γ-Aminobutyric acid-ρ expression in ependymal glial cells of the mouse cerebellum

Multiciliated ependymal cells: an update on biology and pathology in the adult brain

Mature multiciliated ependymal cells line the cerebral ventricles where they form a partial barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and brain parenchyma and regulate local CSF microcirculation through coordinated ciliary beating. Although the ependyma is a highly specialized brain interface with barrier, trophic, and perhaps even regenerative capacity, it remains a misfit in the canon of glial neurobiology. We provide an update to seminal reviews in the field by conducting a scoping review of the post-2010 mature multiciliated ependymal cell literature. We delineate how recent findings have either called into question or substantiated classical views of the ependymal cell. Beyond this synthesis, we document the basic methodologies and study characteristics used to describe multiciliated ependymal cells since 1980. Our review serves as a comprehensive resource for future investigations of mature multiciliated ependymal cells.

Spontaneous Calcium Transients Recorded from Striatal Astrocytes in a Preclinical Model of Autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is known as a group of neurodevelopmental conditions including stereotyped and repetitive behaviors, besides social and sensorimotor deficits. Anatomical and functional evidence indicates atypical maturation of the striatum. Astrocytes regulate the maturation and plasticity of synaptic circuits, and impaired calcium signaling is associated with repetitive behaviors and atypical social interaction. Spontaneous calcium transients (SCT) recorded in the striatal astrocytes of the rat were investigated in the preclinical model of ASD by prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA). Our results showed sensorimotor delay, augmented glial fibrillary acidic protein -a typical intermediate filament protein expressed by astrocytes- and diminished expression of GABAA-ρ3 through development, and increased frequency of SCT with a reduced latency that resulted in a diminished amplitude in the VPA model. The convulsant picrotoxin, a GABAA (γ-aminobutyric acid type A) receptor antagonist, reduced the frequency of SCT in both experimental groups but rescued this parameter to control levels in the preclinical ASD model. The amplitude and latency of SCT were decreased by picrotoxin in both experimental groups. Nipecotic acid, a GABA uptake inhibitor, reduced the mean amplitude only for the control group. Nevertheless, nipecotic acid increased the frequency but diminished the latency in both experimental groups. Thus, we conclude that striatal astrocytes exhibit SCT modulated by GABAA-mediated signaling, and prenatal exposure to VPA disturbs this tuning.

Organization of the ventricular zone of the cerebellum

The roof of the fourth ventricle (4V) is located on the ventral part of the cerebellum, a region with abundant vascularization and cell heterogeneity that includes tanycyte-like cells that define a peculiar glial niche known as ventromedial cord. This cord is composed of a group of biciliated cells that run along the midline, contacting the ventricular lumen and the subventricular zone. Although the complex morphology of the glial cells composing the cord resembles to tanycytes, cells which are known for its proliferative capacity, scarce or non-proliferative activity has been evidenced in this area. The subventricular zone of the cerebellum includes astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neurons whose function has not been extensively studied. This review describes to some extent the phenotypic, morphological, and functional characteristics of the cells that integrate the roof of the 4V, primarily from rodent brains.

A Functional Signature in the Developing Cerebellum: Evidence From a Preclinical Model of Autism

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are pervasive neurodevelopmental conditions detected during childhood when delayed language onset and social deficits are observed. Children diagnosed with ASD frequently display sensorimotor deficits associated with the cerebellum, suggesting a dysfunction of synaptic circuits. Astroglia are part of the tripartite synapses and postmortem studies reported an increased expression of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the cerebellum of ASD patients. Astroglia respond to neuronal activity with calcium transients that propagate to neighboring cells, resulting in a functional response known as a calcium wave. This form of intercellular signaling is implicated in proliferation, migration, and differentiation of neural precursors. Prenatal exposure to valproate (VPA) is a preclinical model of ASD in which premature migration and excess of apoptosis occur in the internal granular layer (IGL) of the cerebellum during the early postnatal period. In this study we tested calcium wave propagation in the IGL of mice prenatally exposed to VPA. Sensorimotor deficits were observed and IGL depolarization evoked a calcium wave with astrocyte recruitment. The calcium wave propagation, initial cell recruitment, and mean amplitude of the calcium transients increased significantly in VPA-exposed mice compared to the control group. Astrocyte recruitment was significantly increased in the VPA model, but the mean amplitude of the calcium transients was unchanged. Western blot and histological studies revealed an increased expression of GFAP, higher astroglial density and augmented morphological complexity. We conclude that the functional signature of the IGL is remarkably augmented in the preclinical model of autism.

Targeting GABAC Receptors Improves Post-Stroke Motor Recovery

Ischemic stroke remains a leading cause of disability worldwide, with limited treatment options available. This study investigates GABA_C receptors as novel pharmacological targets for stroke recovery. The expression of ρ1 and ρ2 mRNA in mice were determined in peri-infarct tissue following photothrombotic motor cortex stroke. (R)-4-amino-cyclopent-1-enyl butylphosphinic acid (R)-4-ACPBPA and (S)-4-ACPBPA were assessed using 2-elecotrode voltage electrophysiology in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Stroke mice were treated for 4 weeks with either vehicle, the α5-selective negative allosteric modulator, L655,708, or the ρ1/2 antagonists, (R)-4-ACPBPA and (S)-4-ACPBPA respectively from 3 days post-stroke. Infarct size and expression levels of GAT3 and reactive astrogliosis were determined using histochemistry and immunohistochemistry respectively, and motor function was assessed using both the grid-walking and cylinder tasks. After stroke, significant increases in ρ1 and ρ2 mRNAs were observed on day 3, with ρ2 showing a further increase on day 7. (R)- and (S)-4-ACPBPA are both potent antagonists at ρ2 and only weak inhibitors of α5β2γ2 receptors. Treatment with either L655,708, (S)-4-ACPBPA (ρ1/2 antagonist; 5 mM only), or (R)-4-ACPBPA (ρ2 antagonist; 2.5 and 5 mM) from 3 days after stroke resulted in a significant improvement in motor recovery on the grid-walking task, with L655,708 and (R)-4-ACPBPA also showing an improvement in the cylinder task. Infarct size was unaffected, and only (R)-4-ACPBPA significantly increased peri-infarct GAT3 expression and decreased the level of reactive astrogliosis. Importantly, inhibiting GABA_C receptors affords significant improvement in motor function after stroke. Targeting the ρ-subunit could provide a novel delayed treatment option for stroke recovery.

Inter-fastigial projections along the roof of the fourth ventricle

The fastigial nucleus (FN) is a bilateral cerebellar integrative center for saccadic and vestibular control associated with non-motor functions such as feeding and cardiovascular regulation. In a previous study, we identified a tract of myelinated axons embedded in the subventricular zone (SVZ) that is located between the ependymal cells that form the dorsal wall of the ventricle and the glia limitans at the roof of the fourth ventricle González-González (Sci Rep 2017, 7:40768). Here, we show that this tract of axons, named subventricular axons or SVa, contains projection neurons that bilaterally interconnect both FNs. The approach consisted of the use of a battery of fluorescent neuronal tracers, transgenic mouse lines, and immunohistofluorescence. Our observations show that the SVa belong to a wide network of GABAergic projection neurons mainly located in the medial and caudal region of the FN. The SVa should be considered a part of a continuum of the cerebellar white matter that follows an alternative pathway through the SVZ, a region closely associated with the physiology of the fourth ventricle. This finding adds to our understanding of the complex organization of the FN; however, the function of the interconnection remains to be elucidated.

Response to Hypoxic Preconditioning of Glial Cells from the Roof of the Fourth Ventricle

The cerebellum harbors a specialized area on the roof of the fourth ventricle that is composed of glial cells and neurons that interface with the cerebrospinal fluid. This region includes the so-called ventromedial cord (VMC), which is composed of cells that are glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive and nestin-positive and distributes along the midline in association with blood vessels. We hypothesized that these cells should compare to GFAP and nestin-positive cells that are known to exist in other areas of the brain, which undergo proliferation and differentiation under hypoxic conditions. Thus, we tested whether cells of the VMC would display a similar reaction to hypoxic preconditioning (HPC). Indeed, we found that the VMC does respond to HPC by reorganizing its cellular components before it gradually returns to its basal state after about a week. This response we documented by monitoring global changes in the expression of GFAP-EGFP in transgenic mice, using light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) revealed a dramatic loss of EGFP upon HPC, and was paralleled by retraction of Bergmann glial cell processes. This EGFP loss was supported by western blot analysis, which also showed a loss in the astrocyte-markers GFAP and ALDH1L1. On the other hand, other cell-markers appeared to be upregulated in the blots (including nestin, NeuN, and Iba1). Finally, we found that HPC does not remarkably affect the incorporation of BrdU into cells on the cerebellum, but strongly augments BrdU incorporation into periventricular cells on the floor of the fourth ventricle over the adjacent medulla.

GABAA Receptors are Selectively Expressed in NG2 Glia of the Cerebellar White Matter

The cerebellum is involved in the coordination of movement. Its cellular composition is dominated by GABAergic neuronal types, and glial cells are known to express functional receptors. GABAergic signaling regulates cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration during neurodevelopment. However, little is known about the functional expression of GABA receptors in the cerebellar white matter (WM). Thus, the aim of this study was to test whether glial cells express functional GABA receptors during postnatal development (P7-P9) of cerebellar WM. Immunofluorescence showed that half of the astrocytes express GAD67, suggesting that glial cells synthesize GABA. Calcium imaging in cerebellar slices revealed that GABA and the GABA_A agonist muscimol evoked calcium transients in sulforhodamine B negative cells, whereas the GABA_B agonist baclofen failed to evoke responses in cerebellar WM. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of GFAP⁺ cells showed dye coupling and a passive current-voltage relation typical of astrocytes. Surprisingly, these cells did not respond to muscimol. Two additional populations were identified as GFAP^- cells. The first population showed dye coupling, slow decaying inward and outward currents with no voltage dependence, and did not respond to GABA_A agonists. The second population showed an outward-rectifying current-voltage relationship and responded to muscimol, but dye coupling was absent. These cells received synaptic input and were NG2⁺, but evoked calcium waves failed to modulate the frequency of spontaneous postsynaptic currents (sPSCs) or signaling into NG2 glia. We conclude that GABA_A receptor-mediated signaling is selective for NG2 glia in the WM of the cerebellum.

Diverse Actions of Astrocytes in GABAergic Signaling

An imbalance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission leading to over excitation plays a crucial role in generating seizures, while enhancing GABAergic mechanisms are critical in terminating seizures. In recent years, it has been reported in many studies that astrocytes are deeply involved in synaptic transmission. Astrocytes form a critical component of the “tripartite” synapses by wrapping around the pre- and post-synaptic elements. From this location, astrocytes are known to greatly influence the dynamics of ions and transmitters in the synaptic cleft. Despite recent extensive research on excitatory tripartite synapses, inhibitory tripartite synapses have received less attention, even though they influence inhibitory synaptic transmission by affecting chloride and GABA concentration dynamics. In this review, we will discuss the diverse actions of astrocytic chloride and GABA homeostasis at GABAergic tripartite synapses. We will then consider the pathophysiological impacts of disturbed GABA homeostasis at the tripartite synapse.

GABAρ3 expression in lobule X of the cerebellum is reduced in the valproate model of autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disorders characterized by social interaction deficits, communication impairments, and stereotyped and repetitive behaviors. Additionally, impairments in the GABAergic circuitry have been associated with ASD. Several studies have shown that dysfunction of the cerebellum is a hallmark of ASD, and postmortem studies in humans reported a reduced density of Purkinje cells (PCs) together with an abnormal expression of GABA_A subunits, among which GABAρ3 is expressed in early postnatal development, forms homomeric receptors with high affinity to the agonist (GABA EC₅₀ ∼ 3 μM) and desensitize very little upon activation. Thus, we tested if the expression of GABAρ3 was modified by prenatal exposure to valproate (VPA), a well-known murine model of autism. The latency to find the nest increased in VPA-treated mice when compared to controls at postnatal day 8 (P8). Immunofluorescence studies showed a reduced expression of GABAρ3 in Purkinje cells (PCs) and ependymal glial cells (EGCs) from lobule X of VPA-treated mice. Finally, the expression of GABAρ3 increases linearly throughout normal development of the cerebellum, but this pattern is disrupted in the VPA model of autism. We conclude that the expression of GABAρ3 is reduced in PCs and EGCs from lobule X of the cerebellum in the VPA model of autism. Thus, GABAρ3 may be a relevant marker for ASD etiology.

Identification of novel cellular clusters define a specialized area in the cerebellar periventricular zone

The periventricular zone of cerebellum is a germinative niche during the embryonic development, nevertheless its structural organization and functional implications in adult have not been widely studied. Here we disclose the presence of two novel clusters of cells in that area. The first one was named the subventricular cellular cluster (SVCC) and is composed of cells that express glial and neuronal markers. The second was named the ventromedial cord (VMC) and appears as a streak of biciliated cells with microvillosities facing the ventricle, that includes GFAP⁺ and nestin⁺ cells organized along the periventricular vasculature. The dorsal limit of the SVCC is associated with myelinated axons of neurons of unknown origin. This paper describes the characteristics and organization of these groups of cells. They can be observed from late embryonic development in the transgenic mouse line GFAP-GFP. The SVCC and VMC expand during early postnatal development but are restricted to the central area of the ventricle in adulthood. We did not find evidence of cell proliferation, cell migration or the presence of fenestrated blood vessels. These findings provide new insights into the knowledge of the cellular composition and structural organization of the periventricular zone of cerebellum.

GABAρ selective antagonist TPMPA partially inhibits GABA-mediated currents recorded from neurones and astrocytes in mouse striatum

The neostriatum plays a central role in motor coordination where nerve cells operate neuronal inhibition through GABAergic transmission. The neostriatum expresses a wide range of GABA-A subunits, including GABAρ1 and ρ2 which are restricted to a fraction of GABAergic interneurons and astrocytes. Spontaneous postsynaptic currents (sPSCs) evoked by 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) were recorded from neurones of the dorsal neostriatum, and their frequency was reduced > 50% by the selective GABAρ antagonist (1,2,5,6-Tetrahydropyridine-4-yl) methylphosphinic acid (TPMPA). Additionally, we recorded GABA evoked currents from astrocytes in vitro and in situ. Astrocytes in vitro showed modulation by pentobarbital and desensitization upon consecutive applications of GABA. However, modulation by pentobarbital was absent and no significant desensitization was detected from astrocytes in situ. Moreover, TPMPA-sensitive GABA-currents that were insensitive to bicuculline were also recorded from astrocytes in situ, consistent with our previous study where GABAρ expression was demonstrated. Finally, we assessed the mRNA expression of GABAρ3, through different stages of postnatal development; double immunofluorescence disclosed GABAρ3 expression in calretinin-positive interneurons as well as in astrocytes (>70%). These results add new information about the participation of GABAρ subunits in neostriatal interneurons and astrocytes.

Role of the ρ1 GABA(C) receptor N-terminus in assembly, trafficking and function

The GABAC receptor and closely related GABAA receptor are members of the pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) superfamily and mediate inhibitory fast synaptic transmission in the nervous system. Each pLGIC subunit comprises an N-terminal extracellular agonist-binding domain followed by a channel domain and a variable intracellular domain. Available structural information shows that the core of the agonist-binding domain is a β sandwich of ten β-strands, which form the agonist-binding pocket at the subunit interface. This β-sandwich is preceded by an N-terminal α-helix in eukaryotic structures but not in prokaryotic structures. The N-terminal α-helix has been shown to be functionally essential in α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Sequence analysis of GABAC and GABAA receptors predicts an α-helix in a similar position but preceded by 8 to 46 additional residues, of unknown function, which we term the N-terminal extension. To test the functional role of both the N-terminal extension and the putative N-terminal α-helix in the ρ1 GABAC receptor, we created a series of deletions from the N-terminus. The N-terminal extension was not functionally essential, but its removal did reduce both cell surface expression and cooperativity of agonist-gated channel function. Further deletion of the putative N-terminal α-helix abolished receptor function by preventing cell-surface expression. Our results further demonstrate the essential role of the N-terminal α-helix in the assembly and trafficking of eukaryotic pLGICs. They also provide evidence that the N-terminal extension, although not essential, contributes to receptor assembly, trafficking and conformational changes associated with ligand gating.

GABAρ subunits confer a bicuculline-insensitive component to GFAP+ cells of cerebellum

GABA-A receptors mediating synaptic or extrasynaptic transmission are molecularly and functionally distinct, and glial cells are known to express a plethora of GABA-A subunits. Here we demonstrate that GFAP(+) cells of the granular layer of cerebellum express GABAρ subunits during early postnatal development, thereby conferring peculiar pharmacologic characteristics to GABA responses. Electron microscopy revealed the presence of GABAρ in the plasma membrane of GFAP(+) cells. In contrast, expression in the adult was restricted to Purkinje neurons and a subset of ependymal cells. Electrophysiological studies in vitro revealed that astrocytes express functional receptors with an EC50 of 52.2 ± 11.8 μM for GABA. The evoked currents were inhibited by bicuculline (100 μM) and TPMPA (IC50, 5.9 ± 0.6 μM), indicating the presence of a GABAρ component. Coimmunoprecipitation demonstrated protein-protein interactions between GABAρ1 and GABAα1, and double immunofluorescence showed that these subunits colocalize in the plasma membrane. Three populations of GABA-A receptors in astrocytes were identified: classic GABA-A, bicuculline-insensitive GABAρ, and GABA-A-GABAρ hybrids. Clusters of GABA-A receptors were distributed in the perinuclear space and along the processes of GFAP(+) cells. Time-lapse microscopy showed GABAρ2-GFP accumulation in clusters located in the soma and along the processes. The clusters were relatively immobile, with mean displacement of 9.4 ± 0.9 μm and a net distance traveled of 1-2 μm, owing mainly to directional movement or simple diffusion. Modulation of GABAρ dynamics may be a novel mechanism of extrasynaptic transmission regulating GABAergic control of GFAP(+) cells during early postnatal development.