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Faverzani JL, Guerreiro G, Hammerschmidt TG, Lopes FF, Coelho DDM, Sitta A, Mescka CP, Deon M, Wajner M, Vargas CR. Increased peripheral of brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in phenylketonuric patients treated with l-carnitine. Arch Biochem Biophys 2023; 749:109792. [PMID: 37863349 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2023.109792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is the most common inherited metabolic disorders caused by severe deficiency or absence of phenylalanine hydroxylase activity that converts phenylalanine (Phe) to tyrosine. PKU patients were treated with a Phe restricted diet supplemented with a special formula containing l-carnitine (L-car), well-known antioxidant compound. The lack of treatment can cause neurological and cognitive impairment, as severe mental retardation, neuronal cell loss and synaptic density reduction. Although Phe has been widely demonstrated to be involved in PKU neurotoxicity, the mechanisms responsible for the CNS injury are still not fully known. In this work, we evaluated markers of neurodegeneration, namely BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor), PAI-1 total (Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 total), Cathepsin D, PDGF AB/BB (platelet-derived growth factor), and NCAM (neuronal adhesion molecule) in plasma of PKU patients at early and late diagnosis and under treatment. We found decreased Phe levels and increased L-car concentrations in PKU patients treated with L-car compared to the other groups, indicating that the proposed treatment was effective. Furthermore, we found increased BDNF levels in the patients under treatment compared to patients at early diagnosis, and a positive correlation between BDNF and L-car and a negative correlation between BDNF and Phe. Our results may indicate that in PKU patients treated with L-car there is an attempt to adjust neuronal plasticity and recover the damage suffered, reflecting a compensatory response to brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Lamberty Faverzani
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga, 2752, CEP 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Gilian Guerreiro
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Tatiane Grazieli Hammerschmidt
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Franciele Fátima Lopes
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga, 2752, CEP 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Daniella de Moura Coelho
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Angela Sitta
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Caroline Paula Mescka
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Marion Deon
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Moacir Wajner
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Ramiro Barcelos, 2600, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Carmen Regla Vargas
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga, 2752, CEP 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Ramiro Barcelos, 2600, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Seminotti B, Brondani M, Ribeiro RT, Leipnitz G, Wajner M. Disturbance of Mitochondrial Dynamics, Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Crosstalk, Redox Homeostasis, and Inflammatory Response in the Brain of Glutaryl-CoA Dehydrogenase-Deficient Mice: Neuroprotective Effects of Bezafibrate. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:4839-4853. [PMID: 35639256 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-02887-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Patients with glutaric aciduria type 1 (GA1), a neurometabolic disorder caused by deficiency of glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase (GCDH) activity, commonly manifest acute encephalopathy associated with severe striatum degeneration and progressive cortical and striatal injury whose pathogenesis is still poorly known. We evaluated redox homeostasis, inflammatory response, mitochondrial biogenesis and dynamics, endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria crosstalk, and ER stress in the brain of GCDH-deficient (Gcdh-/-) and wild-type (Gcdh+/+) mice fed a high Lys chow, which better mimics the human neuropathology mainly characterized by striatal lesions. Increased lipid peroxidation and altered antioxidant defenses, including decreased concentrations of reduced glutathione and increased activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione transferase, were observed in the striatum and cerebral cortex of Gcdh-/- mice. Augmented Iba-1 staining was also found in the dorsal striatum and neocortex, whereas the nuclear content of NF-κB was increased, and the cytosolic content of IκBα decreased in the striatum of the mutant animals, indicating a pro-inflammatory response. Noteworthy, in vivo treatment with the pan-PPAR agonist bezafibrate normalized these alterations. It was also observed that the ER-mitochondria crosstalk proteins VDAC1 and IP3R were reduced, whereas the ER stress protein DDIT3 was augmented in Gcdh-/- striatum, signaling disturbances of these processes. Finally, DRP1 content was elevated in the striatum of Gcdh-/- mice, indicating activated mitochondrial fission. We presume that some of these novel pathomechanisms may be involved in GA1 neuropathology and that bezafibrate should be tested as a potential adjuvant therapy for GA1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Seminotti
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Morgana Brondani
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rafael Teixeira Ribeiro
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Guilhian Leipnitz
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Fisiologia, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600, Prédio 21111, Porto Alegre, RS, 90035-003, Brazil
| | - Moacir Wajner
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600, Prédio 21111, Porto Alegre, RS, 90035-003, Brazil.
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, Porto Alegre, RS, 90035-007, Brazil.
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Schorling DC, Kölbel H, Hentschel A, Pechmann A, Meyer N, Wirth B, Rombo R, Sickmann A, Kirschner J, Schara-Schmidt U, Lochmüller H, Roos A. Cathepsin D as biomarker in CSF of nusinersen-treated patients with spinal muscular atrophy. Eur J Neurol 2022; 29:2084-2096. [PMID: 35318785 DOI: 10.1111/ene.15331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The therapeutic landscape of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) has changed dramatically during the last 4 years but treatment responses differ remarkably between individuals and therapeutic decision-making remains challenging - underlining the persistent need for validated biomarkers. METHODS We applied untargeted proteomic analyses to determine biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples of SMA patients under treatment with nusinersen. Identified candidate proteins were validated in CSF samples of SMA patients by Western blot and ELISA. Further, levels of peripheral neurofilament H and L were determined. RESULTS Untargeted proteomic analysis of CSF samples of 3 SMA type 1 patients revealed the lysosomal protease Cathepsin D as a candidate biomarker. Subsequent validation analysis in a larger cohort of 31 pediatric SMA patients (type 1=12, type 2=9, type 3=6, presymptomatically treated=4; age 0-16 years) revealed a significant decline of Cathepsin D levels in SMA patients ≥2 months at the start of treatment. While evident in all older age categories, this decline was only significant in the group of patients that showed a positive motor-response. Moreover, downregulation of Cathepsin D was evident in muscle biopsies of SMA patients. CONCLUSIONS We identified a decline of Cathepsin D levels in CSF samples of SMA patients under nusinersen treatment that was more pronounced in the group of 'treatment responders' than in 'non-responders'. We believe that our results indicate a suitability of Cathepsin D levels as possible biomarker in SMA also in older patients - in combination with analysis of pNF-L in adolescents or alone in adult patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Schorling
- Department of Neuropediatrics and Muscle Disorders, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Heike Kölbel
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Developmental Neurology and Social Pediatrics, Centre for Neuromuscular Disorders in children and adolescents, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Andreas Hentschel
- Leibniz-Institut für Analytische Wissenschaften - ISAS - e.V., 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Astrid Pechmann
- Department of Neuropediatrics and Muscle Disorders, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nancy Meyer
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Developmental Neurology and Social Pediatrics, Centre for Neuromuscular Disorders in children and adolescents, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Brunhilde Wirth
- Institute of Human Genetics, Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Institute of Genetics, and Center for Rare Disorders, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Roman Rombo
- Institute of Human Genetics, Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Institute of Genetics, and Center for Rare Disorders, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Albert Sickmann
- Leibniz-Institut für Analytische Wissenschaften - ISAS - e.V., 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Janbernd Kirschner
- Department of Neuropediatrics and Muscle Disorders, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Department of Neuropediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Germany
| | - Ulrike Schara-Schmidt
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Developmental Neurology and Social Pediatrics, Centre for Neuromuscular Disorders in children and adolescents, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Hanns Lochmüller
- Department of Neuropediatrics and Muscle Disorders, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, The Ottawa Hospital and Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Centro Nacional de Análisis Genómico (CNAG-CRG), Center for Genomic Regulation, Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Andreas Roos
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Developmental Neurology and Social Pediatrics, Centre for Neuromuscular Disorders in children and adolescents, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany.,Leibniz-Institut für Analytische Wissenschaften - ISAS - e.V., 44227, Dortmund, Germany.,Department of Neurology, Heimer Institute for Muscle Research, University Hospital Bergmannsheil, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44789, Bochum, Germany
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Guerreiro G, Faverzani J, Moura AP, Volfart V, Gome Dos Reis B, Sitta A, Gonzalez EA, de Lima Rosa G, Coitinho AS, Baldo G, Wajner M, Vargas CR. Protective effects of L-carnitine on behavioral alterations and neuroinflammation in striatum of glutaryl-COA dehydrogenase deficient mice. Arch Biochem Biophys 2021; 709:108970. [PMID: 34181873 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2021.108970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Glutaric acidemia type 1 (GA1) is caused by glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency that leads to a blockage in the metabolic route of the amino acids lysine and tryptophan and subsequent accumulation of glutaric acid (GA), 3-hydroxyglutaric acids and glutarylcarnitine (C5DC). Patients predominantly manifest neurological symptoms, associated with acute striatal degeneration, as well as progressive cortical and striatum injury whose pathogenesis is not yet fully established. Current treatment includes protein/lysine restriction and l-carnitine supplementation of (L-car). The aim of this work was to evaluate behavior parameters and pro-inflammatory factors (cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α and cathepsin-D levels), as well as the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL10 in striatum of knockout mice (Gcdh-/-) and wild type (WT) mice submitted to a normal or a high Lys diet. The potential protective effects of L-car treatment on these parameters were also evaluated. Gcdh-/- mice showed behavioral changes, including lower motor activity (decreased number of crossings) and exploratory activity (reduced number of rearings). Also, Gcdh-/- mice had significantly higher concentrations of glutarylcarnitine (C5DC) in blood and cathepsin-D (CATD), interleukin IL-1β and tumor factor necrosis alpha (TNF-α) in striatum than WT mice. Noteworthy, L-car treatment prevented most behavioral alterations, normalized CATD levels and attenuated IL-1β levels in striatum of Gcdh-/- mice. Finally, IL-1β was positively correlated with CATD and C5DC levels and L-car was negatively correlated with CATD. Our results demonstrate behavioral changes and a pro-inflammatory status in striatum of the animal model of GA1 and, most importantly, L-car showed important protective effects on these alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilian Guerreiro
- Faculdade de Farmácia, UFRGS, Av. Ipiranga 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Serviço de Genética Médica, HCPA, UFRGS, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, 90035- 903, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Jéssica Faverzani
- Faculdade de Farmácia, UFRGS, Av. Ipiranga 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Farmacêuticas, UFRGS, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Alana Pimentel Moura
- Serviço de Genética Médica, HCPA, UFRGS, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, 90035- 903, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Vitoria Volfart
- Faculdade de Farmácia, UFRGS, Av. Ipiranga 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Bianca Gome Dos Reis
- Faculdade de Farmácia, UFRGS, Av. Ipiranga 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Angela Sitta
- Serviço de Genética Médica, HCPA, UFRGS, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, 90035- 903, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Esteban Alberto Gonzalez
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Fisiologia, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Gabriel de Lima Rosa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Fisiologia, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Adriana Simon Coitinho
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Fisiologia, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Baldo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Fisiologia, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Moacir Wajner
- Serviço de Genética Médica, HCPA, UFRGS, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, 90035- 903, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, UFRGS, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600, 90035 000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Carmen Regla Vargas
- Faculdade de Farmácia, UFRGS, Av. Ipiranga 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Serviço de Genética Médica, HCPA, UFRGS, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, 90035- 903, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, UFRGS, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600, 90035 000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Farmacêuticas, UFRGS, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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E H, Liang L, Zhang H, Qiu W, Ye J, Xu F, Gong Z, Gu X, Han L. Evaluation of the Clinical, Biochemical, Neurological, and Genetic Presentations of Glutaric Aciduria Type 1 in Patients From China. Front Genet 2021; 12:702374. [PMID: 34306040 PMCID: PMC8293753 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.702374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To characterize the phenotypic and genotypic variations associated with Glutaric aciduria type 1 (GA1) in Chinese patients. Methods We analyzed the clinical, neuroradiological, biochemical, and genetic information from 101 GA1 patients in mainland China. Results 20 patients were diagnosed by newborn screening and the remaining 81 cases were identified following clinical intervention. Macrocephaly was the most common presentation, followed by movement disorders and seizures. A total of 59 patients were evaluated by brain MRI and 58 patients presented with abnormalities, with widening of the sylvian fissures being the most common symptom. The concentration of glutarylcarnitine in the blood, glutarylcarnitine/capryloylcarnitine ratio, and urine levels of glutaric acid were increased in GA1 patients and were shown to decrease following intervention. A total of 88 patient samples were available for genotyping and 74 variants within the GCDH gene, including 23 novel variants, were identified. The most common variant was c.1244-2A > C (18.4%) and there were no significant differences in the biochemical or clinical phenotypes described for patients with the four most common variants: c.1244-2A > C, c.1064G > A, c.533G > A, and c.1147C > T. Patients identified by newborn screening had better outcomes than clinical patients. Conclusion Our findings expand the spectrum of phenotypes and genotypes for GA1 in Chinese populations and suggest that an expanded newborn screening program using tandem mass spectrometry may facilitate the early diagnosis and treatment of this disease, improving clinical outcomes for patients in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huishu E
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lili Liang
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Huiwen Zhang
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjuan Qiu
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun Ye
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Xu
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhuwen Gong
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuefan Gu
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lianshu Han
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Genetic, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Cathepsin D-Managing the Delicate Balance. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13060837. [PMID: 34198733 PMCID: PMC8229105 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13060837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysosomal proteases play a crucial role in maintaining cell homeostasis. Human cathepsin D manages protein turnover degrading misfolded and aggregated proteins and favors apoptosis in the case of proteostasis disruption. However, when cathepsin D regulation is affected, it can contribute to numerous disorders. The down-regulation of human cathepsin D is associated with neurodegenerative disorders, such as neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. On the other hand, its excessive levels outside lysosomes and the cell membrane lead to tumor growth, migration, invasion and angiogenesis. Therefore, targeting cathepsin D could provide significant diagnostic benefits and new avenues of therapy. Herein, we provide a brief overview of cathepsin D structure, regulation, function, and its role in the progression of many diseases and the therapeutic potentialities of natural and synthetic inhibitors and activators of this protease.
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