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Ruseska I, Fresacher K, Petschacher C, Zimmer A. Use of Protamine in Nanopharmaceuticals-A Review. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:1508. [PMID: 34200384 PMCID: PMC8230241 DOI: 10.3390/nano11061508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Macromolecular biomolecules are currently dethroning classical small molecule therapeutics because of their improved targeting and delivery properties. Protamine-a small polycationic peptide-represents a promising candidate. In nature, it binds and protects DNA against degradation during spermatogenesis due to electrostatic interactions between the negatively charged DNA-phosphate backbone and the positively charged protamine. Researchers are mimicking this technique to develop innovative nanopharmaceutical drug delivery systems, incorporating protamine as a carrier for biologically active components such as DNA or RNA. The first part of this review highlights ongoing investigations in the field of protamine-associated nanotechnology, discussing the self-assembling manufacturing process and nanoparticle engineering. Immune-modulating properties of protamine are those that lead to the second key part, which is protamine in novel vaccine technologies. Protamine-based RNA delivery systems in vaccines (some belong to the new class of mRNA-vaccines) against infectious disease and their use in cancer treatment are reviewed, and we provide an update on the current state of latest developments with protamine as pharmaceutical excipient for vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Andreas Zimmer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Universitätsplatz 1, 8010 Graz, Austria; (I.R.); (K.F.); (C.P.)
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Kumari R, Jahageerdar S, Panche AN, Kumar S. Fish tyrosinase enzyme involved in melanin biosynthesis: Insights from physicochemical characterization, homology modeling, and virtual screening studies. Anim Biotechnol 2020; 33:897-913. [DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2020.1846546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Riya Kumari
- ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, India
| | | | | | - Sanath Kumar
- ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, India
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Stewart JR. Developmental morphology and evolution of extraembryonic membranes of lizards and snakes (Reptilia, Squamata). J Morphol 2020; 282:973-994. [PMID: 32936974 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Amniote embryos are supported and nourished by a suite of tissues, the extraembryonic membranes, that provide vascular connections to the egg contents. Oviparous reptiles share a basic pattern of development inherited from a common ancestor; a vascular chorioallantoic membrane, functioning as a respiratory organ, contacts the eggshell and a vascular yolk sac membrane conveys nutrients to the embryo. Squamates (lizards, snakes) have evolved a novel variation in morphogenesis of the yolk sac that results in a unique structure, the yolk cleft/isolated yolk mass complex. This structure is a source of phylogenetic variation in architecture of the extraembryonic membranes among oviparous squamates. The yolk cleft/isolated yolk mass complex is retained in viviparous species and influences placental architecture. The aim of this paper is to review extraembryonic membrane development and morphology in oviparous and related viviparous squamates to explore patterns of variation. The survey includes all oviparous species for which data are available (11 species; 4 families). Comparisons with viviparous species encompass six independent origins of viviparity. The comparisons reveal that both phylogeny and reproductive mode influence variation in extraembryonic membrane development and that phylogenetic variation influences placental evolution. Models of the evolution of squamate placentation have relied primarily on comparisons between independently derived viviparous species. The inclusion of oviparous species in comparative analyses largely supports these models, yet exposes convergent patterns of evolution that become apparent when phylogenetic variation is recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Stewart
- Department of Biological Sciences, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee, USA
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Griffith OW, Brandley MC, Belov K, Thompson MB. Reptile Pregnancy Is Underpinned by Complex Changes in Uterine Gene Expression: A Comparative Analysis of the Uterine Transcriptome in Viviparous and Oviparous Lizards. Genome Biol Evol 2016; 8:3226-3239. [PMID: 27635053 PMCID: PMC5174741 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evw229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of new organs is difficult to study because most vertebrate organs evolved only once, more than 500 million years ago. An ideal model for understanding complex organ evolution is the placenta, a structure that is present in live bearing reptiles and mammals (amniotes), which has evolved independently more than 115 times. Using transcriptomics, we characterized the uterine gene expression patterns through the reproductive cycle of a viviparous skink lizard, Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii. Then we compare these patterns with the patterns of gene expression from two oviparous skinks Lampropholis guichenoti and Lerista bougainvillii. While thousands of genes are differentially expressed between pregnant and non-pregnant uterine tissue in the viviparous skink, few differentially expressed genes were identified between gravid and non-gravid oviparous skinks. This finding suggests that in P. entrecasteauxii, a pregnant-specific gene expression profile has evolved, allowing for the evolution of pregnancy-specific innovations in the uterus. We find substantial gene expression differences between the uterus of the chorioallantoic and the yolk sac placenta in P. entrecasteauxii, suggesting these placental regions are specialized for different placental functions. In particular, the chorioallantoic placenta is likely a major site of nutrient transport by membrane-bound transport proteins, while the yolk sac placenta also likely transports nutrients but via apocrine secretions. We discuss how the evolution of transcription factor networks is likely to underpin the evolution of the new transcriptional states in the uterine tissue of viviparous reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver W Griffith
- School of Life and Environmental Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia .,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University
| | - Matthew C Brandley
- School of Life and Environmental Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.,New York University-Sydney, The Rocks, NSW, Australia
| | - Katherine Belov
- School of Life and Environmental Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Michael B Thompson
- School of Life and Environmental Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
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Van Dyke JU, Lindsay LA, Murphy CR, Thompson MB. Carbonic anhydrase II is found in the placenta of a viviparous, matrotrophic lizard and likely facilitates embryo-maternal CO2transport. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2015; 324:636-46. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James U. Van Dyke
- School of Biological Sciences; The University of Sydney; Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - Laura A. Lindsay
- Department of Anatomy and Histology; The University of Sydney; Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - Christopher R. Murphy
- Department of Anatomy and Histology; The University of Sydney; Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - Michael B. Thompson
- School of Biological Sciences; The University of Sydney; Sydney New South Wales Australia
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Blackburn DG. Viviparous placentotrophy in reptiles and the parent-offspring conflict. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2015; 324:532-48. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G. Blackburn
- Departmentof Biology; Electron Microscopy Center; Trinity College; Hartford Connecticut
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Griffith OW, Blackburn DG, Brandley MC, Van Dyke JU, Whittington CM, Thompson MB. Ancestral state reconstructions require biological evidence to test evolutionary hypotheses: A case study examining the evolution of reproductive mode in squamate reptiles. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2015; 324:493-503. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 01/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver W. Griffith
- School of Biological Sciences; Heydon Laurence Building (A08); University of Sydney; Camperdown NSW Australia
| | | | - Matthew C. Brandley
- School of Biological Sciences; Heydon Laurence Building (A08); University of Sydney; Camperdown NSW Australia
| | - James U. Van Dyke
- School of Biological Sciences; Heydon Laurence Building (A08); University of Sydney; Camperdown NSW Australia
| | - Camilla M. Whittington
- School of Biological Sciences; Heydon Laurence Building (A08); University of Sydney; Camperdown NSW Australia
| | - Michael B. Thompson
- School of Biological Sciences; Heydon Laurence Building (A08); University of Sydney; Camperdown NSW Australia
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Blackburn DG. Evolution of vertebrate viviparity and specializations for fetal nutrition: A quantitative and qualitative analysis. J Morphol 2014; 276:961-90. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Revised: 01/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G. Blackburn
- Department of Biology and; Electron Microscopy Center, Trinity College; Hartford Connecticut 06106
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Griffith OW, Ujvari B, Belov K, Thompson MB. Placental lipoprotein lipase (LPL) gene expression in a placentotrophic lizard, Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2013; 320:465-70. [PMID: 23939756 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Revised: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Viviparity (live birth) relies on a functional placenta, which is formed by cooperating maternal and embryonic tissues. In some viviparous lineages, mothers use this placenta to transport nutrients to feed developing embryos through pregnancy (placentotrophy). The Australian lizard, Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii, provides approximately 60% of the lipid for embryonic growth and metabolism to embryos across the placenta. Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is an important enzyme in lipid transport in vertebrates. We examined patterns of LPL gene expression to identify its role in the uterus of pregnant P. entrecasteauxii. We used reverse transcription quantitative real time PCR to measure the expression of the LPL gene in the uterine tissue throughout reproduction and compared uterine LPL expression in chorioallantoic and yolk-sac placentae. Expression of the LPL gene is significantly higher in the uterus of late pregnant compared to non-pregnant and early pregnant P. entrecasteauxii, indicating a greater capacity for lipid transport towards the end of pregnancy. The period of high LPL gene expression correlates with the time that developing embryos are undergoing the greatest growth and have the highest metabolic rate. LPL gene expression is significantly higher in the uterine tissue of the yolk-sac placenta than the chorioallantoic placenta, providing the first molecular evidence that the yolk-sac placenta is the major site of lipid transport in pregnant P. entrecasteauxii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver W Griffith
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Itonaga K, Wapstra E, Jones SM. A novel pattern of placental leucine transfer during mid to late gestation in a highly placentotrophic viviparous lizard. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2012; 318:308-15. [PMID: 22821866 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Placentotrophy is the nourishment of embryos by resources provided via the placenta during gestation. The magnitude and timing of placental nutrient support during pregnancy are important for embryonic growth, especially in highly placentotrophic animals such as mammals. However, no study has yet investigated how placental organic nutrient support may change during pregnancy in highly placentotrophic viviparous reptiles. Amino acids are essential nutrients for embryonic growth and leucine is a common amino acid. The magnitude and timing of placental leucine transfer may affect embryonic growth and mass and, therefore, offspring phenotype. In this study, female Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii, a highly placentotrophic viviparous skink, were collected throughout gestation. We injected (3)H-leucine into these gravid females and assessed the transfer of (3)H-leucine into maternal compartments (i.e., the blood and the liver), and into embryonic compartments (i.e., the embryo, the yolk, and the amniotic fluid). At either 60 or 120 min post-injection, the radioactivity in each sample was extracted and then counted, and the transfer ratio was calculated. Our results provide direct evidence that circulating maternal leucine passes through the placenta into the embryos in this species. The relative rate of placental leucine transfer did not alter during mid to late gestation. This suggests the steady somatic growth of the embryos during mid-late pregnancy is dependent upon the placental transfer of nutrients rather than yolk stores. This pattern of placental nutrient support may determine offspring body size at birth and, therefore, offspring fitness in P. entrecasteauxii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Itonaga
- School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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Van Dyke JU, Beaupre SJ. Stable isotope tracer reveals that viviparous snakes transport amino acids to offspring during gestation. J Exp Biol 2012; 215:760-5. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.058644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Viviparity and placentation have evolved from oviparity over 100 times in squamate reptiles (lizards and snakes). The independent origins of placentation have resulted in a variety of placental morphologies in different taxa, ranging from simple apposition of fetal and maternal tissues to endotheliochorial implantation that is homoplasious with mammalian placentation. Because the eggs of oviparous squamates transport gases and water from the environment and calcium from the eggshell, the placentae of viviparous squamates are thought to have initially evolved to accomplish these functions from within the maternal oviduct. Species with complex placentae have also been shown to rely substantially, or even primarily, on placental transport of organic nutrients for embryonic nutrition. However, it is unclear whether species with only simple placentae are also capable of transporting organic nutrients to offspring. Among viviparous squamates, all of the snakes that have been studied thus far have been shown to have simple placentae. However, most studies of snake placentation are limited to a single lineage, the North American Natricinae. We tested the abilities of four species of viviparous snakes – Agkistrodon contortrix (Viperidae), Boa constrictor (Boidae), Nerodia sipedon (Colubridae: Natricinae) and Thamnophis sirtalis (Colubridae: Natricinae) – to transport diet-derived amino acids to offspring during gestation. We fed [15N]leucine to pregnant snakes, and compared offspring 15N content with that of unlabeled controls. Labeled females allocated significantly more 15N to offspring than did controls, but 15N allocation did not differ among species. Our results indicate that viviparous snakes are capable of transporting diet-derived amino acids to their offspring during gestation, possibly via placentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James U. Van Dyke
- 601 SCEN, Department of Biological Sciences, 1 University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Steven J. Beaupre
- 601 SCEN, Department of Biological Sciences, 1 University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
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Itonaga K, Wapstra E, Jones SM. Evidence for placental transfer of maternal corticosterone in a viviparous lizard. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2011; 160:184-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Revised: 05/25/2011] [Accepted: 05/26/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Transplacental nutrient transfer during gestation in the Andean lizard Mabuya sp. (Squamata, Scincidae). J Comp Physiol B 2010; 181:249-68. [DOI: 10.1007/s00360-010-0514-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2010] [Revised: 08/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Biazik JM, Thompson MB, Murphy CR. Lysosomal and alkaline phosphatase activity indicate macromolecule transport across the uterine epithelium in two viviparous skinks with complex placenta. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2009; 312:817-26. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.21297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Mess A, Carter AM. Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2007; 148:769-79. [PMID: 17347003 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2006] [Revised: 01/22/2007] [Accepted: 01/26/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The chorioallantoic placenta is an organ of gaseous exchange that exhibits a high degree of structural diversity. One factor determining oxygen transfer across the placenta, the diffusion distance, is in part dependent on the number of cell layers separating maternal from fetal blood. This interhaemal barrier occurs in three principal variants. The focus of this review is on determining how the barrier evolved in placental mammals. The analysis was based on current knowledge of placental structure, as far as possible using ultrastructural data, and on current views about the evolution of placental mammals, derived from molecular phylogenetics. We show that epitheliochorial placentation, the least invasive type, is a derived state and discuss factors that may have determined its evolution with reference to conflict theory, as applied to the allocation of resources between mother and fetus. It is not yet possible to determine which of the two more invasive types of placentation occurred in the last common ancestor of crown placentals. Depending on tree topology and taxon sampling, the result achieved is either endotheliochorial, haemochorial or unresolved. Finally we discuss other factors important to placental gas exchange and point to physiological variables that might become amenable to phylogenetic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Mess
- Museum of Natural History, Department of Research, Humboldt University Berlin, Invalidenstr. 43, DE-10115 Berlin, Germany.
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