1
|
Echeverri E, Skjöldebrand C, O'Callaghan P, Palmquist A, Kreuger J, Hulsart-Billström G, Persson C. Fe and C additions decrease the dissolution rate of silicon nitride coatings and are compatible with microglial viability in 3D collagen hydrogels. Biomater Sci 2023; 11:3144-3158. [PMID: 36919682 DOI: 10.1039/d2bm02074b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Silicon nitride (SiN) coatings may reduce unwanted release of metal ions from metallic implants. However, as SiN slowly dissolves in aqueous solutions, additives that reduce this dissolution rate would likely increase the lifetime and functionality of implants. Adding iron (Fe) and carbon (C) permits tuning of the SiN coatings' mechanical properties, but their effect on SiN dissolution rates, and their capacity to reduce metal ion release from metallic implant substrates, have yet to be investigated. Such coatings have recently been proposed for use in spinal implants; therefore, it is relevant to assess their impact on the viability of cells expected at the implant site, such as microglia, the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS). To study the effects of Fe and C on the dissolution rate of SiN coatings, compositional gradients of Si, Fe and C in combination with N were generated by physical vapor deposition onto CoCrMo discs. Differences in composition did not affect the surface roughness or the release of Si, Fe or Co ions (the latter from the CoCrMo substrate). Adding Fe and C reduced ion release compared to a SiN reference coating, which was attributed to altered reactivity due to an increase in the fraction of stabilizing Si-C or Fe-C bonds. Extracts from the SiN coatings containing Fe and C were compatible with microglial viability in 2D cultures and 3D collagen hydrogels, to a similar degree as CoCrMo and SiN coated CoCrMo reference extracts. As Fe and C reduced the dissolution rate of SiN-coatings and did not compromise microglial viability, the capacity of these additives to extend the lifetime and functionality of SiN-coated metallic implants warrants further investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Estefanía Echeverri
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| | - Charlotte Skjöldebrand
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| | - Paul O'Callaghan
- Department of Medical Cell Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | | | - Johan Kreuger
- Department of Medical Cell Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Gry Hulsart-Billström
- Translational PET Imaging, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Cecilia Persson
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Argouarch AR, Schultz N, Yang AC, Jang Y, Garcia K, Cosme CG, Corrales CI, Nana AL, Karydas AM, Spina S, Grinberg LT, Miller B, Wyss-Coray T, Abyzov A, Goodarzi H, Seeley WW, Kao AW. Postmortem Human Dura Mater Cells Exhibit Phenotypic, Transcriptomic and Genetic Abnormalities that Impact their Use for Disease Modeling. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2022; 18:3050-3065. [PMID: 35809166 PMCID: PMC9622518 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-022-10416-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Patient-derived cells hold great promise for precision medicine approaches in human health. Human dermal fibroblasts have been a major source of cells for reprogramming and differentiating into specific cell types for disease modeling. Postmortem human dura mater has been suggested as a primary source of fibroblasts for in vitro modeling of neurodegenerative diseases. Although fibroblast-like cells from human and mouse dura mater have been previously described, their utility for reprogramming and direct differentiation protocols has not been fully established. In this study, cells derived from postmortem dura mater are directly compared to those from dermal biopsies of living subjects. In two instances, we have isolated and compared dermal and dural cell lines from the same subject. Notably, striking differences were observed between cells of dermal and dural origin. Compared to dermal fibroblasts, postmortem dura mater-derived cells demonstrated different morphology, slower growth rates, and a higher rate of karyotype abnormality. Dura mater-derived cells also failed to express fibroblast protein markers. When dermal fibroblasts and dura mater-derived cells from the same subject were compared, they exhibited highly divergent gene expression profiles that suggest dura mater cells originated from a mixed mural lineage. Given their postmortem origin, somatic mutation signatures of dura mater-derived cells were assessed and suggest defective DNA damage repair. This study argues for rigorous karyotyping of postmortem derived cell lines and highlights limitations of postmortem human dura mater-derived cells for modeling normal biology or disease-associated pathobiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea R. Argouarch
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Nina Schultz
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Andrew C. Yang
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94304 USA
| | - Yeongjun Jang
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905 USA
| | - Kristle Garcia
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Celica G. Cosme
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Christian I. Corrales
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Alissa L. Nana
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Anna M. Karydas
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Salvatore Spina
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Lea T. Grinberg
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Bruce Miller
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Tony Wyss-Coray
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94304 USA
| | - Alexej Abyzov
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905 USA
| | - Hani Goodarzi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - William W. Seeley
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Aimee W. Kao
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cavelier S, Quarrington RD, Jones CF. Mechanical properties of porcine spinal dura mater and pericranium. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2021; 126:105056. [PMID: 34953436 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2021.105056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The objective of this study was to characterize and compare the mechanical properties of porcine pericranium and spinal dura mater, to evaluate the mechanical suitability of pericranium as a dural graft. METHOD Eighty-eight spinal dura (cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions, in ventral longitudinal, dorsal longitudinal and circumferential orientations) and eighteen pericranium samples (ventral-dorsal, and lateral orientations) from four pigs, were harvested and subjected to uniaxial loading while hydrated. The stiffness, strain at toe-linear regions transition, strain at linear-yield regions transition and other structural and mechanical properties were measured. Stress-strain curves were fitted to a one-term Ogden model and Ogden parameters were calculated. Linear regression models with cluster-robust standard errors were used to assess the effect of region and orientation on material and structural properties. RESULTS Both spinal dura and pericranium exhibited distinct anisotropy and were stiffer in the longitudinal direction. The tissues exhibited structural and mechanical similarities especially in terms of stiffness and strains in the linear region. Stiffness ranged from 1.28 to 5.32 N/mm for spinal dura and 2.42-3.90 N/mm for pericranium. In the circumferential and longitudinal directions, the stiffness of spinal dura specimens was statistically similar to that of pericranium in the same orientation. The strain at the upper bound of the linear region of longitudinal pericranium (28.0%) was statistically similar to that of any spinal dura specimens (24.4-32.9%). CONCLUSIONS Autologous pericranium has advantageous physical properties for spinal duraplasty. The present study demonstrated that longitudinally oriented pericranium is mechanically compatible with spinal duraplasty procedures. Autologous pericranium grafts will likely support the mechanical loads transmitted from the spinal dura, but further biomechanical analyses are required to study the effect of the lower yield strain of circumferential pericranium compared to spinal dura. Finally, the Ogden parameters calculated for pericranium, and the spinal dura at each spinal level, will be useful for computational models incorporating these soft tissues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Cavelier
- Spinal Research Group & Centre for Orthopaedic and Trauma Research, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia; Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, 817 Rue Sherbrooke Ouest, Montréal, QC, H3A 0C3, Canada
| | - R D Quarrington
- Spinal Research Group & Centre for Orthopaedic and Trauma Research, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - C F Jones
- Spinal Research Group & Centre for Orthopaedic and Trauma Research, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia; School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lee H, Phillips JB, Hall RM, Tipper JL. Neural cell responses to wear debris from metal-on-metal total disc replacements. EUROPEAN SPINE JOURNAL : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE EUROPEAN SPINE SOCIETY, THE EUROPEAN SPINAL DEFORMITY SOCIETY, AND THE EUROPEAN SECTION OF THE CERVICAL SPINE RESEARCH SOCIETY 2019; 29:2701-2712. [PMID: 31664570 DOI: 10.1007/s00586-019-06177-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Total disc replacements, comprising all-metal articulations, are compromised by wear and particle production. Metallic wear debris and ions trigger a range of biological responses including inflammation, genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, hypersensitivity and pseudotumour formation, therefore we hypothesise that, due to proximity to the spinal cord, glial cells may be adversely affected. METHODS Clinically relevant cobalt chrome (CoCr) and stainless steel (SS) wear particles were generated using a six-station pin-on-plate wear simulator. The effects of metallic particles (0.5-50 μm3 debris per cell) and metal ions on glial cell viability, cellular activity (glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression) and DNA integrity were investigated in 2D and 3D culture using live/dead, immunocytochemistry and a comet assay, respectively. RESULTS CoCr wear particles and ions caused significant reductions in glial cell viability in both 2D and 3D culture systems. Stainless steel particles did not affect glial cell viability or astrocyte activation. In contrast, ions released from SS caused significant reductions in glial cell viability, an effect that was especially noticeable when astrocytes were cultured in isolation without microglia. DNA damage was observed in both cell types and with both biomaterials tested. CoCr wear particles had a dose-dependent effect on astrocyte activation, measured through expression of GFAP. CONCLUSIONS The results from this study suggest that microglia influence the effects that metal particles have on astrocytes, that SS ions and particles play a role in the adverse effects observed and that SS is a less toxic biomaterial than CoCr alloy for use in spinal devices. These slides can be retrieved under Electronic Supplementary Material.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - J B Phillips
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, UK
| | - R M Hall
- School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Joanne L Tipper
- School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK. .,School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Thiele CJ, Hudson MD, Russell AE. Evaluation of existing methods to extract microplastics from bivalve tissue: Adapted KOH digestion protocol improves filtration at single-digit pore size. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2019; 142:384-393. [PMID: 31232316 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Methods standardisation in microplastics research is needed. Apart from reagent-dependent effects on microplastics, varying target particle sizes can hinder result comparison between studies. Human health concerns warrant recovery of small microplastics. We compared existing techniques using hydrogen peroxide, Proteinase-K, Trypsin and potassium hydroxide to digest bivalve tissue. Filterability, digestion efficacy, recoverability of microplastics and subsequent polymer identification using Raman spectroscopy and a matching software were assessed. Only KOH allowed filtration at ≤25 μm. When adding a neutralisation step prior to filtration, KOH digestates were filterable using 1.2-μm filters. Digestion efficacies were >95.0% for oysters, but lower for clams. KOH destroyed rayon at 60 °C but not at 40 °C. Acrylic fibre identification was affected due to changes in Raman spectra peaks. Despite those effects, we recommend KOH as the most viable extraction method for exposure risk studies, due to microplastics recovery from bivalve tissues of single-digit micrometre size.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christina J Thiele
- Centre for Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, University Road, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK.
| | - Malcolm D Hudson
- Centre for Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, University Road, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Wagner A, White AP, Tang MC, Agarwal S, Stueckle TA, Rojanasakul Y, Gupta RK, Dinu CZ. Incineration of Nanoclay Composites Leads to Byproducts with Reduced Cellular Reactivity. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10709. [PMID: 30013129 PMCID: PMC6048035 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28884-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Addition of nanoclays into a polymer matrix leads to nanocomposites with enhanced properties to be used in plastics for food packaging applications. Because of the plastics' high stored energy value, such nanocomposites make good candidates for disposal via municipal solid waste plants. However, upon disposal, increased concerns related to nanocomposites' byproducts potential toxicity arise, especially considering that such byproducts could escape disposal filters to cause inhalation hazards. Herein, we investigated the effects that byproducts of a polymer polylactic acid-based nanocomposite containing a functionalized montmorillonite nanoclay (Cloisite 30B) could pose to human lung epithelial cells, used as a model for inhalation exposure. Analysis showed that the byproducts induced toxic responses, including reductions in cellular viability, changes in cellular morphology, and cytoskeletal alterations, however only at high doses of exposure. The degree of dispersion of nanoclays in the polymer matrix appeared to influence the material characteristics, degradation, and ultimately toxicity. With toxicity of the byproduct occurring at high doses, safety protocols should be considered, along with deleterious effects investigations to thus help aid in safer, yet still effective products and disposal strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alixandra Wagner
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Andrew P White
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Man Chio Tang
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Sushant Agarwal
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Todd A Stueckle
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
| | - Yon Rojanasakul
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Rakesh K Gupta
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Cerasela Zoica Dinu
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Analysis of dural sac thickness in the human cervical spine. Anat Sci Int 2017; 93:284-290. [DOI: 10.1007/s12565-017-0412-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
8
|
Preedy EC, Perni S, Prokopovich P. Cobalt and titanium nanoparticles influence on mesenchymal stem cell elasticity and turgidity. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 157:146-156. [PMID: 28586727 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Bone cells are damaged by wear particles originating from total joint replacement implants. We investigated Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) nanomechanical properties when exposed to cobalt and titanium nanoparticles (resembling wear debris) of different sizes for up to 3days using AFM nanoindentation; along with flow-cytometry and MTT assay. The results demonstrated that cells exposed to increasing concentrations of nanoparticles had a lower value of elasticity and spring constant without significant effect on cell metabolic activity and viability but some morphological alteration (bleeping). Cobalt induced greater effects than titanium and this is consistent with the general knowledge of cyto-compatibility of the later. This work demonstrates for the first time that metal nanoparticles do not only influence MSCs enzymes activity but also cell structure; however, they do not result in full membrane damage. Furthermore, the mechanical changes are concentration and particles composition dependent but little influenced by the particle size.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Stefano Perni
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Polina Prokopovich
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Cottrino S, Fabrègue D, Cowie A, Besse JL, Tadier S, Gremillard L, Hartmann D. Wear study of Total Ankle Replacement explants by microstructural analysis. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2016; 61:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Revised: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
10
|
Papageorgiou I, Abberton T, Fuller M, Tipper JL, Fisher J, Ingham E. Biological Effects of Clinically Relevant CoCr Nanoparticles in the Dura Mater: An Organ Culture Study. NANOMATERIALS 2014; 4:485-504. [PMID: 28344233 PMCID: PMC5304670 DOI: 10.3390/nano4020485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2014] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Medical interventions for the treatment of spinal disc degeneration include total disc replacement and fusion devices. There are, however, concerns regarding the generation of wear particles by these devices, the majority of which are in the nanometre sized range with the potential to cause adverse biological effects in the surrounding tissues. The aims of this study were to develop an organ culture model of the porcine dura mater and to investigate the biological effects of CoCr nanoparticles in this model. A range of histological techniques were used to analyse the structure of the tissue in the organ culture. The biological effects of the CoCr wear particles and the subsequent structural changes were assessed using tissue viability assays, cytokine assays, histology, immunohistochemistry, and TEM imaging. The physiological structure of the dura mater remained unchanged during the seven days of in vitro culture. There was no significant loss of cell viability. After exposure of the organ culture to CoCr nanoparticles, there was significant loosening of the epithelial layer, as well as the underlying collagen matrix. TEM imaging confirmed these structural alterations. These structural alterations were attributed to the production of MMP-1, -3, -9, -13, and TIMP-1. ELISA analysis revealed that there was significant release of cytokines including IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α, ECP and also the matrix protein, tenascin-C. This study suggested that CoCr nanoparticles did not cause cytotoxicity in the dura mater but they caused significant alterations to its structural integrity that could lead to significant secondary effects due to nanoparticle penetration, such as inflammation to the local neural tissue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iraklis Papageorgiou
- IMBE (Institute of Medical & Biological Engineering), School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Thomas Abberton
- IMBE (Institute of Medical & Biological Engineering), School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Martin Fuller
- IMBE (Institute of Medical & Biological Engineering), School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Joanne L Tipper
- IMBE (Institute of Medical & Biological Engineering), School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - John Fisher
- IMBE, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Eileen Ingham
- IMBE (Institute of Medical & Biological Engineering), School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|