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Cardaci TD, VanderVeen BN, Huss AR, Bullard BM, Velázquez KT, Frizzell N, Carson JA, Price RL, Murphy EA. Decreased skeletal muscle intramyocellular lipid droplet-mitochondrial contact contributes to myosteatosis in cancer cachexia. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2024; 327:C684-C697. [PMID: 39010842 PMCID: PMC11427022 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00345.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
Cancer cachexia, the unintentional loss of lean mass, contributes to functional dependency, poor treatment outcomes, and decreased survival. Although its pathogenicity is multifactorial, metabolic dysfunction remains a hallmark of cachexia. However, significant knowledge gaps exist in understanding the role of skeletal muscle lipid metabolism and dynamics in this condition. We examined skeletal muscle metabolic dysfunction, intramyocellular lipid droplet (LD) content, LD morphology and subcellular distribution, and LD-mitochondrial interactions using the Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) murine model of cachexia. C57/BL6 male mice (n = 20) were implanted with LLC cells (106) in the right flank or underwent PBS sham injections. Skeletal muscle was excised for transmission electron microscopy (TEM; soleus), oil red O/lipid staining [tibialis anterior (TA)], and protein (gastrocnemius). LLC mice had a greater number (232%; P = 0.006) and size (130%; P = 0.023) of intramyocellular LDs further supported by increased oil-red O positive (87%; P = 0.0109) and "very high" oil-red O positive (178%; P = 0.0002) fibers compared with controls and this was inversely correlated with fiber size (R2 = 0.5294; P < 0.0001). Morphological analyses of LDs show increased elongation and complexity [aspect ratio: intermyofibrillar (IMF) = 9%, P = 0.046) with decreases in circularity [circularity: subsarcolemmal (SS) = 6%, P = 0.042] or roundness (roundness: whole = 10%, P = 0.033; IMF = 8%, P = 0.038) as well as decreased LD-mitochondria touch (-15%; P = 0.006), contact length (-38%; P = 0.036), and relative contact (86%; P = 0.004). Furthermore, dysregulation in lipid metabolism (adiponectin, CPT1b) and LD-associated proteins, perilipin-2 and perilipin-5, in cachectic muscle (P < 0.05) were observed. Collectively, we provide evidence that skeletal muscle myosteatosis, altered LD morphology, and decreased LD-mitochondrial interactions occur in a preclinical model of cancer cachexia.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We sought to advance our understanding of skeletal muscle lipid metabolism and dynamics in cancer cachexia. Cachexia increased the number and size of intramyocellular lipid droplets (LDs). Furthermore, decreases in LD-mitochondrial touch, contact length, and relative contact along with increased LD shape complexity with decreases in circularity and roundness. Dysregulation in lipid metabolism and LD-associated proteins was also documented. Collectively, we show that myosteatosis, altered LD morphology, and decreased LD-mitochondrial interactions occur in cancer cachexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D Cardaci
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Brandon N VanderVeen
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Alexander R Huss
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Brooke M Bullard
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Kandy T Velázquez
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
- Columbia Department of Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Norma Frizzell
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - James A Carson
- Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, JL Huffines Institute for Sports Medicine & Human Performance, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States
| | - Robert L Price
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - E Angela Murphy
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
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VanderVeen BN, Cardaci TD, Bullard BM, Madden M, Li J, Velazquez KT, Kubinak JL, Fan D, Murphy EA. Involvement of the gut microbiota in cancer cachexia. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2024; 327:C661-C670. [PMID: 38981609 PMCID: PMC11427007 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00327.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Cancer cachexia, or the unintentional loss of body weight in patients with cancer, is a multiorgan and multifactorial syndrome with a complex and largely unknown etiology; however, metabolic dysfunction and inflammation remain hallmarks of cancer-associated wasting. Although cachexia manifests with muscle and adipose tissue loss, perturbations to the gastrointestinal tract may serve as the frontline for both impaired nutrient absorption and immune-activating gut dysbiosis. Investigations into the gut microbiota have exploded within the past two decades, demonstrating multiple gut-tissue axes; however, the link between adipose and skeletal muscle wasting and the gut microbiota with cancer is only beginning to be understood. Furthermore, the most used anticancer drugs (e.g. chemotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors) negatively impact gut homeostasis, potentially exacerbating wasting and contributing to poor patient outcomes and survival. In this review, we 1) highlight our current understanding of the microbial changes that occur with cachexia, 2) discuss how microbial changes may contribute to adipose and skeletal muscle wasting, and 3) outline study design considerations needed when examining the role of the microbiota in cancer-induced cachexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon N VanderVeen
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine Columbia, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Thomas D Cardaci
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine Columbia, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Brooke M Bullard
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine Columbia, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Michael Madden
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Kandy T Velazquez
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine Columbia, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Jason L Kubinak
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine Columbia, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Daping Fan
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - E Angela Murphy
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine Columbia, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
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Morena F, Cabrera AR, Greene NP. Exploring heterogeneity: a dive into preclinical models of cancer cachexia. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2024; 327:C310-C328. [PMID: 38853648 PMCID: PMC11427020 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00317.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Cancer cachexia (CC) is a multifactorial and complex syndrome experienced by up to 80% of patients with cancer and implicated in ∼40% of cancer-related deaths. Given its significant impact on patients' quality of life and prognosis, there has been a growing emphasis on elucidating the underlying mechanisms of CC using preclinical models. However, the mechanisms of cachexia appear to differ across several variables including tumor type and model and biologic variables such as sex. These differences may be exacerbated by variance in experimental approaches and data reporting. This review examines literature spanning from 2011 to March 2024, focusing on common preclinical models of CC, including Lewis Lung Carcinoma, pancreatic KPC, and colorectal colon-26 and Apcmin/+ models. Our analysis reveals considerable heterogeneity in phenotypic outcomes, and investigated mechanisms within each model, with particular attention to sex differences that may be exacerbated through methodological differences. Although searching for unified mechanisms is critical, we posit that effective treatment approaches are likely to leverage the heterogeneity presented by the tumor and pertinent biological variables to direct specific interventions. In exploring this heterogeneity, it becomes critical to consider methodological and data reporting approaches to best inform further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francielly Morena
- Cachexia Research Laboratory, Exercise Science Research Center, Department of Health, Human Performance and Recreation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States
| | - Ana Regina Cabrera
- Cachexia Research Laboratory, Exercise Science Research Center, Department of Health, Human Performance and Recreation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States
| | - Nicholas P Greene
- Cachexia Research Laboratory, Exercise Science Research Center, Department of Health, Human Performance and Recreation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States
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Chen L, Zhang H, Chi M, Wang Y, Zhu X, Han L, Xin B, Gan R, Tu Y, Sun X, Lu J, Li J, Huang J, Zhang J, Han Y, Guo C, Yang Q. Bckdk-Mediated Branch Chain Amino Acid Metabolism Reprogramming Contributes to Muscle Atrophy during Cancer Cachexia. Mol Nutr Food Res 2024; 68:e2300577. [PMID: 38150655 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202300577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Revised: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
SCOPE Branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) are essential amino acids and important nutrient signals for energy and protein supplementation. The study uses muscle-specific branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase kinase (Bckdk) conditional knockout (cKO) mice to reveal the contribution of BCAA metabolic dysfunction to muscle wasting. METHOD AND RESULTS Muscle-specific Bckdk-cKO mice are generated through crossbreeding of Bckdkf/f mice with Myf5Cre mice. Lewis lung cancer (LLC) tumor transplantation is used to establish the cancer cachexia model. The occurrence of cancer cachexia is accelerated in the muscle-specific Bckdk-cKO mice after bearing LLC tumor. Wasting skeletal muscle is characterized by increased protein ubiquitination degradation and impaired protein synthesis. The wasting muscle gastrocnemius is mechanized as a distinct BCAA metabolic dysfunction. Based on the atrophy phenotype resulting from BCAA metabolism dysfunction, the optimized BCAA supplementation improves the survival of cancer cachexia in muscle-specific Bckdk-cKO mice bearing LLC tumors, and improves the occurrence of cancer cachexia. The mechanism of BCAA supplementation on muscle mass preservation is based on the promotion of protein synthesis and the inhibition of protein ubiquitination degradation. CONCLUSIONS Dysfunctional BCAA metabolism contributes to the inhibition of protein synthesis and increases protein degradation in the cancer cachexia model of muscle-specific Bckdk-cKO mice bearing LLC tumors. The reprogramming of BCAA catabolism exerts therapeutic effects by stimulating protein synthesis and inhibiting protein degradation in skeletal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Mengyi Chi
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Yaxian Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Xinting Zhu
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Leng Han
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Bo Xin
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Run Gan
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Yixin Tu
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Xipeng Sun
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Jin Lu
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Jinlu Huang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Jianping Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Yonglong Han
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Cheng Guo
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Quanjun Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
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Beaudry AG, Law ML, Gilley-Connor KR, Buley H, Dungan CM, Nascimento CMC, Vichaya EG, Wiggs MP. Diet-induced obesity does not exacerbate cachexia in male mice bearing Lewis-lung carcinoma tumors. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2024; 326:R254-R265. [PMID: 38252513 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00208.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Cachexia is a muscle-wasting syndrome commonly observed in patients with cancer, which can significantly worsen clinical outcomes. Because of a global rise in obesity, the coexistence of cachexia in obese individuals poses unique challenges, with the impact of excessive adiposity on cachexia severity and underlying pathophysiology not well defined. Understanding the interplay between cachexia and obesity is crucial for improving diagnosis and treatment strategies for these patients; therefore, the present study examined differences in cachexia between lean and obese mice bearing Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) tumors. Nine-week-old, male C57Bl6J mice were placed on either a chow or a high-fat diet (HFD) for 9 wk. After the diet intervention, mice were inoculated with LLC or vehicle. Markers of cachexia, such as body and muscle loss, were noted in both chow and HFD groups with tumors. Tumor weight of HFD animals was greater than that of chow. LLC tumors reduced gastrocnemius, plantaris, and soleus mass, regardless of diet. The tibialis anterior and plantaris mass and cross-sectional area of type IIb/x fibers in the gastrocnemius were not different between HFD-chow, HFD-tumor, and chow-tumor. Using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of the plantaris muscle from chow-tumor and HFD-tumor groups, we identified ∼400 differentially expressed genes. Bioinformatic analysis identified changes in lipid metabolism, mitochondria, bioenergetics, and proteasome degradation. Atrophy was not greater despite larger tumor burden in animals fed an HFD, and RNA-seq data suggests that partial protection is mediated through differences in mitochondrial function and protein degradation, which may serve as future mechanistic targets.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study provides timely information on the interaction between obesity and cancer cachexia. Lean and obese animals show signs of cachexia with reduced body weight, adipose tissue, and gastrocnemius muscle mass. There was not significant wasting in the tibialis anterior, plantaris, or fast twitch fibers in the gastrocnemius muscle of obese animals with tumors. RNA-seq analysis reveals that obese tumor bearing animals had differential expression of mitochondria- and degradation-related genes, which may direct future studies in mechanistic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna G Beaudry
- Department of Health, Human Performance, and Recreation, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States
| | - Michelle L Law
- Department of Human Sciences and Design, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States
| | - Kayla R Gilley-Connor
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States
| | - Hailey Buley
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States
| | - Cory M Dungan
- Department of Health, Human Performance, and Recreation, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States
| | | | - Elisabeth G Vichaya
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States
| | - Michael P Wiggs
- Department of Health, Human Performance, and Recreation, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States
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VanderVeen BN, Cardaci TD, Bullard BM, Huss AR, McDonald SJ, Muhammed AD, Kubinak JL, Fan D, Murphy EA. The complex heterogeneity of immune cell signatures across wasting tissues with C26 and 5-fluorouracil-induced cachexia. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2024; 326:C606-C621. [PMID: 38189130 PMCID: PMC11193456 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00548.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Immune cell-driven pathways are linked to cancer cachexia. Tumor presence is associated with immune cell infiltration whereas cytotoxic chemotherapies reduce immune cell counts. Despite these paradoxical effects, both cancer and chemotherapy can cause cachexia; however, our understanding of immune responses in the cachexia condition with cancer and chemotherapy is largely unknown. We sought to advance our understanding of the immunology underlying cancer and cancer with chemotherapy-induced cachexia. CD2F1 mice were given 106 C26 cells, followed by five doses of 5-fluorouracil (5FU; 30 mg/kg LM, ip) or PBS. Indices of cachexia and tumor (TUM), skeletal muscle (SKM), and adipose tissue (AT) immune cell populations were examined using high-parameter flow cytometry. Although 5FU was able to stunt tumor growth, % body weight loss and muscle mass were not different between C26 and C26 + 5FU. C26 increased CD11b+Ly6g+ and CD11b+Ly6cInt inflammatory myeloid cells in SKM and AT; however, both populations were reduced with C26 + 5FU. tSNE analysis revealed 24 SKM macrophage subsets wherein 8 were changed with C26 or C26 + 5FU. C26 + 5FU increased SKM CD11b-CD11c+ dendritic cells, CD11b-NK1.1+ NK-cells, and CD11b-B220+ B-cells, and reduced Ly6cHiCX3CR1+CD206+CD163IntCD11c-MHCII- infiltrated macrophages and other CD11b+Ly6cHi myeloid cells compared with C26. Both C26 and C26 + 5FU had elevated CD11b+F480+CD206+MHCII- or more specifically Ly6cLoCX3CR1+CD206+CD163IntCD11c-MHCII- profibrotic macrophages. 5FU suppressed tumor growth and decreased SKM and AT inflammatory immune cells without protecting against cachexia suggesting that these cells are not required for wasting. However, profibrotic cells and muscle inflammatory/atrophic signaling appear consistent with cancer- and cancer with chemotherapy-induced wasting and remain potential therapeutic targets.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Despite being an immune-driven condition, our understanding of skeletal muscle and adipose tissue immune cells with cachexia is limited. Here, we identified immune cell populations in tumors, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue in C26 tumor-bearing mice with/without 5-fluorouracil (5FU). C26 and C26 + 5FU had increased skeletal muscle profibrotic macrophages, but 5FU reduced inflammatory myeloid cells without sparing mass. Tumor presence and chemotherapy have contrasting effects on certain immune cells, which appeared not necessary for wasting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon N VanderVeen
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Thomas D Cardaci
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Brooke M Bullard
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Alexander R Huss
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Sierra J McDonald
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States
| | - Ahmed D Muhammed
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Jason L Kubinak
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - Daping Fan
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
| | - E Angela Murphy
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
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