research Center of Heart, Brain, Hormone, and Healthy Aging, and Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Consortium, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Department of Physiology, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Center of Cardiovascular Research, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Charless C. Fowlkes
- Deptartment of Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, California
| | - Michelle Khine
- Deptartment of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, California
| | - Kara E. McCloskey
- School of Engineering, University of California, Merced, California
- Graduate Program in Biological Engineering and Small-Scale Technologies, University of California, Merced, California
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Micromechanical regulation in cardiac myocytes and fibroblasts: implications for tissue remodeling. Pflugers Arch 2011; 462:105-17. [PMID: 21308471 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-011-0931-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 01/25/2011] [Accepted: 01/25/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Cells of the myocardium are at home in one of the most mechanically dynamic environments in the body. At the cellular level, pulsatile stimuli of chamber filling and emptying are experienced as cyclic strains (relative deformation) and stresses (force per unit area). The intrinsic characteristics of tension-generating myocytes and fibroblasts thus have a continuous mechanical interplay with their extrinsic surroundings. This review explores the ways that the micromechanics at the scale of single cardiac myocytes and fibroblasts have been measured, modeled, and recapitulated in vitro in the context of adaptation. Both types of cardiac cells respond to externally applied strain, and many of the intracellular mechanosensing pathways have been identified with the careful manipulation of experimental variables. In addition to strain, the extent of loading in myocytes and fibroblasts is also regulated by cues from the microenvironment such as substrate surface chemistry, stiffness, and topography. Combinations of these structural cues in three dimensions are needed to mimic the micromechanical complexity derived from the extracellular matrix of the developing, healthy, or pathophysiologic heart. An understanding of cardiac cell micromechanics can therefore inform the design and composition of tissue engineering scaffolds or stem cell niches for future applications in regenerative medicine.
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43
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Curtis MW, Sharma S, Desai TA, Russell B. Hypertrophy, gene expression, and beating of neonatal cardiac myocytes are affected by microdomain heterogeneity in 3D. Biomed Microdevices 2011; 12:1073-85. [PMID: 20668947 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-010-9461-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac myocytes are known to be influenced by the rigidity and topography of their physical microenvironment. It was hypothesized that 3D heterogeneity introduced by purely physical microdomains regulates cardiac myocyte size and contraction. This was tested in vitro using polymeric microstructures (G' = 1.66 GPa) suspended with random orientation in 3D by a soft Matrigel matrix (G' = 22.9 Pa). After 10 days of culture, the presence of 100 μm-long microstructures in 3D gels induced fold increases in neonatal rat ventricular myocyte size (1.61 ± 0.06, p < 0.01) and total protein/cell ratios (1.43 ± 0.08, p < 0.05) that were comparable to those induced chemically by 50 μM phenylephrine treatment. Upon attachment to microstructures, individual myocytes also had larger cross-sectional areas (1.57 ± 0.05, p < 0.01) and higher average rates of spontaneous contraction (2.01 ± 0.08, p < 0.01) than unattached myocytes. Furthermore, the inclusion of microstructures in myocyte-seeded gels caused significant increases in the expression of beta-1 adrenergic receptor (β1-AR, 1.19 ± 0.01), cardiac ankyrin repeat protein (CARP, 1.26 ± 0.02), and sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium-ATPase (SERCA2, 1.59 ± 0.12, p < 0.05), genes implicated in hypertrophy and contractile activity. Together, the results demonstrate that cardiac myocyte behavior can be controlled through local 3D microdomains alone. This approach of defining physical cues as independent features may help to advance the elemental design considerations for scaffolds in cardiac tissue engineering and therapeutic microdevices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew W Curtis
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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44
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Abstract
Biophysical cues encoded in the extracellular matrix (ECM) are increasingly being explored to control cell behavior in tissue engineering applications. Recently, we showed that cell adhesion to microtopographical structures (“micropegs”) can suppress proliferation in a manner that may be blunted by inhibiting cellular contractility, suggesting that this effect is related to altered cell-scaffold mechanotransduction. We now directly investigate this possibility at the microscale through a combination of live-cell imaging, single-cell mechanics methods, and analysis of gene expression. Using time-lapse imaging, we show that when cells break adhesive contacts with micropegs, they form F-actin-filled tethers that extend and then rupture at a maximum, critical length that is greater than trailing-edge tethers observed on topographically flat substrates. This critical tether length depends on myosin activation, with inhibition of Rho-associated kinase abolishing topography-dependent differences in tether length. Using cellular de-adhesion and atomic force microscopy indentation measurements, we show that the micropegs enhance cell-scaffold adhesive interactions without changing whole-cell elasticity. Moreover, micropeg adhesion increases expression of specific mechanotransductive genes, including RhoA GTPase and myosin heavy chain II, and, in myoblasts, the functional marker connexin 43. Together, our data support a model in which microtopographical cues alter the local mechanical microenvironment of cells by modulating adhesion and adhesion-dependent mechanotransductive signaling.
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45
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Mechanical stress-induced sarcomere assembly for cardiac muscle growth in length and width. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2010; 48:817-23. [PMID: 20188736 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2010.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 02/15/2010] [Accepted: 02/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A ventricular myocyte experiences changes in length and load during every beat of the heart and has the ability to remodel cell shape to maintain cardiac performance. Specifically, myocytes elongate in response to increased diastolic strain by adding sarcomeres in series, and they thicken in response to continued systolic stress by adding filaments in parallel. Myocytes do this while still keeping the resting sarcomere length close to its optimal value at the peak of the length-tension curve. This review focuses on the little understood mechanisms by which direction of growth is matched in a physiologically appropriate direction. We propose that the direction of strain is detected by differential phosphorylation of proteins in the costamere, which then transmit signaling to the Z-disc for parallel or series addition of thin filaments regulated via the actin capping processes. In this review, we link mechanotransduction to the molecular mechanisms for regulation of myocyte length and width.
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Microfabricated Devices for Studying Cellular Biomechanics and Mechanobiology. CELLULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR MECHANICS AND MECHANOBIOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/8415_2010_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Biehl JK, Yamanaka S, Desai TA, Boheler KR, Russell B. Proliferation of mouse embryonic stem cell progeny and the spontaneous contractile activity of cardiomyocytes are affected by microtopography. Dev Dyn 2009; 238:1964-73. [PMID: 19618471 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The niche in which stem cells reside and differentiate is a complex physicochemical microenvironment that regulates cell function. The role played by three-dimensional physical contours was studied on cell progeny derived from mouse embryonic stem cells using microtopographies created on PDMS (poly-dimethyl-siloxane) membranes. While markers of differentiation were not affected, the proliferation of heterogeneous mouse embryonic stem cell-derived progeny was attenuated by 15 microm-, but not 5 microm-high microprojections. This reduction was reversed by Rho kinase and myosin light chain kinase inhibition, which diminishes the tension generating ability of stress fibers. Purified cardiomyocytes derived from embryonic stem cells also showed significant blunting of proliferation and increased beating rates compared with cells grown on flat substrates. Thus, proliferation of stem cell-derived progeny appears to be regulated by microtopography through tension-generation of contractility in the third-dimension. These results emphasize the importance of topographic cues in the modulation of stem cell progeny behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse K Biehl
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7342, USA
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Ainslie KM, Desai TA. Microfabricated implants for applications in therapeutic delivery, tissue engineering, and biosensing. LAB ON A CHIP 2008; 8:1864-78. [PMID: 18941687 PMCID: PMC2970504 DOI: 10.1039/b806446f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
By adapting microfabrication techniques originally developed in the microelectronics industry novel devices for drug delivery, tissue engineering and biosensing have been engineered for in vivo use. Implant microfabrication uses a broad range of techniques including photolithography, and micromachining to create devices with features ranging from 0.1 to hundreds of microns with high aspect ratios and precise features. Microfabrication offers device feature scale that is relevant to the tissues and cells to which they are applied, as well as offering ease of en masse fabrication, small device size, and facile incorporation of integrated circuit technology. Utilizing these methods, drug delivery applications have been developed for in vivo use through many delivery routes including intravenous, oral, and transdermal. Additionally, novel microfabricated tissue engineering approaches propose therapies for the cardiovascular, orthopedic, and ocular systems, among others. Biosensing devices have been designed to detect a variety of analytes and conditions in vivo through both enzymatic-electrochemical reactions and sensor displacement through mechanical loading. Overall, the impact of microfabricated devices has had an impact over a broad range of therapies and tissues. This review addresses many of these devices and highlights their fabrication as well as discusses materials relevant to microfabrication techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy M. Ainslie
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences; Department of Physiology University of California, San Francisco
| | - Tejal A. Desai
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences; Department of Physiology University of California, San Francisco
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Abstract
The use of microtechnology to make biomechanical measurements allows for the study of cellular and subcellular scale mechanical forces. Forces generated by cells are in the few nanoNewton to several microNewton range and can change spatially over subcellular size scales. Transducing forces at such small size and force scales is a challenging task. Methods of microfabrication developed in the integrated circuit industry have allowed researchers to build platforms with cellular and subcellular scale parts with which individual cells can interact. These parts act as transducers of stresses and forces generated by the cell during migration or in the maintenance of physical equilibrium. Due to the size and sensitivity of such devices, quantitative studies of single cell and even single molecule biomechanics have become possible. In this review we focus on two classes of cellular force transducers: silicon-based devices and soft-polymer platforms. We concentrate on the biomechanical discoveries made with these devices and less so on the engineering behind their development because this is covered in great detail elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Norman
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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