Biocompatibility and toxicology effects of graphene oxide in cancer, normal, and primary immune cells

Design of quetiapine fumarate loaded polyethylene glycol decorated graphene oxide nanosheets: Invitro-exvivo characterization

Quetiapine Fumarate (QF) is an atypical antipsychotic with poor oral bioavailability (9%) due to its low permeability and pH-dependent solubility. Therefore, this study aims to design QF-loaded polyethylene glycol (PEG) functionalized graphene oxide nanosheets (GON) for nasal delivery of QF. In brief, GO was synthesized using a modified Hummers process, followed by ultra-sonication to produce GON. Subsequently, PEG-functionalized GON was prepared using carbodiimide chemistry (PEG-GON). QF was then decorated onto the cage of PEG-GON using the π-π stacking phenomenon (QF@PEG-GON). The QF@PEG-GON nanocomposite underwent several spectral characterizations, in vitro drug release, mucoadhesion study, ex vivo diffusion study, etc. The surface morphology of QF@PEG-GON nanocomposite validates the cracked nature of the nanocomposite, whereas the diffractograms and thermogram of nanocomposite confirm the conversion of QF into an amorphous form with uniform distribution in PEG-GON. Moreover, an ex vivo study of PEG-GON demonstrates superior mucoadhesion capacity due to its surface functional groups and hydrophilicity. The percent drug loading content and percent entrapment efficiency of the nanocomposite were found to be 9.2±0.62% and 92.3±1.02%, respectively. The developed nanocomposite exhibited 43.82±1.65% drug release within 24h, with the Korsemeyer-Peppas model providing the best-fit release kinetics (R2: 0.8614). Here, the interlayer spacing of PEG-GON prevented prompt diffusion of the buffer, leading to a delayed release pattern. In conclusion, the anticipated QF@PEG-GON nanocomposite shows promise as a nanocarrier platform for nasal delivery of QF.

Perilous paradigm of graphene oxide and its derivatives in biomedical applications: Insight to immunocompatibility

With advancements in nanotechnology and innovative materials, Graphene Oxide nanoparticles (GONP) have attracted lots of attention among the diverse types of nanomaterials owing to their distinctive physicochemical characteristics. However, the usage at scientific and industrial level has also raised concern to their toxicological interaction with biological system. Understanding these interactions is crucial for developing guidelines and recommendations for applications of GONP in various sectors, like biomedicine and environmental technologies. This review offers crucial insights and an in-depth analysis to the biological processes associated with GONP immunotoxicity with multiple cell lines including human whole blood cultures, dendritic cells, macrophages, and multiple cancer cell lines. The complicated interactions between graphene oxide nanoparticles and the immune system, are highlighted in this work, which reveals a range of immunotoxic consequences like inflammation, immunosuppression, immunostimulation, hypersensitivity, autoimmunity, and cellular malfunction. Moreover, the immunotoxic effects are also highlighted with respect to in vivo models like mice and zebrafish, insighting GO Nanoparticles' cytotoxicity. The study provides invaluable review for researchers, policymakers, and industrialist to understand and exploit the beneficial applications of GONP with a controlled measure to human health and the environment.

Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles and Organoids: A Prospective Advanced Model for Pancreatic Cancer Research

Pancreatic cancer, notorious for its grim 10% five-year survival rate, poses significant clinical challenges, largely due to late-stage diagnosis and limited therapeutic options. This review delves into the generation of organoids, including those derived from resected tissues, biopsies, pluripotent stem cells, and adult stem cells, as well as the advancements in 3D printing. It explores the complexities of the tumor microenvironment, emphasizing culture media, the integration of non-neoplastic cells, and angiogenesis. Additionally, the review examines the multifaceted properties of graphene oxide (GO), such as its mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, and optical attributes, and their implications in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. GO's unique properties facilitate its interaction with tumors, allowing targeted drug delivery and enhanced imaging for early detection and treatment. The integration of GO with 3D cultured organoid systems, particularly in pancreatic cancer research, is critically analyzed, highlighting current limitations and future potential. This innovative approach has the promise to transform personalized medicine, improve drug screening efficiency, and aid biomarker discovery in this aggressive disease. Through this review, we offer a balanced perspective on the advancements and future prospects in pancreatic cancer research, harnessing the potential of organoids and GO.

The Effect of PEGylated Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles on the Th17-Polarization of Activated T Helpers

We investigated the direct effect of PEGylated graphene oxide (P-GO) nanoparticles on the differentiation, viability, and cytokine profile of activated T helper type 17 (Th17) in vitro. The subject of the study were cultures of "naive" T-helpers (CD4+) isolated by immunomagnetic separation and polarized into the Th17 phenotype with a TCR activator and cytokines. It was found that P-GO at low concentrations (5 µg/mL) had no effect on the parameters studied. The presence of high concentrations of P-GO in T-helper cultures (25 μg/mL) did not affect the number and viability of these cells. However, the percentage of proliferating T-helpers in these cultures was reduced. GO nanoparticles modified with linear polyethylene glycol (PEG) significantly increased the percentage of Th17/22 cells in cultures of Th17-polarized T helpers and the production of IFN-γ, whereas those modified with branched PEG suppressed the synthesis of IL-17. Thus, a low concentration of PEGylated GO nanoparticles (5 μg/mL), in contrast to a concentration of 25 μg/mL, has no effect on the Th17-polarization of T helpers, allowing their further use for in-depth studies of the functions of T lymphocytes and other immune cells. Overall, we have studied for the first time the direct effect of P-GO nanoparticles on the conversion of T helper cells to the Th17 phenotype.

Genotoxicity of Graphene-Based Materials

Graphene-based materials (GBMs) are a broad family of novel carbon-based nanomaterials with many nanotechnology applications. The increasing market of GBMs raises concerns on their possible impact on human health. Here, we review the existing literature on the genotoxic potential of GBMs over the last ten years. A total of 50 articles including in vitro, in vivo, in silico, and human biomonitoring studies were selected. Graphene oxides were the most analyzed materials, followed by reduced graphene oxides. Most of the evaluations were performed in vitro using the comet assay (detecting DNA damage). The micronucleus assay (detecting chromosome damage) was the most used validated assay, whereas only two publications reported results on mammalian gene mutations. The same material was rarely assessed with more than one assay. Despite inhalation being the main exposure route in occupational settings, only one in vivo study used intratracheal instillation, and another one reported human biomonitoring data. Based on the studies, some GBMs have the potential to induce genetic damage, although the type of damage depends on the material. The broad variability of GBMs, cellular systems and methods used in the studies precludes the identification of physico-chemical properties that could drive the genotoxicity response to GBMs.

Graphene Oxide Nanoparticels Interaction with Jurkat Cell Line in Cell-IQ System

In recent years, materials based on graphene oxide (GO) have been actively studied for their use in biomedicine. The aim of our study was to investigate the increase in cell mass and viability of Jurkat tumor line T cells during 24 h of contact with GO nanoparticles in the Cell-IQ system of intravital observation. We used nanoparticles of different sizes coated with linear or branched polyethylene glycol (PEG) at concentrations of 5 and 25 μg/mL. It was shown for the first time that direct contact with GO nanoparticles reduced the growth in cell mass at the visualization points by more than twofold, regardless of nanoparticle size and concentration. Moreover, the number of live cells in the culture decreased by 5-9% after 24 h of monitoring. Thus, PEG-coated GO nanoparticles were found to suppress the proliferation and viability of Jurkat cell line T lymphocytes.

Dynamic interactions and intracellular fate of label-free, thin graphene oxide sheets within mammalian cells: role of lateral sheet size

Graphene oxide (GO) holds great potential for biomedical applications, however fundamental understanding of the way it interacts with biological systems is still lacking even though it is essential for successful clinical translation. In this study, we exploit intrinsic fluorescent properties of thin GO sheets to establish the relationship between lateral dimensions of the material, its cellular uptake mechanisms and intracellular fate over time. Label-free GO with distinct lateral dimensions, small (s-GO) and ultra-small (us-GO) were thoroughly characterised both in water and in biologically relevant cell culture medium. Interactions of the material with a range of non-phagocytic mammalian cell lines (BEAS-2B, NIH/3T3, HaCaT, 293T) were studied using a combination of complementary analytical techniques (confocal microscopy, flow cytometry and TEM). The uptake mechanism was initially interrogated using a range of pharmaceutical inhibitors and validated using polystyrene beads of different diameters (0.1 and 1 μm). Subsequently, RNA-Seq was used to follow the changes in the uptake mechanism used to internalize s-GO flakes over time. Regardless of lateral dimensions, both types of GO were found to interact with the plasma membrane and to be internalized by a panel of cell lines studied. However, s-GO was internalized mainly via macropinocytosis while us-GO was mainly internalized via clathrin- and caveolae-mediated endocytosis. Importantly, we report the shift from macropinocytosis to clathrin-dependent endocytosis in the uptake of s-GO at 24 h, mediated by upregulation of mTORC1/2 pathway. Finally, we show that both s-GO and us-GO terminate in lysosomal compartments for up to 48 h. Our results offer an insight into the mechanism of interaction of GO with non-phagocytic cell lines over time that can be exploited for the design of biomedically-applicable 2D transport systems.

Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: Promising Antiviral Agents to Combat COVID-19 in the Microbial-Resistant Era

Therapeutic options for the highly pathogenic human severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causing the current pandemic coronavirus disease (COVID-19) are urgently needed. COVID-19 is associated with viral pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome causing significant morbidity and mortality. The proposed treatments for COVID-19 have shown little or no effect in the clinic so far. Additionally, bacterial and fungal pathogens contribute to the SARS-CoV-2-mediated pneumonia disease complex. The antibiotic resistance in pneumonia treatment is increasing at an alarming rate. Therefore, carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs), such as fullerene, carbon dots, graphene, and their derivatives constitute a promising alternative due to their wide-spectrum antimicrobial activity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and capacity to induce tissue regeneration. Furthermore, the antimicrobial mode of action is mainly physical (e.g., membrane distortion), characterized by a low risk of antimicrobial resistance. In this Review, we evaluated the literature on the antiviral activity and broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties of CBNs. CBNs had antiviral activity against 13 enveloped positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. CBNs with low or no toxicity to humans are promising therapeutics against the COVID-19 pneumonia complex with other viruses, bacteria, and fungi, including those that are multidrug-resistant.

2D exfoliated black phosphorus influences healthy and cancer prostate cell behaviors

Nowadays, prostate cancer is the most widespread tumour in worldwide male population. Actually, brachytherapy is the most advanced radiotherapy strategy for the local treatment of prostate cancer. It consists in the placing of radioactive sources closed to the tumour side thus killing cancer cells. However, brachytherapy causes the same adverse effects of external-beam radiotherapy. Therefore, alternative treatment approaches are required for enhancing radiotherapy effectiveness and reducing toxic symptoms. Nanostructured exfoliated black phosphorus (2D BP) may represent a strategic tool for local cancer therapy because of its capability to induce singlet oxygen production and act as photosensitizer. Hence, we investigated 2D BP in vitro effect on healthy and cancer prostate cell behavior. 2D BP was obtained through liquid exfoliation. 2D BP effect on healthy and cancer prostate cell behaviors was analyzed by investigating cell viability, oxidative stress and inflammatory marker expression. 2D BP inhibited prostate cancer cell survival, meanwhile promoted healthy prostate cell survival in vitro by modulating oxidative stress and immune response with and without near-infrared light (NIR)-irradiation. Nanostructured 2D BP is able to inhibit in vitro prostate cancer cells survival and preserve healthy prostate cell vitality through the control of oxidative stress and immune response, respectively.

Multifunctional Platforms Based on Graphene Oxide and Natural Products

Background and objectives: In the last few years, graphene oxide has attracted much attention in biomedical applications due to its unique physico-chemical properties and can be used as a carrier for both hydrophilic and/or hydrophobic biomolecules. The purpose of this paper was to synthesize graphene oxide and to obtain multifunctional platforms based on graphene oxide as a nanocarrier loaded with few biologically active substances with anticancer, antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory properties such as gallic acid, caffeic acid, limonene and nutmeg and cembra pine essential oils. Materials and Methods: Graphene oxide was obtained according to the method developed by Hummers and further loaded with biologically active agents. The obtained platforms were characterized using FTIR, HPLC, TGA, SEM, TEM and Raman spectroscopy. Results: Gallic acid released 80% within 10 days but all the other biologically active agents did not release because their affinity for the graphene oxide support was higher than that of the phosphate buffer solution. SEM characterization showed the formation of nanosheets and a slight increase in the degree of agglomeration of the particles. The ratio I2D/IG for all samples was between 0.18 for GO-cembra pine and 0.27 for GO-limonene, indicating that the GO materials were in the form of multilayers. The individual GO sheets were found to have less than 20 µm, the thickness of GO was estimated to be ~4 nm and an interlayer spacing of about 2.12 Å. Raman spectroscopy indicated that the bioactive substances were adsorbed on the surface and no degradation occurred during loading. Conclusions: These findings encourage this research to further explore, both in vitro and in vivo, the biological activities of bioactive agents for their use in medicine.

Nitrogen doped carbon quantum dots demonstrate no toxicity under in vitro conditions in a cervical cell line and in vivo in Swiss albino mice

Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) and their derivatives have potential applications in the field of biomedical imaging. Toxicity is one of the critical parameters that can hamper their success in biological applications. In this context, our goal was to systematically investigate both in vivo and in vitro toxicity of nitrogen doped carbon quantum dots (NCQDs). In vivo toxic effects were evaluated for 30 days in Swiss albino mice at two different concentrations (5.0 mg per kg body weight (BW) and 10.0 mg per kg BW) of NCQDs. Results of haematological, serum biochemical, antioxidant and histopathological parameters showed no noteworthy defects at both of these concentrations. An in vitro assessment was performed against the human cervical cancer cell line (HeLa cells) at the concentration of 0-400 μg ml^-1. The LDH profile, DNA fragmentation, apoptosis, and growth cycle of cells showed no apparent toxicity of NCQDs. The overall study offers highly biocompatible N-doped carbon quantum dots, which may be considered as an attractive material for future biomedical applications.

Toxic and genotoxic effects of graphene and multi-walled carbon nanotubes

Graphene and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) are widely used in nanomedicine, and other fields, due to their unique physicochemical properties including high tensile strength, ultra-light weight, thermal and chemical stability, and reliable semi-conductive electronic properties. Although extensive amount of data exist describing their adverse effects including potential genotoxicity, few studies using gene mutation detection approaches in mammalian cells are available, which represents an important gap for risk estimations. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of graphene or MWCNT [as pure, carboxyl (COOH) functionalized, and amide (NH₂) functionalized] on cytotoxicity, intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species, apoptosis, gene expression changes, and gene mutation induction in L5178Y/Tk^+/-3.7.2C mouse lymphoma cell line. Although some adverse effects were observed at concentrations of 350 and 450 µg/ml, which are excessive and not environmentally relevant levels, no marked effects were detected at concentrations of 250 µg/ml and lower. This is the first study reporting cytotoxicity, mutagenicity, and gene expression findings in the mouse lymphoma cell line for graphene and different MWCNT forms at high concentrations; however, the biological relevance of these observations needs to be assessed following chronic in vivo exposure.